Kurgan

A kurgan is a type of tumulus (burial mound) constructed over a grave, often characterized by containing a single human body along with grave vessels, weapons, and horses. Originally in use on the Pontic–Caspian steppe, kurgans spread into much of Central Asia and Eastern, Southeast, Western, and Northern Europe during the third millennium BC.[1]

The earliest kurgans date to the fourth millennium BC in the Caucasus,[2] and some researchers associate these with the Indo-Europeans.[3] Kurgans were built in the Eneolithic, Bronze, and Iron Ages, Antiquity, and the Middle Ages, with ancient traditions still active in southern Siberia and Central Asia.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Origins and spread
* 3 Kurgan hypothesis
* 3.1 Scytho-Siberian monuments
* 4 Use
* 4.1 Architecture
* 4.1.1 Common components
* 4.1.2 Pre-Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Bronze Age)
* 4.1.3 Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Early Iron Age)
* 4.2 Regional and temporal sex ratios
* 5 Archaeological remains
* 5.1 Excavated kurgans
* 5.2 Kurgans in Poland
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Sources
* 9 Further reading
* 10 External links

## Etymology

According to the Etymological Dictionary of the Ukrainian Language the word kurhan is borrowed directly from Kipchak, one of the Turkic languages, and means 'fortress, embankment, high grave'.[4] The word has two possible etymologies, either from the Old Turkic root qori- 'to close, block, guard, or protect', or qur- 'to build, erect, or furnish". According to Vasily Radlov, it may be a cognate to qorγan,[clarification needed] meaning 'fortification, fortress, or castle'.[5]

The Russian noun, already attested in Old East Slavic, comes from an unidentified Turkic language.[6]

Kurgans are mounds of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Popularised by its use in Soviet archaeology, the word is now widely used for tumuli in the context of Eastern European and Central Asian archaeology.[citation needed]

## Origins and spread

Some sceptre-laden flat graves (such as those of the Varna and Suvorovo cultures of the Copper Age) could have been covered originally with tumuli that eroded away. If so, this would place the first kurgans as early as the fifth millennium BC in eastern Europe. However, this hypothesis is not broadly accepted.[7]

Kurgans were used in the Ukrainian and Russian steppes, their use spreading with migration into Southern, Central, and Northern Europe in the third millennium BC.[8][9] Later, Kurgan barrows became characteristic of Bronze Age peoples, and have been found from Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria (Thracians, Getae, etc.), Romania (Getae, Dacians), the Caucasus, and Russia, to Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and the Altai Mountains.[citation needed] There are several thousand kurgans in Hungary; some of them are 4000 years old.[10][11][12]

## Kurgan hypothesis

Main article: History:Kurgan hypothesis

The Kurgan hypothesis is that Proto-Indo-Europeans were the bearers of the Kurgan culture of the Black Sea and the Caucasus and west of the Urals. Introduced by Marija Gimbutas in 1956, the theory combines kurgan archaeology with linguistics to locate the origins of the peoples who spoke the Proto-Indo-European language. She tentatively named the culture "Kurgan" after its distinctive burial mounds and traced its diffusion into Europe. The hypothesis has had a significant effect upon Indo-European studies.

Scholars who follow Gimbutas identify a "Kurgan culture" as reflecting an early Proto-Indo-European ethnicity that existed in the steppes and in southeastern Europe from the fifth millennium to the third millennium BC. In Kurgan cultures, most burials were in kurgans, either clan or individual.

### Scytho-Siberian monuments

Monuments of this sort are found at known sites of ancient Scytho-Siberian (including Saka and later Sarmatian) activity. Scytho-Siberian monuments have common features with other kurgans,[13] and the bodies within them sometimes have common genetic roots with those in Eastern European kurgans. Also associated with these burial mounds are the Pazyryk, an ancient people who lived in the Altai Mountains that lay in Siberian Russia on the Ukok Plateau, near the modern borders with China, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia.[14] The archaeological site on the Ukok Plateau associated with the Pazyryk culture is included in the Golden Mountains of Altai UNESCO World Heritage Site.[15]

Scytho-Siberian classification includes monuments from the eighth to the third century BC. This period is called the Early or Ancient Nomads epoch. "Hunnic" monuments date from the third century BC to the sixth century AD, and Turkic ones from the sixth century AD to the thirteenth century AD, leading up to the Mongolian epoch.[citation needed]

## Use

Most individual (one body) kurgans were those of prominent leaders; these are sometimes called "royal kurgans", and have attracted the most attention and publicity because they were more elaborate than clan (multi-body) kurgans and often contained rich grave goods.

