Ottoman Turkish

Short description: Standardized register of Turkish in the Ottoman Empire

For other uses, see Ottoman Turkish (disambiguation).

Ottoman Turkish

لسان عثمانی
Lisân-ı Osmânî
File:200px

Ottoman Turkish written in Nastaliq style
(لسان عثمانی)

Region| Ottoman Empire
Ethnicity| Ottoman Turks
Era| c. 15th century; displaced as a literary standard by modern Turkish in 1928[1]

Language family

Turkic

* Common Turkic
* Oghuz
* Western Oghuz
* Ottoman Turkish

Early form

Old Anatolian Turkish

Writing system

| Ottoman Turkish alphabet
Official status

Official language in

* Beylik of Tunis
* Cretan State
* Emirate of Jabal Shammar
* Khedivate of Egypt
* Ottoman Empire
* Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus
* Provisional Government of Western Thrace
* Turkish Provisional Government
* Turkey (until 1928)[lower-alpha 1]

Language codes
ISO 639-1| `ota`
ISO 639-3| `ota`

Linguist List

| `ota`
Glottolog| `otto1234`[3]

The Ottoman Empire at its peak. During this time Ottoman Turkish culture including the language also developed in the conquered areas.

| This page contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

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Ottoman Turkish (لسان عثمانی, Lisân-ı Osmânî, tr; Turkish: Osmanlıca; Osmanlı Türkçesi) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). Written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet, it borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Persian and Arabic (through Persian).[4] Ottoman Turkish was largely unintelligible to rural Turks, who continued to use kaba Türkçe ("raw/vulgar Turkish"; compare Vulgar Latin and Demotic Greek), which used far fewer foreign loanwords and is the basis of the modern standard.[5]

Terms for the language included lisan-i-Türki or zeban-i-Türki ("Turkish language"), or, alternatively during the Ottoman era, lisan-i-Rum or zeban-i-Rum ("the language of Rum").[4] The Tanzimât era (1839–1876) saw the application of the term "Ottoman" when referring to the language[6] (لسان عثمانی lisân-ı Osmânî or عثمانلیجه Osmanlıca). Modern Turkish uses the same terms when referring to the language of that era (Osmanlıca and Osmanlı Türkçesi). More generically, the Turkish language was called تركجه Türkçe or تركی Türkî "Turkish".

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Language reform
* 2 Legacy
* 3 Writing system
* 4 Grammar
* 4.1 Cases
* 4.2 Possessives
* 4.3 Verbs
* 4.3.1 Negation and complex verbs
* 4.3.2 Compound verbs
* 4.3.3 'to be' and 'not to be' Verbs
* 4.3.4 'to exist/have' and 'not to exist/have' Verbs
* 4.4 Verb construction
* 5 Structure
* 6 Numbers
* 7 Transliterations
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Further reading
* 12 External links

## History

Historically, Ottoman Turkish was transformed in three eras:

* Eski Osmanlı Türkçesi اسكی عثمانلی توركچه‌سی (Old Ottoman Turkish): the version of Ottoman Turkish used until the 16th century. It was almost identical with the Turkish used by Seljuk empire and Anatolian beyliks and was often regarded as part of Eski Anadolu Türkçesi اسكی آناطولی توركچه‌سی (Old Anatolian Turkish).
* Orta Osmanlı Türkçesi اورتا عثمانلی توركچه‌سی (Middle Ottoman Turkish) or Klasik Osmanlıca (Classical Ottoman Turkish): the language of poetry and administration from the 16th century until Tanzimat.
* Yeni Osmanlı Türkçesi یڭی عثمانلی توركچه‌سی (New Ottoman Turkish): the version shaped from the 1850s to the 20th century under the influence of journalism and Western-oriented literature.

Ottoman Turkish was developed and extensively promoted as an imperial and court language during the reign of Mehmed II, with whose encouragement the language became heavily Persianised.[4]

### Language reform

In 1928, following the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, widespread language reforms (a part in the greater framework of Atatürk's reforms) instituted by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk saw the replacement of many Persian and Arabic origin loanwords in the language with their Turkish equivalents. One of the main supporters of the reform was the Turkish nationalist Ziya Gökalp.[7] It also saw the replacement of the Perso-Arabic script with the extended Latin alphabet. The changes were meant to encourage the growth of a new variety of written Turkish that more closely reflected the spoken vernacular and to foster a new variety of spoken Turkish that reinforced Turkey's new national identity as being a post-Ottoman state.{ See the list of replaced loanwords in Turkish for more examples of Ottoman Turkish words and their modern Turkish counterparts. Two examples of Arabic and two of Persian loanwords are found below.

English | Ottoman | Modern Turkish

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duty | وظیفه vazife | görev
positive | مثبت müspet | olumlu
hardship | مشكل müşkül | güçlük
province | ولایت vilâyet | il
war | حرب harb | savaş

## Legacy

Historically speaking, Ottoman Turkish is the predecessor of modern Turkish. However, the standard Turkish of today is essentially Türkiye Türkçesi (Turkish of Turkey) as written in the Latin alphabet and with an abundance of neologisms added, which means there are now far fewer loan words from other languages, and Ottoman Turkish was not instantly transformed into the Turkish of today. At first, it was only the script that was changed, and while some households continued to use the Arabic system in private, most of the Turkish population was illiterate at the time, making the switch to the Latin alphabet much easier. Then, loan words were taken out, and new words fitting the growing amount of technology were introduced. Until the 1960s, Ottoman Turkish was at least partially intelligible with the Turkish of that day. One major difference between Ottoman Turkish and modern Turkish is the latter's abandonment of compound word formation according to Arabic and Persian grammar rules. The usage of such phrases still exists in modern Turkish but only to a very limited extent and usually in specialist contexts; for example, the Persian-derived genitive construction تقدیر الهی (takdîr-i ilâhî) (which reads literally as "the preordaining of the divine" and translates as "divine dispensation" or "destiny") is used, as opposed to the normative modern Turkish construction, ilâhî takdîr (literally, "divine preordaining").

In 2014, Turkey's Education Council decided that Ottoman Turkish should be taught in Islamic high schools and as an elective in other schools, a decision backed by President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, who said the language should be taught in schools so younger generations do not lose touch with their cultural heritage.[8]

## Writing system

Calendar in Thessaloniki 1896, a cosmopolitan city; the first three lines in Ottoman script

Most Ottoman Turkish was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet (Ottoman Turkish: الفبا, romanized: elifbâ), a variant of the Perso-Arabic script. The Armenian, Greek and Rashi script of Hebrew were sometimes used by Armenians, Greeks and Jews. (See Karamanli Turkish, a dialect of Ottoman written in the Greek script; Armeno-Turkish alphabet)

## Grammar

The actual grammar of Ottoman Turkish is not different from the grammar of modern Turkish. The focus of this section is on the Ottoman orthography; the conventions surrounding how the orthography interacted and dealt with grammatical morphemes related to conjugations, cases, pronouns, etc.

