Left-wing politics

Short description: Political ideologies favouring social equality and egalitarianism

"Leftism" redirects here. For the album by the group Leftfield, see Leftism (album).

"Left wing" redirects here. For the sports position, see Winger (sports).

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Left-wing politics or leftism is the range of political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole,[1][2][3][4] or to certain social hierarchies, to varying extents.[5] Left-wing politics typically involve a concern for those in society whom its adherents perceive as disadvantaged relative to others as well as a belief that there are unjustified inequalities that need to be reduced or abolished,[3] through radical means that change the nature of the society they are implemented in.[5]

Ideologies considered to be left-wing vary greatly depending on the placement along the political spectrum in a given time and place. At the end of the 18th century, upon the founding of the first liberal democracies, the term Left was used to describe liberalism in the United States and republicanism in France, supporting a lesser degree of hierarchical decision-making than the right-wing politics of the traditional conservatives and monarchists. In modern politics, the term Left typically applies to ideologies and movements to the left of classical liberalism, supporting some degree of democracy in the economic sphere.

Today, ideologies such as social liberalism and social democracy are considered to be centre-left, while the Left is typically reserved for movements more critical of capitalism,[6] including the labour movement, socialism, anarchism, communism, Marxism, Leninism and syndicalism, each of which rose to prominence in the 19th and 20th centuries.[7] In addition, the term left-wing has also been applied to a broad range of culturally liberal and progressive social movements,[8] including the civil rights movement, feminist movement, LGBTQ rights movement, abortion-rights movements, multiculturalism, anti-war movement, and environmental movement,[9][10] as well as a wide range of political parties.[11][12][13]‌

## Contents

* 1 Name
* 2 Positions
* 2.1 Economics
* 2.2 Environment
* 2.3 Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism
* 2.4 Religion
* 2.5 Social progressivism and counterculture
* 3 History
* 4 Types
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Sources
* 8 Further reading

## Name

Within the left–right political spectrum, left and right were coined during the French Revolution, referring to the seating arrangement in the French National Assembly as the political groups opposed to the royal veto privilege (Montagnard and Jacobin deputies from the Third Estate) generally sat to the left of the presiding member's chair in parliament while the ones in favour of the royal veto privilege sat on its right.[14][15]

Usage of the term left became more prominent after the restoration of the French monarchy in 1815, when it was applied to the Independents.[16] The word wing was first appended to left and right factions in the late 19th century, usually with disparaging intent, and left-wing was applied to those who were unorthodox in their religious or political views.

## Positions

Political philosopher Marius Ostrowski argues that, despite various differences among factions, the left is primarily concerned with who wields power in society and with fighting for "those without" against "those with" who harm "those without".[17] Ostrowski argues that the central value of the left is social equality, which is expressed in fighting for empowerment and against oppression, for parity and against hierarchy, for social recognition of marginalized groups and against discrimination, and for cooperation and against competition. Related concepts include justice, solidarity, cultural pluralism, social progress, and freedom from forceful control or coercion.[17]

### Economics

See also: Social:Anarchist economics, Comparison of Marxian and Keynesian economics, and Socialist economics

Members of the All India Trade Union Congress demonstrating in Alappuzha, Kerala

Left-leaning economic beliefs range from Keynesian economics and the welfare state through industrial democracy and the social market to the nationalisation of the economy and central planning,[18] to the anarcho-syndicalist advocacy of a council-based and self-managed anarchist communism. Left-wing politics are typically associated with popular or state control of major political and economic institutions.[19] According to emeritus professor of economics Barry Clark, supporters of left-wing politics "claim that human development flourishes when individuals engage in cooperative, mutually respectful relations that can thrive only when excessive differences in status, power, and wealth are eliminated."[20]

During the Industrial Revolution, leftists supported trade unions. At the beginning of the 20th century, many leftists advocated strong government intervention in the economy.[21] Leftists continue to criticise the perceived exploitative nature of globalisation, the "race to the bottom" and unjust lay-offs and exploitation of workers. In the last quarter of the 20th century, the belief that the government (ruling in accordance with the interests of the people) ought to be directly involved in the day-to-day workings of an economy declined in popularity amongst the centre-left, especially social democrats who adopted the Third Way.[19]

Other leftists believe in Marxian economics, named after the economic theories of Karl Marx, but drawing from a range of Marxist and non-Marxist sources. Some distinguish Marx's economic theories from his political philosophy, arguing that Marx's approach to understanding the economy is independent of his advocacy of revolutionary socialism or his belief in the inevitability of a proletarian revolution.[22][23] The political relevance of farmers has divided the left. In Das Kapital, Marx scarcely mentioned the subject[24], though posthumous studies of his notebooks indicate that he was interested in studying the works of agricultural chemists to critique international agricultural trade and natural resource exploitation under capitalism[25]. In other works, including The Communist Manifesto, the Critique of the Gotha Programme, and The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, Marx asserts the revolutionary potential of the peasant class through a transfer into the proletariat[26]. Mikhail Bakunin thought the lumpenproletariat was a revolutionary class, while Mao Zedong believed that it would be rural peasants, not urban workers, who would bring about the proletarian revolution.