### Architecture

Burial mounds are complex structures with internal chambers. Within the burial chamber at the heart of the kurgan, elite individuals were buried with grave goods and sacrificial offerings, sometimes including horses and chariots. The structures of the earlier Neolithic period from the fourth to the third millenniums BC, and Bronze Age until the first millennium BC, display continuity of the archaic forming methods. They were inspired by common ritual–mythological concepts.

#### Common components

Inside view of the Thracian mound tomb at Sveshtari, Bulgaria

In all periods, the development of the kurgan structure tradition in the various ethnocultural zones is revealed by common components or typical features in the construction of the monuments. They include:

* funeral chambers
* tombs
* surface and underground constructions of different configurations
* a mound of earth or stone, with or without an entrance
* funeral, ritual, and other traits
* the presence of an altar in the chamber
* a stone fence
* a moat
* a bulwark
* funeral paths from the moat or bulwark.
* the presence of an entryway into the chamber, into the tomb, into the fence, or into the kurgan
* the location of a sacrificial site on the embankments, inside the mound, inside the moat, inside the embankments, and in their links, entryways, and around the kurgan
* a fire pit in the chamber
* a wooden roof over or under the kurgan, at the top of the kurgan, or around the kurgan
* the location of stone statues, columns, poles, and other objects
* bypass passages inside the kurgan, inside tombs, or around the kurgan

Depending on the combination of these elements, each historical and cultural zone has certain architectural distinctions.

#### Pre-Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Bronze Age)

In the Bronze Age, kurgans were built with stone reinforcements. Some of them are believed to be Scythian burials with built-up soil and embankments reinforced with stone.[16]

Pre-Scytho-Siberian kurgans were surface kurgans. Wooden or stone tombs were constructed on the surface or underground and then covered with a kurgan. The kurgan tombs of Bronze Age cultures across Europe and Asia were similar in construction to the methods of house construction in the cultures.[17] The Ak-su–Aüly kurgan (12th–11th centuries BC), with a tomb covered by a pyramidal timber roof under a kurgan, has space surrounded by double walls serving as a bypass corridor. This design has analogies with Begazy, Sanguyr, Begasar, and Dandybay kurgans.[17] These building traditions survived into the early Middle Ages, to the eighth–tenth centuries AD.

The Bronze Age, pre-Scytho-Siberian culture developed in close similarity with the cultures of Yenisei, Altai, Kazakhstan, and southern-to-southeast Amur regions.

Some kurgans had facing or tiling. One tomb in Ukraine has 29 large limestone slabs set on end in a circle underground. They were decorated with carved geometrical ornamentation of rhombuses, triangles, crosses, and on one slab, figures of people. Another example has an earthen kurgan under a wooden cone of thick logs topped by an ornamented cornice up to 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height.

#### Scytho-Siberian kurgans (Early Iron Age)

Coloured lithograph by Carlo Bossoli (London, 1856)[18] of the so-called "Tomb of Mithridates", kurgan near Kerch

The Scytho-Siberian kurgans in the Early Iron Age have grandiose mounds, and are found throughout the Eurasian continent.[19]

### Regional and temporal sex ratios

In the eastern Manych steppes and Kuban–Azov steppes during the Yamna culture,[20] a near-equal ratio of female-to-male graves was found among kurgans.