### Cases

* Nominative and Indefinite accusative/objective: -∅, no suffix. گول göl 'the lake' 'a lake', چوربا çorba 'soup', گیجه gece 'night'; طاوشان گترمش ṭavşan getirmiş 'he/she brought a rabbit'.
* Genitive: suffix ڭ/نڭ –(n)ıñ, –(n)iñ, –(n)uñ, –(n)üñ. پاشانڭ paşanıñ 'of the pasha'; كتابڭ kitabıñ 'of the book'.
* Definite accusative: suffix ی –ı, -i: طاوشانی گترمش ṭavşanı getürmiş 'he/she brought the rabbit'. The variant suffix –u, –ü does not occur in Ottoman Turkish orthography (unlike in Modern Turkish), although it's pronounced with the vowel harmony. Thus, گولی göli 'the lake' vs. Modern Turkish gölü.[9]
* Dative: suffix ه –e: اوه eve 'to the house'.
* Locative: suffix ده –de, –da: مكتبده mektebde 'at school', قفسده ḳafeṣde 'in (the/a) cage', باشده başda 'at a/the start', شهرده şehirde 'in town'. The variant suffix used in Modern Turkish (–te, –ta) does not occur.
* Ablative: suffix دن –den, -dan: ادمدن adamdan 'from the man'.
* Instrumental: suffix or postposition ایله ile. Generally not counted as a grammatical case in modern grammars.

The table below lists nouns with a variety of phonological features that come into play when taking case suffixes; it includes a typical singular and plural noun, containing back and front vowels, words that end with the letter ـه (-a or -e) (back and front vowels), words that end in a ـت (-t) sound, and words that end in either ـق or ـك (-k). These words are to serve as references, to observe orthographic conventions:

* Which vowels are written using the 4 letters: elif ا, vav و, he ه, and ye ی, and which are not.
* When words or morphemes are connected to each other, and when they are separated with the use of Zero-width non-joiner.
* When a final letter is softened when followed by a vowel sound, and when not; both in Ottoman orthography and in modern Latin orthography.
* When harmony of vowel roundness exists in spoken pronunciation and modern Latin orthography, but not in Ottoman orthography.
* When the letters ڭ (ñ) and ن (n) are used.

Declension of nouns for case[10] Case  | Morpheme  | اُوق | اُوقلَر | اَو | اَولَر | قورت | چارطاق | ایپك | پاره | پیده | كوپری

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'arrow' | oklar
'arrows' | ev
'house' | evler
'houses' | kurt
'wolf' | çartak
'gazebo' | ipek
'silk' | para
'money' | pide
'pita' | köprü
'bridge'
Nom  | —  | اوق | ok  | اوقلر | oklar  | او | ev  | اولر | evler  | قورت | kurt  | چارطاق | çartak  | ایپك | ipek  | پاره | para  | پیده | pide  | كوپری | köprü
Acc  | ـی | اوقی | oku | اوقلری | okları | اوی | evi | اولری | evleri | قوردی | kurdu | چارطاغی | çartağı | ایپگی | ipeği | پاره‌یی | parayı | پیده‌یی | pideyi | كوپریی | köprüyü
-ı -i -u -ü
Dat  | ـه | اوقه | oka | اوقلره | oklara | اوه | eve | اولره | evlere | قورده | kurda | چارطاغه | çartağa | ایپگه | ipeğe | پاره‌یه | paraya | پیده‌یه | pideye | كوپریه | köprüye
-a -e
Loc  | ـده | اوقده | okta | اوقلرده | oklarda | اوده | evde | اولرده | evlerde | قورتده | kurt'ta | چارطاقده | çartakta | ایپكده | ipekde | پاره‌ده | parada | پیده‌ده | pidede | كوپریده | köprüde
-da -de -ta -te
Abl  | ـدن | اوقدن | oktan | اوقلردن | oklardan | اودن | evden | اولردن | evlerden | قورتدن | kurttan | چارطاقدن | çartaktan | ایپكدن | ipekden | پاره‌دن | paradan | پیده‌دن | pideden | كوپریدن | köprüden
-dan -den -tan -ten
Gen  | ـڭ | اوقڭ | okun | اوقلرڭ | okların | اوڭ | evin | اولرڭ | evlerin | قوردڭ | kurdun | چارطاغڭ | çartağın | ایپگڭ | ipeğin | پاره‌‌نڭ | paranın | پیده‌‌نڭ | pidenin | كوپرینڭ | köprünün
-ın -in -un -ün
Inst  | ـله | اوقله | okla | اوقلرله | oklarla | اوله | evle | اولرله | evlerle | قورتله | kurtla | چارطاقله | çartakla | ایپكله | ipekle | پاره‌‌‌یله | parala | پیده‌‌یله | pidele | كوپریله | köprülü
-la -le -lu -lü

### Possessives

Table below shows the suffixes for creating possessed nouns. Each of these possessed nouns, in turn, take case suffixes as shown above.

Declension of nouns for possession[10] Person  | Morpheme  | اُوق | اُوقلَر | اَو | اَولَر | قورت | چارطاق | ایپك | پاره | پیده | كوپری

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'arrow' | oklar
'arrows' | ev
'house' | evler
'houses' | kurt
'wolf' | çartak
'gazebo' | ipek
'silk' | para
'money' | pide
'pita' | köprü
'bridge'
—  | —  | اوق | ok  | اوقلر | oklar  | او | ev  | اولر | evler  | قورت | kurt  | چارطاق | çartak  | ایپك | ipek  | پاره | para  | پیده | pide  | كوپری | köprü
1st Person Sg.  | ـم | اوقم | okum | اوقلرم | oklarım | اویم | evim | اولرم | evlerim | قوردم | kurdum | چارطاغم | çartağım | ایپگم | ipeğim | پاره‌م | param | پیده‌م | pidem | كوپری‌م | köprüm
-m -ım -im -um -üm
2nd Person Sg.  | ـڭ | اوقڭ | okun | اوقلرڭ | okların | اویڭ | evin | اولرڭ | evlerin | قوردڭ | kurdun | چارطاغڭ | çartağın | ایپگڭ | ipeğin | پاره‌ڭ | paran | پیده‌ڭ | piden | كوپری‌ڭ | köprün
-n -ın -in -un -ün
3rd Person Sg.  | ـی / ـسی | اوقی | oku | اوقلری | okları | اوی | evi | اولری | evleri | قوردی | kurdu | چارطاغی | çartağı | ایپگی | ipeği | پاره‌سی | parası | پیده‌سی | pidesi | كوپریسی | köprüsü
-(s)ı -(s)i -(s)u -(s)ü
1st Person Pl.  | ـمز | اوقمز | okumuz | اوقلرمز | oklarımız | اومز | evimiz | اولرمز | evlerimiz | قوردمز | kurdumuz | چارطاغمز | çartağımız | ایپگمز | ipeğimiz | پاره‌مز | paramız | پیده‌مز | pidemiz | كوپریمز | köprümüz
-(ı)mız -(i)miz -(u)muz -(ü)müz
2nd Person Pl.  | ـڭز | اوقڭز | okunuz | اوقلرڭز | oklarınız | اوڭز | eviniz | اولرڭز | evleriniz | قوردڭز | kurdunuz | چارطاغڭز | çartağınız | ایپگڭز | ipeğiniz | پاره‌ڭز | paranız | پیده‌ڭز | pideniz | كوپریڭز | köprünüz
-(ı)nız -(i)niz -(u)nuz -(ü)nüz
3rd Person Pl.  | ـلری | اوقلری | okları  | اوقلرلری | okları | اولری | evleri | اولرلری | evleri | قورتلری | kurtları | چارطاقلری | çartakleri | ایپكلری | ipekleri | پاره‌لری | paraları | پیده‌لری | pideleri | كوپریلری | köprüleri
-ları -leri