Left-libertarians, anarchists and libertarian socialists believe in a decentralised economy run by trade unions, workers' councils, cooperatives, municipalities and communes, opposing both state and private control of the economy, preferring social ownership and local control in which a nation of decentralised regions is united in a confederation. The global justice movement, also known as the anti-globalisation movement and the alter-globalisation movement, protests against corporate economic globalisation due to its negative consequences for the poor, workers, the environment, and small businesses.[27][28][29]

### Environment

See also: Social:Eco-socialism, Green anarchism, and Green politics

One of the foremost left-wing advocates was Thomas Paine, one of the first individuals since left and right became political terms to describe the collective human ownership of the world, which he speaks of in Agrarian Justice.[30] This principle is reflected in much of the historical left-wing thought and literature that came afterwards, although there were disagreements about what this entailed. Karl Marx and the early socialist philosopher and scholar William Morris had a concern for environmental matters.[31][32][33][34] According to Marx, "[e]ven an entire society, a nation, or all simultaneously existing societies taken together, are not the owners of the earth. They are simply its possessors, its beneficiaries, and have to bequeath it in an improved state to succeeding generations".[31][35] Following the Russian Revolution, environmental scientists such as revolutionary Alexander Bogdanov and the Proletkult organisation made efforts to incorporate environmentalism into Bolshevism and "integrate production with natural laws and limits" in the first decade of Soviet rule, before Joseph Stalin attacked ecologists and the science of ecology, purged environmentalists and promoted the pseudoscience of Trofim Lysenko during his rule up until his death in 1953.[36][37][38] Similarly, Mao Zedong rejected environmentalism and believed that based on the laws of historical materialism, all of nature must be put into the service of revolution.[39]

From the 1970s onwards, environmentalism became an increasing concern of the left, with social movements and several unions campaigning on environmental issues and causes. In Australia, the left-wing Builders Labourers Federation, led by the communist Jack Mundy, united with environmentalists to place green bans on environmentally destructive development projects.[40] Several segments of the socialist and Marxist left consciously merged environmentalism and anti-capitalism into an eco-socialist ideology.[41] Barry Commoner articulated a left-wing response to The Limits to Growth model that predicted catastrophic resource depletion and spurred environmentalism, postulating that capitalist technologies were the key cause responsible for environmental degradation, as opposed to human population pressures.[42] Environmental degradation can be seen as a class or equity issue, as environmental destruction disproportionately affects poorer communities and countries.[43]

Global warming was the cover story of this 2007 issue of the Ms. magazine.

Several left-wing or socialist groupings have an overt environmental concern and several green parties contain a strong socialist presence. For example, the Green Party of England and Wales includes an eco-socialist group, the Green Left, founded in June 2005.[44] In Europe, several green left political parties such as the European United Left–Nordic Green Left combine traditional social-democratic values such as a desire for greater economic equality and workers rights with demands for environmental protection. Democratic socialist Bolivian president Evo Morales has traced environmental degradation to capitalist consumerism,[45] stating that "[t]he Earth does not have enough for the North to live better and better, but it does have enough for all of us to live well". James Hansen, Noam Chomsky, Raj Patel, Naomi Klein, The Yes Men and Dennis Kucinich hold similar views.[46][47][48][49][50]Cite error: Closing `</ref>` missing for `<ref>` tag[51][52]

### Nationalism, anti-imperialism and anti-nationalism

Main articles: Social:Left-wing nationalism and Anti-imperialism

The question of nationality, imperialism and nationalism has been a central feature of political debates on the Left. During the French Revolution, nationalism was a key policy of the Republican Left.[53] The Republican Left advocated for civic nationalism[14] and argued that the nation is a "daily plebiscite" formed by the subjective "will to live together". Related to revanchism, the belligerent will to take revenge against Germany and retake control of Alsace-Lorraine, nationalism was sometimes opposed to imperialism. In the 1880s, there was a debate between leftists such as the Radical Georges Clemenceau, the Socialist Jean Jaurès and the nationalist Maurice Barrès, who argued that colonialism diverted France from liberating the "blue line of the Vosges", in reference to Alsace-Lorraine; and the "colonial lobby" such as Jules Ferry of the Moderate Republicans, Léon Gambetta of the Republicans and Eugène Etienne, the president of the Parliamentary Colonial Group. After the antisemitic Dreyfus Affair in which officer Alfred Dreyfus was falsely convicted of sedition and exiled to a penal colony in 1894 before being exonerated in 1906, nationalism in the form of Boulangism increasingly became associated with the far-right.[54]

The Marxist social class theory of proletarian internationalism asserts that members of the working class should act in solidarity with working people in other countries in pursuit of a common class interest, rather than only focusing on their own countries. Proletarian internationalism is summed up in the slogan: "Workers of the world, unite!", the last line of The Communist Manifesto. Union members had learned that more members meant more bargaining power. Taken to an international level, leftists argued that workers should act in solidarity with the international proletariat in order to further increase the power of the working class. Proletarian internationalism saw itself as a deterrent against war and international conflicts, because people with a common interest are less likely to take up arms against one another, instead focusing on fighting the bourgeoisie as the ruling class. According to Marxist theory, the antonym of proletarian internationalism is bourgeois nationalism. Some Marxists, together with others on the left, view nationalism,[55] racism[56] (including antisemitism)[57] and religion as divide and conquer tactics used by the ruling classes to prevent the working class from uniting against them in solidarity with one another.

