Knowledge commons

Short description: Collectively shared and managed information

The term "knowledge commons" refers to information, data, and content that is collectively owned and managed by a community of users,[1] particularly over the Internet. What distinguishes a knowledge commons from a commons of shared physical resources is that digital resources are non-subtractible;[2] that is, multiple users can access the same digital resources with no effect on their quantity or quality.[3]

## Contents

* 1 Conceptual background
* 2 Copyleft
* 3 See also
* 4 References
* 5 External links

## Conceptual background

The term 'commons' is derived from the medieval economic system the commons.[4] The knowledge commons is a model for a number of domains, including Open Educational Resources such as the MIT OpenCourseWare, free digital media such as Wikipedia,[5] Creative Commons–licensed art, open-source research,[6] and open scientific collections such as the Public Library of Science or the Science Commons, free software and Open Design.[7][8] According to research by Charlotte Hess and Elinor Ostrom,[3] the conceptual background of the knowledge commons encompasses two intellectual histories: first, a European tradition of battling the enclosure of the "intangible commons of the mind",[9] threatened by expanding intellectual property rights and privatization of knowledge.[10] Second, a tradition rooted in the United States, which sees the knowledge commons as a shared space allowing for free speech and democratic practices,[11] and which is in the tradition of the town commons movement and commons-based production of scholarly work, open science, open libraries, and collective action.[3]

The production of works in the knowledge commons is often driven by collective intelligence, respectively the wisdom of crowds, and is related to knowledge communism[12] as defined by Robert K. Merton, according to whom scientists give up intellectual property rights in exchange for recognition and esteem.[13]

Ferenc Gyuris argues that it is important to distinguish "information" from "knowledge" in defining the term "knowledge commons".[14] He argues that "knowledge as a shared resource" requires that both information must become accessible and potential recipients must become able and willing to internalize it as 'knowledge'. "Therefore, knowledge cannot become a shared resource without a complex set of institutions and practices that give the opportunity to potential recipients to gain the necessary abilities and willingness".[15]

## Copyleft

Copyleft licenses are institutions which support a knowledge commons of executable software.[16] Copyleft licenses grant licensees all necessary rights such as right to study, use, change and redistribute—under the condition that all future works building on the license are again kept in the commons.[17] Popular applications of the 'copyleft' principle are the GNU Software Licenses (GPL, LGPL and GFDL by Free Software Foundation) and the share-alike licenses under creative commons.[18]

## See also

* Commons
* Commons-based peer production
* Digital commons (economics)
* Information commons
* Open content
* Open Knowledge Foundation
* Open source
* Open source appropriate technology
* Open-design movement
* OpenCourseWare
* Public ownership
* Robert K. Merton