For third person (singular and plural) possessed nouns, that end in a vowel, when it comes to taking case suffixes, a letter ـنـ (-n-) comes after the possessive suffix. For singular endings, the final vowel ـی (-ı or -i) is removed in all instances. For plural endings, if the letter succeeding the additional ـنـ (-n-) is a vowel, the final vowel ـی (-ı or -i) is kept; otherwise it is removed (note the respective examples for kitaplarını and kitaplarından).

| Nom | Acc | Dat | Loc | Abl | Gen

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his/her book | كتابی | كتابنی | كتابنه | كتابنده | كتابندن | كتابنڭ
kitabı | kitabını | kitabına | kitabında | kitabından | kitabının
his/her books | كتابلری | كتابلرینی | كتابلرینه | كتابلرنده | كتابلرندن | كتابلرینڭ
kitapları | kitaplarını | kitaplarına | kitaplarında | kitaplarından | kitaplarının
his/her maternal aunt | تیزه‌سی | تیزه‌‌سنی | تیزه‌‌سنه | تیزه‌‌سنده | تیزه‌‌سندن | تیزه‌‌سنڭ
teyzesi | teyzesini | teyzesine | teyzesinde | teyzesinden | teyzesinin
his/her maternal aunts | تیزه‌لری | تیزه‌لرینی | تیزه‌لرینه | تیزه‌لرنده | تیزه‌لرندن | تیزه‌لرینڭ
teyzeleri | teyzelerini | teyzelerine | teyzelerinde | teyzelerinden | teyzelerinin

### Verbs

Below table shows the positive conjugation for two sample verbs آچمق açmak (to open) and سولمك sevilmek (to be loved). The first verb is the active verb, and the other has been modified to form a passive verb. The first contains back vowels, the second front vowels; both containing non-rounded vowels (which also impacts pronunciation and modern Latin orthography).[11]

| rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | آچمق açmak
'to open'  | سولمك sevilmek
'to be loved'

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Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
rowspan=15 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present Imperfect
am/is/are opening
am/is/are being loved | 1  | آچیورم | açıyorum  | آچیورز | açıyoruz  | سولیورم | seviliyorum  | سولیورز | seviliyoruz
2  | آچیورسڭ | açıyorsun  | آچیورسڭز | açıyorsunuz  | سولیورسڭ | seviliyorsun  | سولیورسڭز | seviliyorsunuz
3  | آچیور | açıyor  | آچیورلر | açıyorlar  | سولیور | seviliyor  | سولیورلر | seviliyorlar
Past Imperfect
was/were opening
was/were being loved | 1  | آچیوردم | açıyordum  | آچیوردق | açıyorduk  | سولیوردم | seviliyordum  | سولیوردك | seviliyorduk
2  | آچیوردڭ | açıyordun  | آچیوردڭز | açıyordunuz  | سولیوردڭ | seviliyordun  | سولیوردڭز | seviliyordunuz
3  | آچیوردی | açıyordu  | آچیوردیلر | açıyordular  | سولیوردی | seviliyordu  | سولیوردیلر | seviliyordular
Present Aorist
shall habitually open
shall habitually be loved | 1  | آچارم | açarım  | آچارز | açarız  | سولورم | sevilirim  | سولورز | seviliriz
2  | آچارسڭ | açarsın  | آچارسڭز | açarsınız  | سولورسڭ | sevilirsin  | سولورسڭز | sevilirsiniz
3  | آچار | açar  | آچارلر | açarlar  | سولور | sevilir  | سولورلر | sevilirler
Past Perfect
opened
was loved | 1  | آچدم | açtım  | آچدق | açtık  | سولدم | sevildim  | سولدك | sevildik
2  | آچدڭ | açtın  | آچدڭز | açtınız  | سولدڭ | sevildin  | سولدڭز | sevildiniz
3  | آچدی | açtı  | آچدیلر | açtılar  | سولدی | sevildi  | سولدیلر | sevildiler
Future
will open
will be loved | 1  | آچه‌جغم | açacağım  | آچه‌جغز | açacağız  | سوله‌جگم | sevileceğim  | سوله‌جگز | sevileceğiz
2  | آچه‌جقسڭ | açacaksın  | آچه‌جقسڭز | açacaksınız  | سوله‌جكسن | sevileceksin  | سوله‌جكسڭز | sevileceksiniz
3  | آچه‌جق | açacak  | آچه‌جقلر | açacaklar  | سوله‌جك | sevilecek  | سوله‌جكلر | sevilecekler
rowspan=4 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Perfect
have/has opened, I believe
was/were loved, I believe | 1  | آچمشم | açmışım  | آچمشز | açmışız  | سولمشم | sevilmişim  | سولمشز | sevilmişiz
2  | آچمشسڭ | açmışsın  | آچمشسڭز | açmışsınız  | سولمشسن | sevilmişsin  | سولمشسڭز | sevilmişsiniz
3  | آچمش | açmış  | آچمشلر | açmışlar  | سولمش | sevilmiş  | سولمشلر | sevilmişler
آچمشدر | açmışdır  | سولمشدر | sevilmişdir
rowspan=6 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Aorist
must open
must be loved | 1  | آچملویم | açmalıyım  | آچملویز | açmalıyız  | سولملویم | sevilmeliyim  | سولملویز | sevilmeliyiz
2  | آچملوسڭ | açmalısın  | آچملوسڭز | açmalısınız  | سولملوسڭ | sevilmelisin  | سولملوسڭز | sevilmelisiniz
3  | آچملو | açmalı  | آچملولر | açmalılar  | سولملو | sevilmeli  | سولملولر | sevilmeliler
Past
must've open
must've been loved | 1  | آچملویدم | açmalıydım  | آچملویدق | açmalıydık  | سولملویدم | sevilmeliydim  | سولملویدق | sevilmeliydik
2  | آچملویدڭ | açmalıydın  | آچملویدڭز | açmalıydınız  | سولملویدڭ | sevilmeliydin  | سولملویدڭز | sevilmeliydiniz
3  | آچملویدی | açmalıydı  | آچملویدیلر | açmalıydılar  | سولملویدی | sevilmeliydi  | سولملویدیلر | sevilmeliydiler
rowspan=4 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present
that may open
that may be loved | 1  | آچه‌یم | açayım  | آچه‌یز | açayız  | سوله‌یم | sevileyim  | سوله‌یز | sevileyiz
آچه‌لم | açalım  | سوله‌لم | sevilelim
2  | آچه‌سن | açasın  | آچه‌سڭز | açasınız  | سوله‌سن | sevilesin  | سوله‌سڭز | sevilesiniz
3  | آچه | aça  | آچه‌لر | açalar  | سوله | sevile  | سوله‌لر | sevileler
rowspan=6 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Aorist
if open
if be loved | 1  | آچسم | açsam  | آچسق | açsak  | سولسم | sevilsem  | سولسك | sevilsek
2  | آچسڭ | açsan  | آچسڭز | açsanız  | سولسڭ | sevilsen  | سولسڭز | sevilseniz
3  | آچسه | açsa  | آچسه‌لر | açsalar  | سولسه | sevilse  | سولسه‌لر | sevilseler
Past
if opened
if were loved | 1  | آچسیدم | açsaydım  | آچسیدق | açsaydık  | سولسیدم | sevilseydim  | سولسیدك | sevilseydik
2  | آچسیدڭ | açsaydın  | آچسیدڭز | açsaydınız  | سولسدیڭ | sevilseydin  | سولسیدڭز | sevilseydiniz
3  | آچسیدی | açsaydı  | آچسیدیلر | açsaydılar  | سولسیدی | sevilseydi  | سولسیدیلر | sevilseydiler
Imperative  | 1  | —  | آچالم | açalım  | —  | سوله‌لم | sevilelim
2  | آچ | aç  | آچڭز | açınız  | سول | sevil  | سولڭز | seviliniz
آچڭ | açın  | سولڭ | sevilin
3  | آچسون | açsın  | آچسونلر | açsınlar  | سولسون | sevilsin  | سولسونلر | sevilsinler