Anarchism has developed a critique of nationalism that focuses on nationalism's role in justifying and consolidating state power and domination. Through its unifying goal, nationalism strives for centralisation (both in specific territories and in a ruling elite of individuals) while it prepares a population for capitalist exploitation. Within anarchism, this subject has been extensively discussed by Rudolf Rocker in his book titled Nationalism and Culture and by the works of Fredy Perlman such as Against His-Story, Against Leviathan and The Continuing Appeal of Nationalism.[58]

The failure of revolutions in Germany and Hungary in the 1918–1920 years ended Bolshevik hopes for an imminent world revolution and led to the promotion of the doctrine of socialism in one country by Joseph Stalin. In the first edition of his book titled Osnovy Leninizma (Foundations of Leninism, 1924), Stalin argued that revolution in one country is insufficient. By the end of that year in the second edition of the book, he argued that the "proletariat can and must build the socialist society in one country". In April 1925, Nikolai Bukharin elaborated on the issue in his brochure titled Can We Build Socialism in One Country in the Absence of the Victory of the West-European Proletariat?, whose position was adopted as state policy after Stalin's January 1926 article titled On the Issues of Leninism (К вопросам ленинизма) was published. This idea was opposed by Leon Trotsky and his supporters, who declared the need for an international "permanent revolution" and condemned Stalin for betraying the goals and ideals of the socialist revolution. Various Fourth Internationalist groups around the world who describe themselves as Trotskyist see themselves as standing in this tradition while Maoist China formally supported the theory of socialism in one country.

European social democrats strongly support Europeanism and supranational integration within the European Union, although there is a minority of nationalists and Eurosceptics on the left. Several scholars have linked this form of left-wing nationalism to the pressure generated by economic integration with other countries, often encouraged by neoliberal free trade agreements. This view is sometimes used to justify hostility towards supranational organisations.[citation needed]

Left-wing movements have often taken up anti-imperialist positions. Left-wing nationalism also can refer to any form of nationalism which emphasises a leftist working-class populist agenda that seeks to overcome exploitation or oppression by other nations. Many Third World anti-colonialist movements have adopted leftist and socialist ideas. Third-Worldism is a tendency within leftist thought that regards the division between First World and Second World developed countries and Third World developing countries as being of high political importance. This tendency supports decolonisation and national liberation movements against imperialism by capitalists. Third-Worldism is closely connected with African socialism, Latin American socialism, Maoism,[59][third-party source needed] pan-Africanism and pan-Arabism. Several left-wing groups in the developing world such as the Zapatista Army of National Liberation in Mexico, the Abahlali baseMjondolo in South Africa and the Naxalites in India have argued that the First World and the Second World Left takes a racist and paternalistic attitude towards liberation movements in the Third World.

### Religion

See also: Religion:Anarchism and religion, Buddhist socialism, Christian anarchism, Christian communism, Christian left, Christian socialism, Jewish left, and Islamic socialism

The original French Left was firmly anti-clerical, strongly opposing the influence of the Roman Catholic Church and supporting atheism and the separation of church and state, ushering in a policy known as laïcité.[14] Karl Marx asserted that "religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people".[60] In Soviet Russia, the Bolsheviks under Vladimir Lenin originally embraced an ideological principle which professed that all religion would eventually atrophy and resolved to eradicate organised Christianity and other religious institutions. In 1918, 10 Russian Orthodox hierarchs were summarily executed by a firing squad, and children were deprived of any religious education outside of the home.[61]

Today in the Western world, those on the Left generally support secularisation and the separation of church and state. However, religious beliefs have also been associated with many left-wing movements such as the progressive movement, the Social Gospel movement, the civil rights movement, the anti-war movement, the anti-capital punishment movement and Liberation Theology. Early utopian socialist thinkers such as Robert Owen, Charles Fourier and the Comte de Saint-Simon based their theories of socialism upon Christian principles. Other common leftist concerns such as pacifism, social justice, racial equality, human rights and the rejection of capitalism and excessive wealth can be found in the Bible.[62]

In the late 19th century, the Protestant Social Gospel movement arose in the United States which integrated progressive and socialist thought with Christianity through faith-based social activism. Other left-wing religious movements include Buddhist socialism, Jewish socialism and Islamic socialism. There have been alliances between the left and anti-war Muslims, such as the Respect Party and the Stop the War Coalition in Britain. In France, the left has been divided over moves to ban the hijab from schools, with some leftists supporting a ban based on the separation of church and state in accordance with the principle of laïcité and other leftists opposing the prohibition based on personal and religious freedom.

### Social progressivism and counterculture

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Protestors in Harlem, New York City, express solidarity with the Selma to Montgomery marches against racial segregation in the United States, 1965

Social progressivism is another common feature of modern leftism, particularly in the United States, where social progressives played an important role in the abolition of slavery,[63] the enshrinement of women's suffrage in the United States Constitution,[64] and the protection of civil rights, LGBTQ rights, women's rights and multiculturalism. Progressives have both advocated for alcohol prohibition legislation and worked towards its repeal in the mid to late 1920s and early 1930s. Current positions associated with social progressivism in the Western world include strong opposition to the death penalty, torture, mass surveillance, and the war on drugs, and support for abortion rights, cognitive liberty, LGBTQ rights including legal recognition of same-sex marriage, same-sex adoption of children, the right to change one's legal gender, distribution of contraceptives, and public funding of embryonic stem-cell research. The desire for an expansion of social and civil liberties often overlaps that of the libertarian movement. Public education was a subject of great interest to groundbreaking social progressives such as Lester Frank Ward and John Dewey, who believed that a democratic society and system of government was practically impossible without a universal and comprehensive nationwide system of education.