In the lower and middle Volga River region during the Yamna and Poltavka cultures, females were buried in only about 20% of graves. Two thousand years later, women dressed as warriors were buried in the same region.[20] David Anthony notes, "About 20% of Scythian–Sarmatian 'warrior graves' on the lower Don and lower Volga contained females dressed for battle ... a phenomenon that probably inspired the Greek tales about the Amazons."[20]

In Ukraine, the ratio was intermediate between the other two regions; approximately 35% were women.[20]

## Archaeological remains

The most obvious archeological remains associated with the Scythians are the great burial mounds, some more than 20 metres (66 ft) high, which dot the Ukrainian and Russian steppe belts and extend in great chains for many kilometers along ridges and watersheds. From them much has been learned about Scythian life and art.[21]

### Excavated kurgans

Some excavated kurgans include:

* The Aleksandrovo kurgan is a Thracian kurgan of c. fourth century BC.
* The Beşiktaş kurgan formation from 3000 BC was unearthed during Istanbul Metro M7's station construction in Turkey.[22]
* The Boralday tombs, are located in Almaty, Kazakhstan.
* The Håga Kurgan, located on the outskirts of Uppsala, Sweden, is a large Nordic Bronze Age kurgan from c. 1000 BC.
* The Ipatovo kurgan revealed a long sequence of burials from the Maykop culture c. 4000 BC down to the burial of an elite woman of the third century BC; excavated 1998–99.
* The Issyk kurgan, in southern Kazakhstan, contains a skeleton, possibly female, c. fourth century BC, with an inscribed silver cup, gold ornaments, Scythian animal art objects, and headdress reminiscent of Kazakh bridal hats;discovered in 1969.
* The Kostromskaya kurgan of the seventh century BC produced a famous Scythian gold stag (now at Hermitage Museum), next to the iron shield it decorated.[23] Apart from the principal male body with his accoutrements, the burial included 13 humans with no adornment above him, and around the edges of the burial 22 horses were buried in pairs.[24] It was excavated by N. I. Veselovski in 1897.[25]
* Kurgan 4 at Kutuluk near Samara, Russia, dated to c. 2400 BC, contains the skeleton of a man, estimated to have been 35 to 40 years old and about 152 centimetres (4.99 ft) tall.[26] Resting on the skeleton's bent left elbow was a copper object 65 cm long with a blade of a diamond-shaped cross-section and sharp edges, but no point, and a handle, originally probably wrapped in leather. No similar object is known from Bronze Age Eurasian steppe cultures.
* Kurgan 11 of the Berel cemetery, in the Bukhtarma River valley of Kazakhstan, contains a tomb of c. 300 BC, with a dozen sacrificed horses preserved with their skin, hair, harnesses, and saddles intact, buried side by side on a bed of birch bark next to a funeral chamber containing the pillaged burial of two Scythian nobles; excavated in 1998.
* The Maikop kurgan dates to the third millennium BC.
* Mamai-Hora, a kurgan complex on the banks of Kakhovka Reservoir southwest of Enerhodar (near the village of Velyka Znamianka), includes one of the biggest tumuli in Europe, at 80 metres (260 ft) high. Here were found remains of Bronze Age people including Scythians, Sarmatians, Cimmerians, and Nogai.
* The Melgunov kurgan near Kropyvnytskyi is one of the oldest Scythian kurgans, dating back to the seventh century BC.
* The Melitopol kurgan near Melitopol included Scythian gold jewellery, which is now in the collection of the Melitopol Museum of Local History.[27]
* The Noin-Ula kurgan, located by the Selenga River in the northern Mongolia hills north of Ulan Bator, is the tomb of Uchjulü-Chanuy (8 BC – AD 13), head of the Hun confederation.[28]
* The Novovelichkovskaya kurgan of c. 2000 BC on the Ponura River, Krasnodar region, southern Russia, contains the remains of 11 people, including an embracing couple, buried with bronze tools, stone carvings, jewelry, and ceramic vessels decorated with red ocher. The tomb is associated with the Novotitorovka culture nomads.
* The Pereshchepina kurgan is a burial memorial of the Bulgarian ruler Kubrat from c. AD 660.
* The Ryzhanivka kurgan, a 10-metre-high (33 ft) kurgan 125 kilometres (78 mi) south of Kyiv, Ukraine, contained the tomb of a Scythian chieftain of the third century BC; excavated in 1996.
* The Solokha kurgan, in the Zaporizhzhia Oblast of Ukraine, is Scythian and dates to the early fourth century BC.
* The Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak, near the town of Kazanlak in central Bulgaria, is a Thracian kurgan of c. fourth century BC.
* The Thracian Tomb of Sveshtari, Bulgaria, is a Thracian kurgan of c. third century BC.
* The Tovsta Mohyla kurgan belongs to the fourth century BC and was excavated in 1971 by the Ukrainian archaeologist Boris M. Mozolevsky. It contained the famous Golden Pectoral that is now in exhibition in the Museum of Historical Treasures of Ukraine, which is located inside the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra. This pectoral is the most famous artwork connected with the Scythians. A beautiful sword scabbard was found in the antechamber of the burial, which was never robbed (unlike the main chamber). A second lateral burial was found intact in the same kurgan. It belonged to a woman and her two-year old daughter. She was found covered with gold, including a golden diadem and other fine golden jewels. The woman's burial is interpreted as likely related to the burial at the center of the kurgan. The kurgan is 60 metres (200 ft) in pre-excavation diameter, and is located in southern Ukraine near the city of Pokrov in Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.