## References

1. ↑ Ambrosi de la Cadena, Marco (2017). "Knowledge commons: an alternative to proprietary knowledge". Maskana 8 (1): 43–59. doi:10.18537/mskn.08.01.04.
2. ↑ Mansell, Robin (2013-08-29). "Employing digital crowdsourced information resources: Managing the emerging information commons". International Journal of the Commons 7 (2): 255. doi:10.18352/ijc.395. ISSN 1875-0281. Bibcode: 2013IJCom...7..255M.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Hess, Charlotte; Ostrom, Elinor (2007). Understanding Knowledge as a Commons - From Theory to Practice. Cambridge: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. pp. 12–13. ISBN 978-0-262-08357-7. https://direct.mit.edu/books/edited-volume/3807/Understanding-Knowledge-as-a-CommonsFrom-Theory-to.
4. ↑ Potts, Jason (2019-08-22), "Rules of the Innovation Commons", Innovation Commons (Oxford University Press): pp. 109–152, doi:10.1093/oso/9780190937492.003.0006, ISBN 978-0-19-093749-2
5. ↑ Sampsel, Laurie J. (2017-10-02). "Finding Open Educational Resources for Music: OER Commons, MERLOT II, Openstax CNX, and MIT OpenCourseWare". Music Reference Services Quarterly 20 (3–4): 224–226. doi:10.1080/10588167.2017.1364608. ISSN 1058-8167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10588167.2017.1364608.
6. ↑ Joshua M. Pearce, "Open Source Research in Sustainability", Sustainability: the Journal of Record, 5(4), pp. 238-243, 2012. DOI free and open access
7. ↑ Schweik, Charles M. (2006), "Free/Open-Source Software as a Framework for Establishing Commons in Science", Understanding Knowledge as a Commons (The MIT Press): pp. 277–310, doi:10.7551/mitpress/6980.003.0014, ISBN 978-0-262-25634-6, https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/6980.001.0001, retrieved 2021-05-24
8. ↑ Fernandez, Peter D.; Tilton, Kelly (2018). Applying library values to emerging technology : decision-making in the age of open access, maker spaces, and the ever-changing library. Association of College and Research Libraries, a division of the American Library Association. ISBN 978-0-8389-8939-5. OCLC 1024320754.
9. ↑ Boyle, James (2003). "The Second Enclosure Movement and the Construction of the Public Domain". Law and Contemporary Problems 66 (1–2): 33–74. http://www.law.duke.edu/journals/66LCPBoyle.
10. ↑ "Knowledge Commons". Research Handbook on the Economics of Intellectual Property Law. 2019. pp. 655. doi:10.4337/9781789903997.00077. ISBN 9781789903997. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781789903997.00077.
11. ↑ Lozano, Rosina (2018-04-24), "The United States Sees Language", An American Language (University of California Press), doi:10.1525/california/9780520297067.003.0006, ISBN 978-0-520-29706-7, http://dx.doi.org/10.1525/california/9780520297067.003.0006, retrieved 2021-05-24
12. ↑ Mouzouni, Charafeddine (2018-03-14). "The Wisdom Of Crowds: When Collective Intelligence Surpasses Individual Intelligence". Science Trends. doi:10.31988/scitrends.12858. http://dx.doi.org/10.31988/scitrends.12858.
13. ↑ Kampf, Roger (2013). "From data to wisdom: the contribution of intellectual property rights to the knowledge pyramid". Access to Information and Knowledge: 235–257. doi:10.4337/9781783470488.00019. ISBN 9781783470488. http://dx.doi.org/10.4337/9781783470488.00019.
14. ↑ Győri, Róbert; Gyuris, Ferenc (2015), "Knowledge and Power in Sovietized Hungarian Geography", Geographies of Knowledge and Power, Knowledge and Space, 7, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 203–233, doi:10.1007/978-94-017-9960-7_10, ISBN 978-94-017-9959-1, http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9960-7_10, retrieved 2021-05-24
15. ↑ Gyuris, Ferenc (2014). "Basic education in communist Hungary. A commons approach". International Journal of the Commons 8 (2): 531–553. doi:10.18352/ijc.458. Bibcode: 2014IJCom...8..531G.
16. ↑ Sen, Ravi; Subramaniam, Chandrasekar; Nelson, Matthew L. (December 2011). "Open source software licenses: Strong-copyleft, non-copyleft, or somewhere in between?". Decision Support Systems 52 (1): 199–206. doi:10.1016/j.dss.2011.07.004. ISSN 0167-9236. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2011.07.004.
17. ↑ Stewart, Daxton (2021). "Rise of the Copyleft Trolls: When Photographers Sue After Creative Commons Licenses Go Awry". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.3844180. ISSN 1556-5068. http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3844180.
18. ↑ Carver, Brian W. (2018-08-15). "Share and Share Alike: Understanding and Enforcing Open Source and Free Software Licenses". Berkeley Technology Law Journal 20 (443). doi:10.31228/osf.io/p327s. http://dx.doi.org/10.31228/osf.io/p327s. Retrieved 2021-05-24.

## External links

* Commons in Action: Knowledge Commons. International Association for the Study of the Commons. 3 September 2014. Archived from the original on 2021-12-15 - via YouTube. * Ioannidis, Yannis (July 2006). "From Digital Libraries to Knowledge Commons". ERCIM News (ERCIM) (66). http://www.ercim.eu/publication/Ercim_News/enw66/ioannidis.html.
* Abrell, Elan (October 2009). Dunlop, Scott. ed. Imagining a Traditional Knowledge Commons: A community approach to sharing traditional knowledge for non-commercial research. http://www.idlo.int/publications/TraditionalKnowledge.pdf.
* "Open Knowledge Commons". http://www.knowledgecommons.org/.
* First Thematic Conference on the Knowledge Commons held in 2012 on the theme of "Governing Pooled Knowledge Resources: Building Institutions for Sustainable Scientific, Cultural and Genetic Resource Commons"
* Free/Libre Open Knowledge Society, designing a world for the commons.: A Free, Libre, Open Knowledge society is about to be built in Ecuador.
* Governing Knowledge Commons. 2014. Edited by Brett M. Frischmann, Michael J. Madison, and Katherine J. Strandburg. Oxford University Press.
* "Tragedy revisited" by Robert Boyd, Peter J. Richerson, Ruth Meinzen-Dick, Tine De Moor, Matthew O. Jackson, Kristina M. Gjerde, Harriet Harden-Davies, Brett M. Frischmann, Michael J. Madison, Katherine J. Strandburg, Angela R McLean, Christopher Dye. Science, 14 Dec 2018, 362:6420, pp. 1236-1241. DOI: 10.1126/science.aaw0911
* How to Reap the Benefits of the “Digital Revolution”? Modularity and the Commons. 2019. By Vasilis Kostakis, published in Halduskultuur: The Estonian Journal of Administrative Culture and Digital Governance, Vol 20(1):4–19.