Various counterculture and anti-war movements in the 1960s and 1970s were associated with the New Left. Unlike the earlier leftist focus on labour union activism and a proletarian revolution, the New Left instead adopted a broader definition of political activism commonly called social activism. The New Left in the United States is associated with the hippie movement, mass protest movements on school campuses and a broadening of focus from protesting class-based oppression to include issues such as gender, race and sexual orientation. The British New Left was an intellectually driven movement which attempted to correct the perceived errors of the Old Left. The New Left opposed prevailing authoritarian structures in society which it designated as "The Establishment" and became known as the "Anti-Establishment". The New Left did not seek to recruit industrial workers en masse, but instead concentrated on a social activist approach to organization, convinced that they could be the source for a better kind of social revolution. This view has been criticised by several Marxists, especially Trotskyists, who characterised this approach as "substitutionism" which they described as a misguided and non-Marxist belief that other groups in society could "substitute" for and "replace" the revolutionary agency of the working class.[65][66]

Many early feminists and advocates of women's rights were considered a part of the Left by their contemporaries. Feminist pioneer Mary Wollstonecraft was influenced by Thomas Paine. Many notable leftists have been strong supporters of gender equality such as Marxist philosophers and activists Rosa Luxemburg, Clara Zetkin and Alexandra Kollontai, anarchist philosophers and activists such as Virginia Bolten, Emma Goldman and Lucía Sánchez Saornil and democratic socialist philosophers and activists such as Helen Keller and Annie Besant.[67] However, Marxists such as Rosa Luxemburg,[68] Clara Zetkin,[69][70] and Alexandra Kollontai,[71][72] who are supporters of radical social equality for women and have rejected and opposed liberal feminism because they considered it to be a capitalist bourgeois ideology. Marxists were responsible for organising the first International Working Women's Day events.[73]

The women's liberation movement is closely connected to the New Left and other new social movements which openly challenged the orthodoxies of the Old Left. Socialist feminism as exemplified by the Freedom Socialist Party and Radical Women and Marxist feminism, spearheaded by Selma James, saw themselves as a part of the Left that challenges male-dominated and sexist structures within the Left. The connection between left-wing ideologies and the struggle for LGBTQ rights also has an important history. Prominent socialists who were involved in early struggles for LGBTQ rights include Edward Carpenter, Oscar Wilde, Harry Hay, Bayard Rustin and Daniel Guérin, among others. The New Left is also strongly supportive of LGBTQ rights and liberation, having been instrumental in the founding of the LGBTQ rights movement in the aftermath of the Stonewall Riots of 1969. Contemporary leftist activists and socialist countries such as Cuba are actively supportive of LGBTQ+ people and are involved in the struggle for LGBTQ+ rights and equality.

## History

The 5 May 1789 opening of the Estates General of 1789 in Versailles

Throughout the 19th century, the main line dividing Left and Right was between supporters of the French republic and those of the monarchy's privileges.[14]: 2 The June Days uprising during the Second Republic was an attempt by the Left to re-assert itself after the 1848 Revolution, but only a small portion of the population supported this.

In the mid-19th century, nationalism, socialism, democracy and anti-clericalism became key features of the French Left. After Napoleon III's 1851 coup and the subsequent establishment of the Second Empire, Marxism began to rival radical republicanism and utopian socialism as a force within left-wing politics. The influential Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, published amidst the wave of revolutions of 1848 across Europe, asserted that all of human history is defined by class struggle. They predicted that a proletarian revolution would eventually overthrow bourgeois capitalism and create a stateless, moneyless and classless communist society. It was in this period that the word wing was appended to both Left and Right.[74]

The International Workingmen's Association (1864–1876), sometimes called the First International, brought together delegates from many different countries, with many different views about how to reach a classless and stateless society. Following a split between supporters of Marx and Mikhail Bakunin, anarchists formed the Saint-Imier International and later the International Workers' Association (IWA–AIT).[75] The Second International (1888–1916) became divided over the issue of World War I. Those who opposed the war, among them Vladimir Lenin and Rosa Luxemburg, saw themselves as further to the left.

In the United States, leftists such as social liberals, progressives and trade unionists were influenced by the works of Thomas Paine, who introduced the concept of asset-based egalitarianism which theorises that social equality is possible by a redistribution of resources. After the Reconstruction era in the aftermath of the American Civil War, the phrase "the Left" was used to describe those who supported trade unions, the civil rights movement and the anti-war movement.[76][77] More recently, left-wing and right-wing have often been used as synonyms for the Democratic and Republican parties, or as synonyms for liberalism and conservatism, respectively.[78][79][80] [81]

During the 20th century, war resulted in a dramatic intensification of the pace of social changes, and was a crucial catalyst for the growth of left-wing politics.[82] Since the Right was populist, both in the Western and the Eastern Bloc, anything viewed as avant-garde art was called leftist across Europe, thus the identification of Picasso's Guernica as "leftist" in Europe[83] and the condemnation of the Russian composer Shostakovich's opera (The Lady Macbeth of Mtsensk District) in Pravda as follows: "Here we have 'leftist' confusion instead of natural, human music".[84]{{page needed|date=November 2016

## Types

The spectrum of left-wing politics ranges from centre-left to far-left. The term centre-left describes a position within the political mainstream that accepts capitalism and a market economy. The term far-left is used for positions that are more radical, strongly rejecting capitalism and mainstream representative democracy, instead advocating for a socialist society based on economic democracy and direct democracy, representing economic, political and social democracy. The centre-left includes social democrats, social liberals, progressives and greens. Centre-left supporters accept market allocation of resources in a mixed economy with an empowered public sector and a thriving private sector. Centre-left policies tend to favour limited state intervention in matters pertaining to the public interest.