#### Negation and complex verbs

Below table shows the conjugation of a negative verb, and a positive complex verb expressing ability. In Turkish, complex verbs can be constructed by adding a variety of suffixes to the base root of a verb. The two verbs are یازممق yazmamaq (not to write) and سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek (to be able to love).[11]

| rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | یازممق yazmamaq
'not to write'  | سوه‌بلمك sevebilmek
'to be able to love'

|
|
|

Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
rowspan=15 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present Imperfect
am/is/are not writing
can love | 1  | یازمیورم | yazmayorum  | یازمیورز | yazmayoruz  | سوه‌بیلیورم | sevebiliyorum  | سوه‌بیلیورز | sevebiliyoruz
2  | یازمیورسن | yazmayorsun  | یازمیورسڭز | yazmayorsunuz  | سوه‌بیلیورسن | sevebiliyorsun  | سوه‌بیلیورسڭز | sevebiliyorsunuz
3  | یازمیور | yazmayor  | یازمیورلر | yazmayorlar  | سوه‌بیلیور | sevebiliyor  | سوه‌بیلیورلر | sevebiliyorlar
Past Imperfect
was/were not writing
was/were able to love | 1  | یازمیوردم | yazmıyordum  | یازمیوردق | yazmıyorduk  | سوه‌بیلیوردم | sevebiliyordum  | سوه‌بیلیوردك | sevebiliyorduk
2  | یازمیوردڭ | yazmıyordun  | یازمیوردڭز | yazmıyordunuz  | سوه‌بیلیوردڭ | sevebiliyordun  | سوه‌بیلیوردڭز | sevebiliyordunuz
3  | یازمیوردی | yazmıyordu  | یازمیوردیلر | yazmıyordular  | سوه‌بیلیوردی | sevebiliyordu  | سوه‌بیلیوردیلر | sevebiliyordular
Present Aorist
do not write
shall be able to love | 1  | یازمم | yazmam  | یازمیز | yazmayız  | سوه‌بلورم | sevebilirim  | سوه‌بلورز | sevebiliriz
2  | یازمازسن | yazmazsın  | یازمازسڭز | yazmazsınız  | سوه‌بلورسن | sevebilirsin  | سوه‌بلورسڭز | sevebilirsiniz
3  | یازماز | yazmaz  | یازمازلر | yazmazlar  | سوه‌بلور | sevebilir  | سوه‌بلورلر | sevebilirler
Past Perfect
used not to write
could love | 1  | یازمادم | yazmadım  | یازمادق | yazmadık  | سوه‌بلدم | sevebildim  | سوه‌بلدك | sevebildik
2  | یازمادڭ | yazmadın  | یازمادڭز | yazmadınız  | سوه‌بلدڭ | sevebildin  | سوه‌بلدڭز | sevebildiniz
3  | یازمادی | yazmadı  | یازمادیلر | yazmadılar  | سوه‌بلدی | sevebildi  | سوه‌بلدیلر | sevebildiler
Future
shall not write
will be able to love | 1  | یازمیه‌جغم | yazmayacağım  | یازمیه‌جغز | yazmayacağız  | سوه‌بله‌جگم | sevibileceğim  | سوه‌بله‌جگز | sevibileceğiz
2  | یازمیه‌جقسن | yazmayacaksın  | یازمیه‌جقسڭز | yazmayacaksınız  | سوه‌بله‌جكسن | sevibileceksin  | سوه‌بله‌جكسڭز | sevibileceksiniz
3  | یازمیه‌جق | yazmayacak  | یازمیه‌جقلر | yazmayacaklar  | سوه‌بله‌جك | sevibilecek  | سوه‌بله‌جكلر | sevibilecekler
rowspan=3 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Aorist
must open
must be loved | 1  | یازمه‌ملییم | yazmamalıyım  | یازمه‌ملییز | yazmamalıyız  | سوه‌بلملییم | sevibilmeliyim  | سوه‌بلملییز | sevibilmeliyiz
2  | یازمه‌ملیسن | yazmamalısın  | یازمه‌ملیسڭز | yazmamalısınız  | سوه‌بلملیسن | sevibilmelisin  | سوه‌بلملیسڭز | sevibilmelisiniz
3  | یازمه‌ملی | yazmamalı  | یازمه‌ملیلر | yazmamalılar  | سوه‌بلملی | sevibilmeli  | سوه‌بلملیلر | sevibilmeliler
rowspan=4 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present
that may not open
that may not be able to love | 1  | یازمیه‌یم | yazmayayım  | یازمیه‌یز | yazmayayız  | سوه‌بله‌یم | sevibileyim  | سوه‌بله‌یز | sevibileyiz
یازمیه‌لم | yazmayalım  | سوه‌بله‌لم | sevibilelim
2  | یازمیه‌سن | yazmayasın  | یازمیه‌سڭز | yazmayasınız  | سوه‌بله‌سن | sevibilesin  | سوه‌بله‌سڭز | sevibilesiniz
3  | یازمیه | yazmaya  | یازمیه‌لر | yazmayalar  | سوه‌بله | sevibile  | سوه‌بله‌لر | sevibileler
Imperative  | 1  | —  | یازمیه‌لم | yazmayalım  | —  | سوبله‌لم | sevibilelim
2  | یازمه | yazma  | یازمیڭز | yazmayınız  | سوبل | sevibil  | سوبلڭز | sevibiliniz
یازمیڭ | yazmayın  | سوبلڭ | sevibilin
3  | یازمسون | yazmasın  | یازمسونلر | yazmasınlar  | سوبلسون | sevibilsin  | سوبلسونلر | sevibilsinler