### Kurgans in Poland

Memorial of the Battle of Varna, which took place on 10 November 1444 near Varna, Bulgaria. The facade of the mausoleum is built into the side of an ancient Thracian tomb.

Kurgan building has a long history in Poland. The Polish words for kurgan are kopiec and kurhan. Some excavated kurgans in Poland:

* In Bełchatów, there is a pagan temple built upon a kurgan. Dating of this structure awaited results of carbon-14 tests As of 2001.[update][29]
* Mounds at Jawczyce were described by Bishop Nankerus in 1322. A kurgan uncertainly dated to the Neolithic or Bronze Age included a burial of an elderly person, perhaps male. Some weapons and pottery fragments were also found in the tomb.[30]
* Kopiec Esterki, a latter-day kurgan, was erected in the 14th century by Casimir III of Poland for his deceased wife.
* Kopiec Tatarski at Przemyśl is triangular in shape, 10 metres (33 ft) in length, and pointing east. In 1869, T. Żebrawski found bones and ancient coins. In 1958, A. Kunysz found skulls and other bones, and medieval ceramics. A structure called Templum S. Leonardi was constructed around 1534 AD on top of the mound; it was destroyed in World War II.
* Kopiec Wyzwolenia (pl) (Mound of Liberation) is a modern kurgan commemorating the 250th anniversary of the passage of the Polish Hussars through the city of Piekary Śląskie under John III Sobieski. It was completed in 1937.
* Kościuszko Mound in Kraków was completed in November 1823 as a memorial to Tadeusz Kościuszko
* The Krakus Mound is located in Kraków. Legend says it is the burial place of Krakus, founder of the city.
* Kraśnik Neolithic (Late Stone Age) kurgans
* A kurgan burial site at Łubna-Jakusy and a kurgan cremation near Guciów are examples of Trzciniec culture of c. 1500 BC.
* The Mound of Immortality was constructed to honor poet Adam Mickiewicz in 1898.
* Piłakno near Mrągowo, excavated in 1988, is an example of west Baltic kurhan culture.[31] * Piłsudski's Mound, another modern monument, is in Kraków and honors Polish general and politician Józef Piłsudski.
* Tombs at Pleśnik[32]
* Skalbmierz has kurgans dated 4000 BC.[33]
* Near Sieradz, a tomb dated to the Trzciniec culture of c. 1500 BC contains a man and woman buried together.
* Trawiasta Buczyna has hundreds of stone kurgans dated to 1200–1000 BC
* Únětice-culture burial mounds include 14 kurgans dated to 2000–1800 BC[34]
* The Union of Lublin Mound was completed in Lviv in 1980, as an artificial mound in modern-day Ukraine.
* Wanda Mound, the burial place of the daughter of Krakus, is located in Kraków.
* The tomb of Władysław III of Poland (died 1444), is now part of the Memorial of the Battle of Varna built in 1924 in Varna, Bulgaria. The tomb was dug into an ancient kurgan.
* Zambrow[35]