In several countries, the terms far-left and radical left have been associated with many varieties of anarchism, autonomism and communism. They have been used to describe groups that advocate anti-capitalism and eco-terrorism. In France, a distinction is made between the centre-left and the left represented by the Socialist Party and the French Communist Party and the far-left as represented by anarcho-communists, Maoists and Trotskyists.[85] The United States Department of Homeland Security defines "left-wing extremism" as groups that "seek to bring about change through violent revolution, rather than through established political processes".[86] Similar to far-right politics, extreme far-left politics have motivated political violence, radicalisation, genocide, terrorism, sabotage and damage to property, the formation of militant organisations, political repression, conspiracism, xenophobia, and nationalism.[87][88][89][90][91]

In China, the term Chinese New Left denotes those who oppose the economic reforms enacted by Deng Xiaoping in the 1980s and 1990s, favour instead the restoration of Maoist policies and the immediate transition to a socialist economy.[92] In the Western world, the term New Left is used for social and cultural politics.

In the United Kingdom during the 1980s, the term hard left was applied to supporters of Tony Benn such as the Campaign Group and those involved in the London Labour Briefing newspaper as well as Trotskyist groups such as Militant and the Alliance for Workers' Liberty.[93] In the same period, the term soft left was applied to supporters of the British Labour Party who were perceived to be more moderate and closer to the centre, accepting Keynesianism. Under the leadership of Tony Blair and Gordon Brown, the Labour Party adopted the Third Way and rebranded itself as New Labour in order to promote the notion that it was less left-wing than it had been in the past to accommodate the neoliberal trend arising since the 1970s with the displacement of Keynesianism and post-war social democracy. One of the first actions of Ed Miliband, the Labour Party leader who succeeded Blair and Brown, was the rejection of the New Labour label and a promise to abandon the Third Way and turn back to the left. However, Labour's voting record in the House of Commons from 2010 to 2015 indicated that the Labour Party under Miliband had maintained the same distance from the left as it did under Blair.[94][95] In contrast, the election of Jeremy Corbyn as the Labour Party leader was viewed by scholars and political commentators as Labour turning back toward its more classical socialist roots, rejecting neoliberalism and the Third Way whilst supporting a democratic socialist society and an end to austerity measures.

## See also

* Conflict theories
* Left-conservatism
* Left-wing populism
* Left-wing terrorism
* List of left-wing internationals
* List of left-wing political parties
* Post-left anarchy
* Red-baiting
* Red Scare
* Redwashing
* Right-wing politics
* Social criticism
* Woke