#### Compound verbs

Another common category of verbs in Turkish (more common in Ottoman Turkish than in modern Turkish), is compound verbs. This consists of adding a Persian or Arabic active or passive participle to a neuter verb, to do (ایتمك etmek) or to become (اولمق olmaq). For example, note the following two verbs:

* راضی اولمق razı olmaq (to consent);
* قتل ایتمك katletmek (to slaughter); تشكر ایتمك teşekkür etmek (to thank);
* ایو اولنمق iyi olunmak (to get better).

Below table shows some sample conjugations of these two verbs. The conjugation of the verb etmek is not straightforward, because the root of the verb ends in a [t]. This sound transforms into a [d] when followed by a vowel sound. This is reflected in conventions of Ottoman orthography as well.

| rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | اولمق olmaq
'to become'  | ایتمك etmek
'to do'

|
|
|

Singular  | Plural  | Singular  | Plural
rowspan=15 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present Imperfect  | 1  | اولیورم | oluyorum  | اولیورز | oluyoruz  | ایدیورم | ediyorum  | ایدیورز | ediyoruz
2  | اولیورسن | oluyorsun  | اولیورسڭز | oluyorsunuz  | ایدیورسن | ediyorsun  | ایدیورسڭز | ediyorsunuz
3  | اولیور | oluyor  | اولیورلر | oluyorlar  | ایدیور | ediyor  | ایدیورلر | ediyorlar
Past Imperfect  | 1  | اولیوردم | oluyordum  | اولیوردق | oluyorduk  | ایدیوردم | ediyordum  | ایدیوردق | ediyorduk
2  | اولیوردڭ | oluyordun  | اولیوردڭز | oluyordunuz  | ایدیوردڭ | ediyordun  | ایدیوردڭز | ediyordunuz
3  | اولیوردی | oluyordu  | اولیوردیلر | oluyordular  | ایدیوردی | ediyordu  | ایدیوردیلر | ediyordular
Present Aorist  | 1  | اولورم | olurum  | اولورز | oluruz  | ایدرم | ederim  | ایدرز | ederiz
2  | اولورسن | olursun  | اولورسڭز | olursunuz  | ایدرسن | edersin  | ایدرسڭز | edersiniz
3  | اولور | olur  | اولورلر | olurlar  | ایدر | eder  | ایدرلر | ederler
Past Perfect  | 1  | اولدم | oldum  | اولدق | olduk  | ایتدم | ettim  | ایتدك | ettik
2  | اولدڭ | oldun  | اولدڭز | oldunuz  | ایتدڭ | ettin  | ایتدڭز | ettiniz
3  | اولدی | oldu  | اولدیلر | oldular  | ایتدی | etti  | ایتدیلر | ettiler
Future  | 1  | اوله‌جغم | olacağım  | اوله‌جغز | olacağız  | ایده‌جگم | edeceğim  | ایده‌جگز | edeceğiz
2  | اوله‌جقسن | olacaksın  | اوله‌جقسڭز | olacaksınız  | ایده‌جكسن | edeceksin  | ایده‌جكسڭز | edeceksiniz
3  | اوله‌جق | olacak  | اوله‌جقلر | olacaklar  | ایده‌جك | edecek  | ایده‌جكلر | edecekler
rowspan=6 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Aorist  | 1  | اولملویم | olmalıyım  | اولملویز | olmalıyız  | ایتملییم | etmeliyim  | ایتملییز | etmeliyiz
2  | اولملوسن | olmalısın  | اولملوسڭز | olmalısınız  | ایتملیسن | etmelisin  | ایتملیسڭز | etmelisiniz
3  | اولملو | olmalı  | اولملولر | olmalılar  | ایتملی | etmeli  | ایتملیلر | etmeliler
Past  | 1  | اولملویدم | olmalıydım  | اولملویدق | olmalıydık  | ایتملییدم | etmeliydim  | ایتملییدق | etmeliydik
2  | اوللویدڭ | olmalıydın  | اولملویدڭز | olmalıydınız  | ایتملییدڭ | etmeliydin  | ایتكلییدڭز | etmeliydiniz
3  | اولملویدی | olmalıydı  | اولملویدیلر | olmalıydılar  | ایتملییدی | etmeliydi  | ایتملییدیلر | etmeliydiler
rowspan=4 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present  | 1  | اوله‌یم | olayım  | اوله‌یز | olayız  | ایده‌یم | edeyim  | ایده‌یز | edeeyiz
اوله‌لم | olalım  | ایده‌لم | edelim
2  | اوله‌سن | olasın  | اوله‌سڭز | olasınız  | ایده‌سن | edesin  | ایده‌سڭز | edesiniz
3  | اوله | ola  | اوله‌لر | olalar  | ایده | ede  | ایده‌لر | edeler
Imperative  | 1  | —  | اوله‌لم | olalım  | —  | ایده‌لم | edelim
2  | اول | ol  | اولڭز | olunuz  | ایت | et  | ایدڭز | ediniz
اولڭ | olun  | ایدڭ | edin
3  | اولسون | olsun  | اولسونلر | olsunlar  | ایتسون | etsin  | ایتسونلر | etsinler

#### 'to be' and 'not to be' Verbs

In Turkish, there is a verb representing to be, but it is a defective verb. It does not have an infinitive or several other tenses. It is usually a suffix.

| rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | 'to be'

|
|

Singular  | Plural
rowspan=10 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Present  | 1  | ـم | -ım, -im, -um, -üm  | ـز | -ız, -iz, -uz, -üz
ـیم | -yım, -yim, -yum, -yüm  | ـیز | -yız, -yiz, -yuz, -yüz
2  | ـسن | -sın, -sin, -sun, -sün  | ـسڭز | -sınız, -siniz, -sunuz, -sünüz
3  | ـدر | -dır, -dir, -dur, -dür
-tır, -tir, -tur, -tür  | ـدرلر | -dırlar, -dirler, -durlar, -dürler
-tırlar, -tirler, -turlar, -türler
Past  | 1  | ـدیم | -dım, -dim, -dum, -düm
-tım, -tim, -tum, -tüm  | ـدك | -dık, -dik, -duk, -dük
-tık, -tik, -tuk, -tük
ـیدیم | -ydım, -ydim, -ydum, -ydüm  | ـیدك | -ydık, -ydik, -yduk, -ydük
2  | ـدڭ | -dın, -din, -dun, -dün
-tın, -tin, -tun, -tün  | ـدڭز | -dınız, -diniz, -dunuz, -dünüz
-tınız, -tiniz, -tunuz, -tünüz
ـیدڭ | -ydın, -ydin, -ydun, -ydün  | ـیدڭز | -ydınız, -ydiniz, -ydunuz, -ydünüz
3  | ـدی | -dı, -di, -du, -dü
-tı, -ti, -tu, -tü  | ـدیلر | -dılar, -diler, -dular, -düler
-tılar, -tiler, -tular, -tüler
ـیدی | -ydı, -ydi, -ydu, -ydü  | ـیدیلر | -ydılar, -ydiler, -ydular, -ydüler
rowspan=12 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Aorist  | 1  | ـسم | -sam, -sem  | ـسك | -sak, -sek
ـیسم | -ysam, -ysem  | ـیسك | -ysak, -ysek
2  | ـسڭ | -san, -sen  | ـسڭز | -sanız, -seniz, -sanuz, -senüz
ـیسڭ | -ysan, -ysen  | ـیسڭز | -ysanız, -yseniz, -ysanuz, -ysenüz
3  | ـسه | -sa, -se  | ـسه‌لر | -salar, -seler
ـیسه | -ysa, -yse  | ـیسه‌لر | -ysalar, -yseler
Past  | 1  | ـسیدم | -saydım, -seydim, -saydum, -seydüm  | ـسیدك | -saydık, -seydik, -sayduk, -seydük
ـیسیدم | -ysaydım, -yseydim, -ysaydum, -yseydüm  | ـیسیدك | -ysaydık, -yseydik, -ysayduk, -yseydük
2  | ـسیدڭ | -saydın, -seydin, -saydun, -seydün  | ـسیدڭز | -saydınız, -seydiniz, -saydunuz, -seydünüz
ـیسیدڭ | -ysaydın, -yseydin, -ysaydun, -yseydün  | ـیسیدڭز | -ysaydınız, -yseydiniz, -ysaydunuz, -yseydünüz
3  | ـسیدی | -saydı, -seydi, -saydu, -seydü  | ـسیدیلر | -saydılar, -seydiler, -saydular, -seydüler
ـیسیدی | -ysaydı, -yseydi, -ysaydu, -yseydü  | ـیسیدیلر | -ysaydılar, -yseydiler, -ysaydular, -yseydüler

Negative verb to be is created with the use of the word دگل değil, followed by the appropriate conjugation of the to be verb; or optionally used as a standalone for 3rd person.

* بن ایشجی دگلم / ben işçi değilim: 'I am not a worker'
* او چفتجی دگلدر / o çiftçi değildir: 'he is not a farmer'
* او چفتجی دگل / o çiftçi değil: 'he is not a farmer'
* اگر كندم ایچون حاضر دگلسیدم / eğer kendim için hazır değilseydim.: 'if I'm not ready for myself'

#### 'to exist/have' and 'not to exist/have' Verbs

Generally, the verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' are expressed using what's called an existential copula, the word وار var.

* او وار / ev var: 'there is a house'

The verb 'to have' is expressed in the same way, except that the object noun will take a possessive pronoun, producing sentences that will literally mean "there exists house of mine".

* اوم وار / evim var: 'I have a house'

The verbs 'to exist' and 'to have' conjugated for other tenses, are expressed in the same way, with a possessive pronoun if needed, and copula وار var, followed by the 3rd person singular form of the verb 'to do: ایتمك etmek attached as a suffix (or separate as a stanadalone verb); as conjugated in the above section.

* اوڭ واردی / evin vardı: 'you had a house'
* بناء وارملییدی / bina varmalıydı: 'there had to be a building'

The verbs 'not to exist' and 'not to have' are created in the exact same manner and conjugation, except that the copula یوق yok is used.

* او یوق / ev yok: 'there isn't a house'
* اوم یوق / evim yok: 'I don't have a house'
* اوڭ یوقدی / evin yoktu: 'you didn't have a house'
* بناء یوقملییدی / bina yokmalıydı: 'there must not have been a building'

### Verb construction

Turkish being an agglutinative language as opposed to an analytical one (generally), means that from a single root verb, with the addition of a variety of morphemes and suffixes, multiple new and different verbs meanings can be expressed in single but larger words.

Below table is a sample from the verb تپمك (tepmek, "to kick"), whose root (which is also 2nd person imperative) is تپ (tep). Each of the produced new verbs below can be made into an infinitive with the addition of ـمك (-mek) at the end.[10]

Classes  | Active

|

Transitive or Intransitive  | Transitive or Intransitive  | Intransitive
Determinate  | Indeterminate  | Reciprocal
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپ (tep)
kick | تپن (tepin)
kick about, dance | تپش (tepiş)
mutually kick one another
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدر (teptir)
make/let s.o. kick/be kicked | تپندر (tepindir)
make s.o. kick about | تپشدر (tepiştir)
make s.o.s kick one another mutually
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپمه (tepme)
don't kick | تپنمه (tepinme)
don't kick about, don't dance | تپشمه (tepişme)
don't mutually kick one another
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدرمه (teptirme)
make/let not s.o. kick/be kicked | تپندرمه (tepindirme)
make not s.o. kick about | تپشدرمه (tepiştirme)
make not s.o.s kick one another mutually
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپه‌مه (tepeme)
be unable to kick | تپنه‌مه (tepineme)
be unable to kick about, dance | تپشه‌مه (tepişeme)
be unable to mutually kick one another
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدره‌مه (teptireme)
be unable to make/let s.o. kick/be kicked | تپندره‌مه (tepindireme)
be unable to make s.o. kick about | تپشدره‌مه (tepiştireme)
be unable to make s.o.s kick one another mutually
Classes  | Passive
Transitive or Intransitive  | Transitive or Intransitive  | Intransitive
Determinate  | Indeterminate  | Reciprocal
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپل (tepil)
be kicked | تپنل (tepinil)
be kicked about | تپشل (tepişil)
be mutually kick in
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدرل (teptiril)
be made to be kicked | تپندرل (tepindiril)
be made to be kicked about | تپشدرل (tepiştiril)
be made to kick one another mutually
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپلمه (tepilme)
not be kicked | تپنلمه (tepinilme)
not be kicked about | تپشلمه (tepişilme)
not be mutually kicked
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدرلمه (teptirilme)
be not made to be kicked | تپندرلمه (tepindirilme)
be not made to be kicked about | تپشدرلمه (tepiştirilme)
be not made to be one another mutually kicked
rowspan=2 Script error: No such module "Vertical header". | Simple  | تپله‌مه (tepilme)
be unable to be kicked | تپنله‌مه (tepinileme)
be unable to be kicked about | تپشله‌مه (tepişileme)
be unable to be mutually kicked
Causative
(Permissive)  | تپدرله‌مه (teptirileme)
be unable to be made to be kicked | تپندرله‌مه (tepindirileme)
be unable to be made to be kicked about | تپشدرله‌مه (tepiştirileme)
be unable to be made to be mutually kicked