## See also

* Animal sacrifice
* Yamnaya culture
* Ashvamedha
* Kleczanów Forest
* Kurgan stelae
* Mamayev Kurgan, used during the Battle of Stalingrad.
* Newgrange
* Tarpan

## References

1. ↑ Random House Unabridged Dictionary (2019). "Kurgan". Random House. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/kurgan.
2. ↑ Kipfer 2000, p. 291.
3. ↑ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 339.
4. ↑ Етимологічний словник української мови: В 7 т. / АН УРСР. Ін-т мовознавства ім. О. О. Потебні; Редкол. О. С. Мельничук (головний ред.) та ін. — К.: Наук. думка, 1983. Т. 3: Кора — М / Укл.: Р. В. Болдирєв та ін. — 1989. — 552 с. стр. 152
5. ↑ Acta philologica. 5. University of Warsaw. 1972. p. 175.
6. ↑ Vasmer, Max (1953–1958). Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg: Winter. p. 2424. http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=config&morpho=0&basename=\data\ie\vasmer&first=1&off=&text_word=&method_word=substring&ic_word=on&text_general=&method_general=substring&ic_general=on&text_origin=&method_origin=substring&ic_origin=on&text_trubachev=&method_trubachev=substring&ic_trubachev=on&text_editorial=&method_editorial=substring&ic_editorial=on&text_pages=2424&method_pages=substring&ic_pages=on&text_any=&method_any=substring&sort=word&ic_any=on. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
7. ↑ Govedarica 2016, p. 85.
8. ↑ Törbat, Tsagaan; Giscard, Pierre-Henri; Batsükh, Dunbüree (2009). "First Excavation of Pazyryk Kurgans in Mongolian Altai". in Bemmann, Jan; Parzinger, Hermann; Pohl, Ernst et al.. Current Archaeological Research in Mongolia. "Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology" ser.. 4. Bonn University. pp. 221–230. ISBN 9783936490312. https://www.academia.edu/3715459.
9. ↑ "Kazakhstan will provide tourists with an access to Saka kurgans". Advantour.com. 31 March 2014. https://www.advantour.com/kazakhstan/news/20140331-39.htm.
10. ↑ Bodnár, Barna (30 March 2023). "Mit rejtenek Magyarország több ezer éves sírhelyei, a kurgánok?". Rakéta. https://raketa.hu/mit-rejtenek-magyarorszag-tobb-ezer-eves-sirhelyei-a-kurganok.
11. ↑ Horváth, Tünde (2010). "Location of Pit Grave culture kurgans in the territory of Hungary, Romania, Moldova, Serbia and Bulgaria". in Pospieszny, Lukasz; Horváth, Tünde; Dani, János et al.. Multidisciplinary Contributions to the Study of Pit Grave Culture Kurgans of the Great Hungarian Plain. "16th EAA Annual Meeting in Hague" papers. European Association of Archaeologists. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Location-of-Pit-Grave-culture-kurgans-in-the-territory-of-Hungary-Romania-Moldova_fig2_259623833. Full text available from link on same webpage.
12. ↑ "4,000-Year-Old Tomb Structure Found in Hortobágy National Park". 29 March 2023. https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/culture_society/4000_year_old_tomb_structure_hortobagy_national_park_kurgan/.
13. ↑ Akishev K.A., Kushaev G.A., Ancient culture of Sakas and Usuns in the valley of river Ili, Alma-Ata, Kazakh SSR Academy of Sciences publication, 1963, pp. 121–36
14. ↑ "Ice Mummies: Siberian Ice Maiden". PBS – NOVA. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/2517siberian.html.
15. ↑ "Golden Mountains of Altai". UNESCO. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/768.
16. ↑ Olhovsky, 1991.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Margulan A.N., "Architecture of the ancient period" in the Architecture of Kazakhstan, 1956, Alma-Ata, (pp 9-95)
18. ↑ British Museum
19. ↑ "Salbyksky mound". UnknownSiberia.com. http://unknownsiberia.com/2013/12/06/salbyksky-mound/.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 Anthony, David W. (2007). The Horse, the Wheel, and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05887-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=rOG5VcYxhiEC.
21. ↑ John Boardman, I.E.S. Edwards, E. Sollberger, N.G.L. Hammond. The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. (1992), p. 550 [ISBN missing]
22. ↑ "Beşiktaş'taki 5.500 Yıllık Kurganların Sayısı 78'e Çıktı". 20 April 2019. https://arkeofili.com/besiktastaki-5-500-yillik-kurganlarin-sayisi-78e-cikti/.
23. ↑ Honour and Fleming, 124
24. ↑ Honour and Fleming, p. 123.
25. ↑ Piotrovsky, 29
26. ↑ Rose, M., Cudgel Culture Archaeology, March/April 2002
27. ↑ "Мелитопольский городской краеведческий музей - MGK Мелитополь". http://www.mgk.zp.ua/material/12.html.
28. ↑ "Siberia". HostKingdom.net. "Hsiung-Nu" sect.. http://www.hostkingdom.net/siberia.html#Hsiung-Nu. .
29. ↑ "Historycy". Odkrywca 1 (25). January 2001. http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=151.
30. ↑ "Mounds in Jawczycach". Odyssei.com. http://www.odyssei.com/pl/travel-tips/19625.html. .
31. ↑ "Historycy". http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=1548&pid=27266&mode=threaded&show=&st=&#entry27266.
32. ↑ "Mogily". Monika.Univ.Gda.pl. University of Gdańsk. http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/grafika/mogily.htm.
33. ↑ "Skalbmierz". Kwiatek.Krakow.pl. http://www.kwiatek.krakow.pl/skalbmierz/main2.htm.
34. ↑ Polish Wikipedia
35. ↑ "Cieciorkami" (JPEG). Ugzambrow.pl. http://www.ugzambrow.pl/zdjecia/kurhan_z_xi_w_pod_cieciorkami.jpg.