## References

1. ↑ Cultures at War: Moral Conflicts in Western Democracies. Toronto, Canada: Broadview Press. 2003. p. 30. ISBN 9781551113340. https://archive.org/details/culturesatwarmor0000smit.
2. ↑ Left and Right: The Significance of a Political Distinction. University of Chicago Press. 1997. p. 37. https://archive.org/details/leftrightsignifi00bobb.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought (Reprint. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2005. pp. 612–614. ISBN 9780521563543. https://books.google.com/books?id=N1h4_NqTOFoC&q=The+Cambridge+History+of+Twentieth-Century+Political+Thought. Retrieved 15 November 2016.
4. ↑ The Left In History: Revolution and Reform in Twentieth-Century Politic. London: Pluto Press. 1997. ISBN 978-0745308913.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wright, Edmund, ed (2006). The Desk Encyclopedia of World History. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 370. ISBN 978-0-7394-7809-7.
6. ↑ The Case for Socialism (Revised ed.). Haymarket Books. 2010. p. 164. ISBN 978-1608460731. "The International Socialist Review is one of the best left-wing journals around..."
7. ↑ Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism. Counter-Power. 1. AK Press. 2009. p. 128. ISBN 978-1-904859-16-1. "[...] anarchism is a coherent intellectual and political current dating back to the 1860s and the First International, and part of the labour and left tradition."
8. ↑ Last Exit to Utopia. Encounter Books. 2009. p. 24. ISBN 978-1594032646. https://archive.org/details/lastexittoutopia0000reve/page/24. "In the United States, the word liberal is often used to describe the left wing of the Democratic party."
9. ↑ "The environment, left-wing political orientation, and ecological economics". Ecological Economics 51 (3–4): 167–175. 2004. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.06.006. Bibcode: 2004EcoEc..51..167N. https://researchonline.lse.ac.uk/id/eprint/714/. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
10. ↑ International Encyclopedia of Environmental Politics. Taylor & Francis. 2002. ISBN 978-0415202855. https://archive.org/details/internationalenc0000unse_a2h7. "All surveys confirm that environmental concern is associated with green voting...[I]n subsequent European elections, green voters have tended to be more left-leaning...the party is capable of motivating its core supporters as well as other environmentally minded voters of predominantly left-wing persuasion..."
11. ↑ "Democratic socialism". http://www.econ.ohio-state.edu/Fleisher/courses/econ508winter06/docs/Democratic_socialism.pdf.
12. ↑ "Green party to position itself as the real left of UK politics". The Guardian. 5 September 2014. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2014/sep/05/green-party-left-uk-politics-caroline-lucas.
13. ↑ Imposing values: an essay on liberalism and regulation. Florence: Oxford University Press. 2009. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-495-50112-1. https://archive.org/details/oxfordclinicalda00libg. "Modern liberalism occupies the left-of-center in the traditional political spectrum and is represented by the Democratic Party in the United States, the Labor Party in the United Kingdom, and the mainstream Left (including some nominally socialist parties) in other advanced democratic societies."
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 The government and politics of France (5th ed.). London [u.a.]: Routledge. 2006. ISBN 978-0-415-35732-6. https://archive.org/details/governmentpoliti0000knap. "the government and politics of france."
15. ↑ Michel Winock, La Droite, hier et aujourd'hui, tempus, 2012, p. 12.
16. ↑ Nora, Pierre, ed (1996). "Right and Left". Realms of memory: conflicts and divisions. pp. 248.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Ostrowski, Marius (2020). Left Unity: Manifesto for a Progressive Alliance. Policy Network. London: Rowman & Littlefield International. pp. 11–13. ISBN 978-1-78661-295-3. https://policynetwork.progressivebritain.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Ostrowski-Left-Unity-2020.pdf.
18. ↑ Social Democracy in Neoliberal Times: The Left and Economic Policy since 1980. Oxford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-19-924138-5.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 "Left" (in en). 2009-04-15. https://www.britannica.com/topic/left.
20. ↑ Political Economy: A Comparative Approach. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Press. 1998. ISBN 9780275958695.
21. ↑ The Origin of Wealth: Evolution, Complexity, and the Radical Remaking of Economics. Boston, Mass.: Harvard Business School Press. 2006. p. 316. ISBN 978-1-57851-777-0. https://archive.org/details/originofwealthev00bein/page/316.
22. ↑ "The Neo-Marxian Schools". The New School. http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/schools/neomarx.htm.
23. ↑ "Some Basic Principles of Marxian Economics". University of Toronto. http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~munro5/MARXECON.htm.
24. ↑ "Communists: Marxism Fails on the Farm". Time. 13 October 1961. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,939251-2,00.html. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
25. ↑ Saito, Kohei (October 2014). "The Emergence of Marx's Critique of Modern Agriculture: Ecological Insights from His Excerpt Notebooks". Monthly Review 66 (5). https://monthlyreview.org/articles/the-emergence-of-marxs-critique-of-modern-agriculture/#fn69. Retrieved 28 January 2026.
26. ↑ Finn, Daniel. "Marxism and the Agrarian Question". https://jacobin.com/2024/07/marxism-and-the-agrarian-question.
27. ↑ A Movement of Movements. New York: Verso Books. 2004.
28. ↑ Global Cooperation: Challenges and Opportunities in the Twenty-first Century. Ashgate Publishing. 2006. p. 202.
29. ↑ Networking Futures: The Movements against Corporate Globalization. Durham: Duke University Press. 2008. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8223-4269-4.
30. ↑ "Agrarian Justice". Thomas Paine National Historical Association. http://thomaspaine.org/major-works/agrarian-justice.html.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Marx's Ecology. New York: Monthly Review Press. 2000.
32. ↑ Marx and Nature. New York: St. Martin's Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0312219406.
33. ↑ "William Morris: The First Green Socialist". Leonora.fortunecity.co.uk. 14 December 2007. http://leonora.fortunecity.co.uk/WilliamMorris.html.
34. ↑ "Capitalism as World-ecology: Braudel and Marx on Environmental History". Organization & Environment 16 (4): 431–458. 2003. doi:10.1177/1086026603259091. Bibcode: 2003OrgEn..16..514M. http://www.jasonwmoore.com/uploads/Moore__Capitalism_as_World-Ecology__Braudel_and_Marx_on_Environmental_History__O_E__2003_.pdf.
35. ↑ "Marx and ecology". Socialist Worker#United Kingdom. 8 December 2007. http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/art.php?id=13676.
36. ↑ Benton, E., ed (1996). "Soviet Environmentalism: The Path Not Taken". The Greening of Marxism. New York: Guilford Press. pp. 111–128. ISBN 978-1572301184.
37. ↑ The Enemy of Nature. 2002.
38. ↑ "The Environmental Record of the Soviet Union". Capitalism Nature Socialism 13 (3): 52–72. 2002. doi:10.1080/10455750208565489. https://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/file/e3c56de5-1863-4df1-a825-b18c351f40c3/1/PDF (Accepted manuscript).pdf. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
39. ↑ Mao's War against Nature: Politics and the Environment in Revolutionary China. Cambridge University Press. 2001.
40. ↑ Green Bans, Red Union: Environmental Activism and the New South Wales Builders Labourers' Federation. Sydney: UNSW Press. 1998.
41. ↑ Babylon and Beyond: The Economics of Anti-Capitalist, Anti-Globalist and Radical Green Movements. 2005.
42. ↑ The Closing Circle. 1972.
43. ↑ "Poor Bear Burden of Industrialisation". Blacksmith Institute. 19 October 2007. http://www.blacksmithinstitute.org/articles/file/The+Argentimes.pdf.
44. ↑ "Green Left homepage". Gptu.net. http://gptu.net/gleft/greenleft.shtml.
45. ↑ "President Evo Morales". The Daily Show. Comedy Central. 25 September 2007. http://www.cc.com/video-clips/7qwmpn/the-daily-show-with-jon-stewart-president-evo-morales.
46. ↑ James Hansen (31 December 2009). "How to Solve the Climate Problem". The Nation. http://www.thenation.com/article/how-solve-climate-problem. Retrieved 6 October 2010.
47. ↑ Chomsky, Noam (1999) (in en). Profit Over People: Neoliberalism and Global Order (1st ed.). New York: Seven Stories Press. ISBN 9781888363821. https://books.google.com/books?id=NrLv4surz7UC&q=profit+over+people. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
48. ↑ Trisha (6 August 2010). "The Nation: We Have Yet to See The Biggest Costs of the BP Spill". Raj Patel. http://rajpatel.org/2010/08/06/we-have-yet-to-see-the-biggest-costs-of-the-bp-spill.
49. ↑ ((policyalternatives)) (26 February 2010). "Naomi Klein- Climate Debt (Part 1)". YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2FtrSql3vss.
50. ↑ "The Yes Men Fix the World". Scrutiny Hooligans. 27 July 2011. http://scrutinyhooligans.us/2010/07/26/the-yes-men-fix-the-world/.
51. ↑ Breen, Chris (10 March 2010). "Carbon tax not the solution we need on climate". Solidarity Online. http://www.solidarity.net.au/22/carbon-tax-not-the-solution-we-need-on-climate.