## Structure

Redhouse's Turkish Dictionary, Second Edition (1880)

Ottoman Turkish was highly influenced by Arabic and Persian. Arabic and Persian words in the language accounted for up to 88% of its vocabulary.[12] As in most other Turkic and foreign languages of Islamic communities, the Arabic borrowings were borrowed through Persian, not through direct exposure of Ottoman Turkish to Arabic, a fact that is evidenced by the typically Persian phonological mutation of the words of Arabic origin.[13][14][15]

The conservation of archaic phonological features of the Arabic borrowings furthermore suggests that Arabic-incorporated Persian was absorbed into pre-Ottoman Turkic at an early stage, when the speakers were still located to the north-east of Persia, prior to the westward migration of the Islamic Turkic tribes. An additional argument for this is that Ottoman Turkish shares the Persian character of its Arabic borrowings with other Turkic languages that had even less interaction with Arabic, such as Tatar, Bashkir, and Uyghur. From the early ages of the Ottoman Empire, borrowings from Arabic and Persian were so abundant that original Turkish words were hard to find.[16] In Ottoman, one may find whole passages in Arabic and Persian incorporated into the text.[16] It was however not only extensive loaning of words, but along with them much of the grammatical systems of Persian and Arabic.[16]

In a social and pragmatic sense, there were (at least) three variants of Ottoman Turkish:

* Fasih Türkçe فصیح توركچه (Eloquent Turkish): the language of poetry and administration, Ottoman Turkish in its strict sense;
* Orta Türkçe اورتا توركچه (Middle Turkish): the language of higher classes and trade;
* Kaba Türkçe قبا توركچه (Rough Turkish): the language of lower classes.

A person would use each of the varieties above for different purposes, with the fasih variant being the most heavily suffused with Arabic and Persian words and kaba the least. For example, a scribe would use the Arabic asel (عسل) to refer to honey when writing a document but would use the native Turkish word bal (بال) when buying it.

## Numbers

See also: Eastern Arabic numerals

Cardinal numbers[17] 0 | ٠ | صفر | sıfır

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1 | ١ | بر | bir
2 | ٢ | ایكی | iki
3 | ٣ | اوچ | üç
4 | ٤ | درت | dört
5 | ٥ | بش | beş
6 | ٦ | آلتی | altı
7 | ٧ | یدی | yedi
8 | ٨ | سكز | sekiz
9 | ٩ | طقوز | dokuz
10 | ١٠ | اون | on
11 | ١١ | اون بر | on bir
12 | ١٢ | اون ایكی | on iki

## Transliterations

The transliteration system of the İslâm Ansiklopedisi has become a de facto standard in Oriental studies for the transliteration of Ottoman Turkish texts.[18] In transcription, the New Redhouse, Karl Steuerwald, and Ferit Devellioğlu dictionaries have become standard.[19] Another transliteration system is the Deutsche Morgenländische Gesellschaft (DMG), which provides a transliteration system for any Turkic language written in Arabic script.[20] There are few differences between the İA and the DMG systems.

İA-Transliteration[21] ا | ب | پ | ت | ث | ج | چ | ح | خ | د | ذ | ر | ز | ژ | س | ش | ص | ض | ط | ظ | ع | غ | ف | ق | ك | گ | ڭ | ل | م | ن | و | ه | ی

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ʾ, ā | b | p | t | s̱ | c | ç | ḥ | ḫ | d | ẕ | r | z | j | s | ş | ṣ | ż | ṭ | ẓ | ʿ | ġ | f | ḳ | k, g, ñ, ğ | g | ñ | l | m | n | v | h | y

## See also

* Old Anatolian Turkish language
* Culture of the Ottoman Empire
* List of Persian loanwords in Turkish

## Notes

1. ↑ The national language was called "Turkish" in the 1921 and 1924 constitutions of the Republic of Turkey.[2]

## References

1. ↑ "Turkey – Language Reform: From Ottoman To Turkish". http://countrystudies.us/turkey/25.htm.
2. ↑ "5662". https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/5662.
3. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Ottoman Turkish". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/otto1234.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Inan, Murat Umut (2019). "Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World". in Green, Nile (in English). The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. California: University of California Press. pp. 75–92. doi:10.1525/luminos.64.b. ISBN 978-0-520-97210-0.
5. ↑ Glenny, Misha (2001). The Balkans — Nationalism, War, and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. Penguin. p. 99.
6. ↑ Kerslake, Celia (1998). "Ottoman Turkish". Turkic Languages. New York: Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 0415082005.
7. ↑ Aytürk, İlker (July 2008). "The First Episode of Language Reform in Republican Turkey: The Language Council from 1926 to 1931". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 18 (3): 277. doi:10.1017/S1356186308008511. ISSN 1474-0591. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-the-royal-asiatic-society/article/abs/first-episode-of-language-reform-in-republican-turkey-the-language-council-from-1926-to-1931/1F1E7DDFF38AA89DC2FAD9EA22AE37FF.
8. ↑ Pamuk, Humeyra (December 9, 2014). "Erdogan's Ottoman language drive faces backlash in Turkey". Reuters (Istanbul). https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-education-ottoman/erdogans-ottoman-language-drive-faces-backlash-in-turkey-idUSKBN0JN1X020141209.
9. ↑ Redhouse, William James. A Simplified Grammar of the Ottoman-Turkish Language. pp. 52.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Sir James William Redhouse (1884). A simplified grammar of the Ottoman-Turkish language. Trübner. https://archive.org/details/simplifiedgramma00redhuoft.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Charles Wells (1880). A practical grammar of the Turkish language (as spoken and written). B. Quaritch. Online copies from Google Books: [1] (PDF can be accessed at: archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.31137)
12. ↑ Bertold Spuler (de). Persian Historiography & Geography Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd ISBN 9971774887 p 69
13. ↑ Percy Ellen Algernon Frederick William Smythe Strangford, Percy Clinton Sydney Smythe Strangford, Emily Anne Beaufort Smythe Strangford, "Original Letters and Papers of the late Viscount Strangford upon Philological and Kindred Subjects", Published by Trübner, 1878. pg 46: "The Arabic words in Turkish have all decidedly come through a Persian channel. I can hardly think of an exception, except in quite late days, when Arabic words have been used in Turkish in a different sense from that borne by them in Persian."
14. ↑ M. Sukru Hanioglu, "A Brief History of the Late Ottoman Empire", Published by Princeton University Press, 2008. p. 34: "It employed a predominant Turkish syntax, but was heavily influenced by Persian and (initially through Persian) Arabic.
15. ↑ Pierre A. MacKay, "The Fountain at Hadji Mustapha", Hesperia, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Apr. – Jun., 1967), pp. 193–195: "The immense Arabic contribution to the lexicon of Ottoman Turkish came rather through Persian than directly, and the sound of Arabic words in Persian syntax would be far more familiar to a Turkish ear than correct Arabic".
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Korkut Bugday. An Introduction to Literary Ottoman Routledge, 5 dec. 2014 ISBN 978-1134006557 p XV.
17. ↑ Hagopian, V. H. (1907). Ottoman-Turkish conversation-grammar; a practical method of learning the Ottoman-Turkish language. Heidelberg: J. Groos. p. 89. https://archive.org/details/ottomanturkishco00hago/page/89/mode/1up. Retrieved 5 May 2018.
18. ↑ Korkut Buğday Osmanisch, p. 2
19. ↑ Korkut Buğday Osmanisch, p. 13
20. ↑ Transkriptionskommission der DMG Die Transliteration der arabischen Schrift in ihrer Anwendung auf die Hauptliteratursprachen der islamischen Welt, p. 9
21. ↑ Korkut Buğday Osmanisch, p. 2f.