## Sources

* Hugh Honour and John Fleming, A World History of Art, 1st edn. 1982 (many later editions); London: Macmillan, page references are to 1984 Macmillan 1st paperback edn. ISBN 0333371852
* Govedarica, Blagoje (2016). Conflict or Coexistence: Steppe and Agricultural Societies in the Early Copper Age of the Northwest Black Sea Area.
* Kipfer, Barbara Ann (2000). Encyclopedic Dictionary of Archaeology. Springer.
* Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture. Taylor & Francis.
* Piotrovsky, Boris, et al. "Excavations and Discoveries in Scythian Lands", in From the Lands of the Scythians: Ancient Treasures from the Museums of the U.S.S.R., 3000 B.C.–100 B.C. The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v. 32, no. 5 (1974), available online as a series of PDFs (bottom of the page).

## Further reading

* "In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth" by J. P. Mallory, ISBN 0-500-27616-1
* "The Kurgan Culture and the Indo-Europeanization of Europe: Selected Articles from 1952 to 1993" von Marija Gimbutas u.a., ISBN 0-941694-56-9
* "Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture" ed. James Mallory, D. Q. Adams, ISBN 1-884964-98-2
* D. Ya. Telegin, et al., Srednestogovskaya i Novodanilovskaya Kul'tury Eneolita Azovo-Chernomorskogo Regiona. Kyiv: Shlyakh, 2001. Reviewed by J.P. Mallory, JIES vol. 32, 3/4, p. 363–366.
* "Reconstruction Of The Genofond Peculiarities Of The Ancient Pazyryk Population (1st-2nd Millennium BC) From Gorny Altai According To The mtDNA Structure" Voevoda M.I., Sitnikova V.V., Romashchenko A.G., Chikisheva T.A., Polosmak N.V., Molodin V. I http://www.bionet.nsc.ru/bgrs/thesis/99/.
* O. Ismagulov 'Population of Kazakhstan from Bronze Epoch to Present (Paleoanthropological research)', Science, Alma-Ata, 1970

## External links

* Kurgan Culture
* Excavated kurgans (archaeology.org).
* Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age[Usurped!] book for download (www.csen.org)
* An extensive list of mounds in Poland

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