52. ↑ Butler, Simon (13 March 2010). "James Hansen and climate solutions". Green Left Weekly. http://www.greenleft.org.au/node/43410.
53. ↑ The Oxford History of the French Revolution (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2002. ISBN 978-0-19-925298-5. https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryoff00doyl. ""An exuberant, uncompromising nationalism lay behind France's revolutionary expansion in the 1790s...", "The message of the French Revolution was that the people are sovereign; and in the two centuries since it was first proclaimed, it has conquered the world.""
54. ↑ (in fr) Histoire de l'extrême droite en France. 1993.
55. ↑ Communism and Nationalism (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. 1991.
56. ↑ "Marxism, Racism, and Ethnicity". American Behavioral Scientist 38 (3): 407–420. 1995. doi:10.1177/0002764295038003004. http://maxweber.hunter.cuny.edu/pub/eres/SOC217_PIMENTEL/solomos.pdf. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
57. ↑ "Anti-Jewish Pogroms". Speeches On Gramophone Records. 1919. http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1919/mar/x10.htm.
58. ↑ Perlman, Fredy (1985). The Continuing Appeal of Nationalism. Detroit: Black & Red. ISBN 978-0317295580.
59. ↑ "What is Maioism-Third Worldism?". Anti-Imperialism.org. 2 November 2011. https://anti-imperialism.org/2012/11/02/what-is-maoism-third-worldism/.
60. ↑ Marx, Karl. 1976. Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right. Collected Works, vol. 3. New York.
61. ↑ Michael Burleigh, Sacred Causes HarperCollins (2006), p. 41–43.
62. ↑ "Does God Want You To Be Rich?". Time. 10 September 2006. http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,1533448,00.html. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
63. ↑ James Brewer Stewart, Abolitionist Politics and the Coming of the Civil War, University of Massachusetts Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-55849-635-4. "[...] the progressive assumptions of 'uplift'." (page 40).
64. ↑ "For Teachers (Library of Congress)". Lcweb2.loc.gov. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/learn/features/timeline/progress/suffrage/suffrage.html.
65. ↑ "Tony Cliff: Trotsky on substitutionism (Autumn 1960)". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/cliff/works/1960/xx/trotsub.htm.
66. ↑ "Against Substitutionism". Scribd.com. 6 November 2006. https://www.scribd.com/doc/4662049/Against-Substitutionism.
67. ↑ Feminist Political Theory: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire [u.a.]: Palgrave Macmillan. 2003. ISBN 978-0-333-94568-1.
68. ↑ "Rosa Luxemburg: Women's Suffrage and Class Struggle (1912)". Marxists.org. https://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1912/05/12.htm.
69. ↑ "Clara Zetkin: On a Bourgeois Feminist Petition". Marxists.org. 28 December 2008. http://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1976/women/3-zetkin.html.
70. ↑ "Clara Zetkin: Lenin on the Women's Question – 1". Marxists.org. 29 February 2004. http://www.marxists.org/archive/zetkin/1920/lenin/zetkin1.htm.
71. ↑ "The Social Basis of the Woman Question by Alexandra Kollontai 1909". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1909/social-basis.htm.
72. ↑ "Women Workers Struggle For Their Rights by Alexandra Kollontai 1919". Marxists.org. http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1919/women-workers/ch01.htm.
73. ↑ "1920-Inter Women's Day". Marxists.org. 26 August 1920. http://www.marxists.org/archive/kollonta/1920/womens-day.htm.
74. ↑ "Home: Oxford English Dictionary". Home: Oxford English Dictionary. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/107000?redirectedFrom=left-wing#eid. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
75. ↑ Demanding the Impossible — A History of Anarchism. London: Fontana Press. 1993. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-00-686245-1.
76. ↑ The Movements of the New Left, 1950–1975: A Brief History with Documents. Palgrave Macmillan. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4039-6804-3.
77. ↑ American Folk Music and Left-Wing Politics. The Scarecrow Press. 2000. ISBN 978-0-8108-3684-6.
78. ↑ "Steel to gop fight for Coleman". Time. 3 March 2009. http://thepage.time.com/2009/03/03/steele-to-gop-fight-for-coleman/?xid=rss-page. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
79. ↑ "Is it Spain's place to investigate Gitmo?". The Week. 7 May 2009. http://www.theweek.com/article/index/96256/Is_it_Spains_place_to_investigate_Gitmo. Retrieved 3 June 2017.
80. ↑ Reported in Mother Jones, 29 April 2009.
81. ↑ "Study finds left-wing brain, right-wing brain". Los Angeles Times. 10 September 2007. http://www.latimes.com/news/science/la-sci-politics10sep10,0,5982337.story.
82. ↑ Kolko 1994, p. xvii–xviii: "War in this century became an essential precondition for the emergence of a numerically powerful Left, moving it from the margins to the very center of European politics during 1917–18 and of all world affairs after 1941".
83. ↑ Icons of the Left: Benjamin and Eisenstein, Picasso and Kafka After the Fall of Communism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1999. ISBN 978-0226893563.
84. ↑ Prokofiev (New ed.). London: Omnibus Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0711920835.
85. ↑ Cosseron, Serge (ed.). Le dictionnaire de l'extrême gauche. Paris: Larousse, 2007. p. 20.
86. ↑ "Leftwing Extremists Increase in Cyber Attacks". http://theplumline.whorunsgov.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/04/hsa-leftwing-extremists-increase-in-cyber-attacks-dated-26-january-2009.pdf.
87. ↑ Rossi, Federica (April 2021). Treiber, Kyle. ed. "The failed amnesty of the 'years of lead' in Italy: Continuity and transformations between (de)politicization and punitiveness". European Journal of Criminology (Los Angeles and London: SAGE Publications on behalf of the European Society of Criminology) 20 (2): 381–400. doi:10.1177/14773708211008441. ISSN 1741-2609. "The 1970s in Italy were characterized by the persistence and prolongation of political and social unrest that many Western countries experienced during the late 1960s. The decade saw the multiplication of far-left extra-parliamentary organizations, the presence of a militant far right movement, and an upsurge in the use of politically motivated violence and state repressive measures. The increasing militarization and the use of political violence, from sabotage and damage to property, to kidnappings and targeted assassinations, were justified by left-wing groups both as necessary means to achieve a revolutionary project and as defences against the threat of a neo-fascist coup.".
88. ↑ el-Ojeili, Chamsy; Taylor, Dylan (September 2018). Cheng, Enfu; Schweickart, David; Andreani, Tony. eds. "The Revaluation of All Values: Extremism, The Ultra-Left, and Revolutionary Anthropology". International Critical Thought (Taylor & Francis on behalf of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences) 8 (3): 410–425. doi:10.1080/21598282.2018.1506262. ISSN 2159-8282.
89. ↑ McClosky, Herbert; Chong, Dennis (July 1985). "Similarities and Differences Between Left-Wing and Right-Wing Radicals" (in en). British Journal of Political Science 15 (3): 329–363. doi:10.1017/S0007123400004221. ISSN 0007-1234. https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0007123400004221/type/journal_article. "Once one adjusts for superficial differences, Shils contended, communists and other radicals of the far left resemble right-wing radicals in zealotry, susceptibility to Manichean interpretations of human events, implacable hatred of opponents, intolerance toward dissenters and deviants, and an inclination to view public affairs as the outcome of conspiracies and secret plots.".
90. ↑ Kopyciok, Svenja; Silver, Hilary (2021-06-10). "Left-Wing Xenophobia in Europe". Frontiers in Sociology 6. doi:10.3389/fsoc.2021.666717. ISSN 2297-7775. PMID 34179182. "We find that a surprisingly large share of those who identify as far left do express extremely xenophobic attitudes, and we profile them in contrast to far right xenophobes.".
91. ↑ Chen, Cheng; Lee, Ji-Yong (2007-12-01). "Making sense of North Korea: "National Stalinism" in comparative-historical perspective" (in en). Communist and Post-Communist Studies 40 (4): 459–475. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2007.10.003. ISSN 0967-067X. https://online.ucpress.edu/cpcs/article/40/4/459/77/Making-sense-of-North-Korea-National-Stalinism-in. "the role of strong anti-liberal ideology that combined both far left and far right nationalist elements was highly significant in sustaining the regime and therefore should not be underestimated...the DPRK regime was able to hold on to power by using imagined and real external threats, such as the nuclear and missile crises, to justify continuing domestic repression and reinforce its nationalist claims".
92. ↑ "China launches 'New Deal' for farmers". Financial Times. 22 February 2006. http://news.ft.com/cms/s/74029202-a389-11da-83cc-0000779e2340,s01=1.html.
93. ↑ "Benn's golden anniversary". BBC News. 4 December 2000. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/politics/1054337.stm.
94. ↑ "MPs approve annual welfare cap in Commons vote". BBC News. 26 March 2014. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-26743802.
95. ↑ "Labour's return to the right". The Guardian. 5 November 2012. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2012/nov/05/labour-back-on-the-right.