## Further reading

English

* V. H. Hagopian (1907). Ottoman-Turkish conversation-grammar: a practical method of learning the Ottoman-Turkish language, Volume 1. D. Nutt. Online copies: [2], [3], [4]
* Charles Wells (1880). A practical grammar of the Turkish language (as spoken and written). B. Quaritch. Online copies from Google Books: [5], [6], [7]
* V. H. Hagopian (1908). Key to the Ottoman-Turkish conversation-grammar. Nutt. https://books.google.com/books?id=wrsIAQAAMAAJ.
* Sir James William Redhouse (1884). A simplified grammar of the Ottoman-Turkish language. Trübner. https://archive.org/details/simplifiedgramma00redhuoft.
* Frank Lawrence Hopkins (1877). Elementary grammar of the Turkish language: with a few easy exercises. Trübner. https://archive.org/details/elementarygramm00hopkgoog.
* Sir James William Redhouse (1856). An English and Turkish dictionary: in two parts, English and Turkish, and Turkish and English. B. Quarich. https://books.google.com/books?id=CydMAAAAYAAJ.
* Sir James William Redhouse (1877). A lexicon, English and Turkish: shewing in Turkish, the literal, incidental, figurative, colloquial, and technical significations of the English terms, indicating their pronunciation in a new and systematic manner; and preceded by a sketch of English etymology, to facilitate to Turkish students ... (2nd ed.). Printed for the mission by A.H. Boyajian. https://books.google.com/books?id=9lFJAAAAYAAJ.
* Charles Boyd, Charles Boyd (Major.) (1842). The Turkish interpreter: or, A new grammar of the Turkish language. Printed for the author. https://archive.org/details/turkishinterpre00boydgoog.
* Thomas Vaughan (1709). A Grammar of The Turkish Language. Robinson. https://books.google.com/books?id=uFVWAAAAYAAJ.
* William Burckhardt Barker (1854). A practical grammar of the Turkish language: With dialogues and vocabulary. B. Quaritch. https://archive.org/details/apracticalgramm00barkgoog.
* William Burckhardt Barker, Nasr-al-Din (khwajah.) (1854). A reading book of the Turkish language: with a grammar and vocabulary; containing a selection of original tales, literally translated, and accompanied by grammatical references : the pronunciation of each word given as now used in Constantinople. J. Madden. https://archive.org/details/readingbookoftur00bark.
* James William Redhouse (sir.) (1855). The Turkish campaigner's vade-mecum of Ottoman colloquial language. https://books.google.com/books?id=jD1bAAAAQAAJ.
* Lewis, Geoffrey. The Jarring Lecture 2002. "The Turkish Language Reform: A Catastrophic Success".

Other languages

* Mehmet Hakkı Suçin. Qawâ'id al-Lugha al-Turkiyya li Ghair al-Natiqeen Biha (Turkish Grammar for Arabs; adapted from Mehmet Hengirmen's Yabancılara Türkçe Dilbilgisi), Engin Yayınevi, (2003).
* Mehmet Hakkı Suçin. Atatürk'ün Okuduğu Kitaplar: Endülüs Tarihi (Books That Atatürk Read: History of Andalucia; purification from the Ottoman Turkish, published by Anıtkabir Vakfı, 2001).
* Kerslake, Celia (1998). "La construction d'une langue nationale sortie d'un vernaculaire impérial enflé: la transformation stylistique et conceptuelle du turc ottoman". in Chaker, Salem (in fr). Langues et Pouvoir de l'Afrique du Nord à l'Extrême-Orient. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud. pp. 129–138.
* Korkut M. Buğday (1999). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ed (in de). Osmanisch: Einführung in die Grundlagen der Literatursprache.

## External links

* Latin to Ottoman Turkish transliteration
* Michael Talbot. 2021. Central Europe in 1910 as Seen Through the Lens of Ottoman Turkish (pp. 68-71). In: Tomasz Kamusella. Words in Space and Time: A Historical Atlas of Language Politics in Modern Central Europe. Budapest and Vienna: Central European University Press.
* Ottoman Text Archive Project
* Ottoman Turkish Language: Resources – University of Michigan
* Ottoman Turkish Language Texts
* Ottoman-Turkish-English Open Dictionary
* Ottoman<->Turkish Dictionary – University of Pamukkale You can use ? character instead of an unknown letter. It provides results from Arabic and Persian dictionaries, too.
* Ottoman<->Turkish Dictionary – ihya.org
* Kubbealtı Lugatı

* v
* t
* e

Turkic languages

Proto-language|

* Proto-Turkic

Common Turkic|

| Arghu|

* Khalaj

|

Karluk|

* Äynu1
* Ili Turki
* Uyghur
* Uzbek
* Extinct
* Middle Turkic
* Khorezmian
* Chagatai

Kipchak|

| Ponto-Caspian|

* Crimean Tatar
* Karachay-Balkar
* Karaim
* Krymchak
* Kumyk
* Urum
* Extinct
* Kipchak
* Cuman

|

Aralo-Caspian|

* Siberian Tatar
* Karakalpak
* Kazakh
* Kyrgyz
* Nogai
* Extinct
* Fergana Kipchak

Uralo-Caspian|

* Bashkir
* Tatar
* Extinct
* Old Tatar

Oghuz|

* Azerbaijani
* Gagauz
* Khorasani Turkic
* Qashqai
* Rumelian Turkish
* Salar
* Turkish
* Turkmen
* Extinct
* Pecheneg2
* Old Anatolian Turkish
* Ottoman Turkish

Siberian|

* Altai
* Chulym
* Dolgan
* Khakas
* Shor
* Tofa
* Tuvan
* Yakut
* Western Yugur2
* Extinct
* Orkhon Turkic
* Old Turkic
* Old Uyghur
* Fuyu Girgis
* Dukhan

Oghur|

* Chuvash
* Extinct
* Khazar2
* Bulgar

* 1 Mixed language.
* 2 Classification disputed.

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