* v
* t
* e

Free-culture and open-source movements

Concepts and
practices|

| Key concepts|

* Commons-based peer production
* Crowdsourcing
* Gratis versus libre
* Open collaboration
* Openness
* Participatory culture
* Sharism

| Social peer-to-peer processes|

* Peer-to-peer banking
* Peer-to-peer carsharing
* Peer-to-peer lending
* Peer-to-peer ridesharing

|

Research and science|

* Citizen science
* Open science
* Access
* Notebook science
* Research
* Science data
* Plan S

Data, information,
and knowledge|

* Free content
* Knowledge commons
* Open communication
* Open knowledge
* Content
* Data

Communication
and learning|

| Media|

* Collaborative writing
* Democratic media
* Open publishing
* Participatory media
* Peer review

|

Education|

* Open education
* Educational resources
* University
* Admissions
* Open-door academic policy

Journalism|

* Citizen media
* Citizen journalism and Wiki journalism
* Open-source journalism

Economy, production,
and development|

| Products|

* Free and open-source software - FOSS
* Free/Libre software
* Open-source software
* Open-design movement
* Robotics
* Open gaming
* Open-source architecture
* Open-source hardware

|

Economic principles|

* Gift economy
* Open innovation
* Open patent
* Open standard
* Sharing economy

Politics and governance|

* Open government
* Open-source governance

Organizations|

* Creative Commons
* Free Software Foundation
* Open Architecture Network
* Openmod initiative
* Open Knowledge International
* Open Rights Group
* Open Source Initiative
* Open Web Foundation
* P2P Foundation
* Pirate Party
* PLOS
* SPARC

Activists|

* Tim Berners-Lee
* Alexandra Elbakyan
* Cody Wilson
* Lawrence Lessig
* Peter Murray-Rust
* Douglas Rushkoff
* Richard Stallman
* Peter Suber
* Peter Sunde
* Aaron Swartz
* Matthew H. Todd
* John Wilbanks

Projects and
movements|

* DIYbio
* Free-culture movement
* Free software movement
* Open science movement
* Open Source Ecology
* Open-source software movement
* OpenCores
* OpenWetWare
* Sci-Hub

| Tools|

* Licenses
* Creative Commons
* GPL
* Definition Docs
* Free Cultural Works
* Free Software
* Open
* Open Source
* Open Data Indices
* Open educational resources
* Open music model
* Open Web movement

|

* v
* t
* e

Property

By owner|

* Common
* Communal
* Community
* Crown
* Customary
* Cooperative
* Estate
* Private
* Public
* Self
* Social
* State

By nature|

* Croft
* Intangible
* Intellectual
* indigenous
* Personal
* Tangible
* real

Commons|

* Common land
* Common-pool resource
* Digital
* Global
* Information
* Knowledge

Theory|

* Bundle of rights
* Commodity
* fictitious commodities
* Common good (economics)
* Excludability
* First possession
* appropriation
* homestead principle
* Free-rider problem
* Game theory
* Georgism
* Gift economy
* Labor theory of property
* Law of rent
* rent-seeking
* Legal plunder
* Natural rights
* Ownership
* Property rights
* primogeniture
* usufruct
* women's
* Right to property
* Rivalry
* Tragedy of the commons
* anticommons

Applications|

* Acequia (watercourse)
* Ejido (agrarian land)
* Forest types
* Huerta
* Inheritance
* Land tenure
* Property law
* alienation
* easement
* restraint on alienation
* real estate
* title

Rights|

* Air
* Fishing
* Forest-dwelling (India)
* Freedom to roam
* Grazing
* pannage
* Hunting
* Land
* aboriginal
* indigenous
* squatting
* Littoral
* Mineral
* Bergregal
* Right of way
* Water
* prior-appropriation
* riparian

Disposession/
redistribution|

* Bioprospecting
* Collectivization
* Eminent domain
* Enclosure
* Eviction
* Expropriation
* Farhud
* Forced migration
* population transfer
* Illegal fishing
* Illegal logging
* Land reform
* Legal plunder
* Piracy
* Poaching
* Primitive accumulation
* Privatization
* Regulatory taking
* Slavery
* bride buying
* human trafficking
* spousal
* husband-selling
* wife selling
* wage
* Tax
* inheritance
* poll
* progressive
* property
* Theft

Scholars
(key work)|

* Frédéric Bastiat
* Ronald Coase
* Henry George
* Garrett Hardin
* David Harvey
* John Locke
* Two Treatises of Government
* Karl Marx
* Marcel Mauss
* The Gift
* John Stuart Mill
* Elinor Ostrom
* Karl Polanyi
* The Great Transformation
* Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
* What Is Property?
* David Ricardo
* Murray N. Rothbard
* The Ethics of Liberty
* Jean-Jacques Rousseau
* The Social Contract
* Adam Smith
* The Wealth of Nations

* Categories: Property
* Property law
* by country

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