## Sources

* Kolko, Gabriel (1994). Anatomy of a War: Vietnam, the United States, and the Modern Historical Experience. New Press. ISBN 9781565842182.

## Further reading

* Best, Steven (2014). "Rethinking Revolution: Veganism, Animal Liberation, Ecology, and the Left". The Politics of Total Liberation: Revolution for the 21st Century. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 79–106. doi:10.1057/9781137440723_4. ISBN 978-1137471116.
* Encyclopedia of the American Left, ed. by Mari Jo Buhle, Paul Buhle, Dan Georgakas, Second Edition, Oxford University Press 1998, ISBN 0-19-512088-4.
* Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. "Changes in the Nomenclature of the American Left" Journal of American Studies (2010) 44#1 pp. 83–100; how the term "socialism" was replaced by "left" in USA.online
* Lin Chun, The British New Left, Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univ. Press, 1993.
* Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000, Oxford University Press 2002, ISBN 0-19-504479-7.
* "Leftism in India, 1917–1947", Satyabrata Rai Chowdhuri, Palgrave Macmillan, UK, 2007, ISBN 978-0-230-51716-5.
* Winlow, Simon; Hall, Steve (2022). The Death of the Left: Why We Must Begin from the Beginning Again. Policy Press. ISBN 978-1447354154. https://policy.bristoluniversitypress.co.uk/trade/the-death-of-the-left.

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