Parliamentary republic

Short description: Form of government

A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (the government) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.[1][2] Some have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, much like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.Template:Systems of government

## Contents

* 1 Powers
* 2 Historical development
* 2.1 Commonwealth of Nations
* 3 List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems
* 4 List of former parliamentary republics and related systems
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References

## Powers

In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or a bit more influence beyond that), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[3][4][clarification needed]

However, in a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa ), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.

In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Austria and Iceland) but by convention they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.

## Historical development

Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.[5]

Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France once again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958 that led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.

Chile became the first parliamentary republic in South America following a civil war in 1891. However, following a coup in 1925 this system was replaced by a presidential one.[original research?]

### Commonwealth of Nations

Main article: Organization:Commonwealth of Nations

Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic, and excluded itself from the Commonwealth) republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.

In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later switched to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India , Vanuatu, and most recently Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan .

Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.

## List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems

Full parliamentary republics

Country/territory  | Head of state  | Head of state elected by  | Cameral structure  | Parliamentary republic adopted  | Previous government form  | Notes
Albania  | Bajram Begaj  | Parliament, by three-fifths majority  | Unicameral  | 1991  | One-party state |
Armenia  | Vahagn Khachaturyan  | Parliament, by absolute majority  | Unicameral  | 2018[note 1] | Semi-presidential republic |
Austria  | Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system  | Bicameral  | 1945  | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss)  |
Bangladesh | Mohammed Shahabuddin  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1991[note 2] | Presidential republic |
Barbados | Sandra Mason  | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination  | Bicameral  | 2021  | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm)  |
Bosnia and Herzegovina  | Christian Schmidt
Milorad Dodik
Šefik Džaferović
Željko Komšić  | Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote  | Bicameral  | 1991  | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)  |
Bulgaria  | Rumen Radev  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 1991  | One-party state  |
Template:Country data Republic of China (Taiwan) | Tsai Ing-wen  | Direct election, by first-past-the-post
Nominally by the National Assembly[note 3] | Unicameral
Nominally Tricameral[note 4] | 1946
Only nominally a parliamentary republic since 1996 | One-party military dictatorship (Mainland China)
Constitutional monarchy (Taiwan as part of the Japanese Empire)  | Nominally; the Constitution has been partially superseded by additional articles that provide for a semi-presidential republic with direct presidential elections and a unicameral legislature. These additional articles have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
Croatia  | Zoran Milanović  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 2000  | Semi-presidential republic |
Czech Republic  | Petr Pavel  | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority)  | Bicameral  | 1993  | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia)  |
Dominica  | Sylvanie Burton  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1978  | Associated state of the United Kingdom  |
Estonia  | Alar Karis  | Parliament, by two-thirds majority  | Unicameral  | 1991[note 5] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state  |
Ethiopia  | Sahle-Work Zewde  | Parliament, by two-thirds majority  | Bicameral  | 1991  | One-party state  |
Fiji  | Wiliame Katonivere  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 2014  | Military dictatorship  |
Finland  | Sauli Niinistö  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 2000[note 6] | Semi-presidential republic |
Georgia  | Salome Zourabichvili  | Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority  | Unicameral  | 2018[note 7] | Semi-presidential republic |
Germany  | Frank-Walter Steinmeier  | Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates[lower-alpha 1]), by absolute majority[6] | Two unicameral institutions[note 8][7] | 1949[note 9] | One-party state

(Nazi Germany)

Greece  | Katerina Sakellaropoulou  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1975  | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy |
Hungary  | Katalin Novák  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1990  | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic)  |
Iceland  | Guðni Th. Jóhannesson  | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote  | Unicameral  | 1944  | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark )  |
India  | Droupadi Murmu  | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote  | Bicameral  | 1950  | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)  |
Iraq  | Abdul Latif Rashid  | Parliament, by two-thirds majority  | Unicameral[note 10] | 2005  | One-party state  |
Ireland  | Michael D. Higgins  | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote  | Bicameral  | 1949[note 11] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion)
1936–1949: ambiguous  |
Israel  | Isaac Herzog  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 2001  | Semi-parliamentary republic  |
Italy  | Sergio Mattarella  | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots  | Bicameral  | 1946  | Constitutional monarchy  | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament.
Kosovo  | Vjosa Osmani  | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots  | Unicameral  | 2008  | UN-administered Kosovo (formally part of Serbia)  |
Latvia  | Edgars Rinkēvičs  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1991[note 12] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state  |
Lebanon  | Michel Aoun  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1941  | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon)  |
Malta  | George Vella  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1974  | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[8])[9] |
Mauritius  | Prithvirajsing Roopun  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1992  | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[10][11])[9] |
Moldova  | Maia Sandu  | Direct election, by two-round system
(since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority)  | Unicameral  | 2001  | Semi-presidential republic  |
Montenegro  | Milo Đukanović  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 1992  | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro)  |
Nepal  | Ram Chandra Poudel  | Parliament and state legislators  | Bicameral[12] | 2008[note 13] | Constitutional monarchy  |
North Macedonia  | Stevo Pendarovski  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 1991  | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)  |
Pakistan  | Arif Alvi  | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote  | Bicameral  | 2010[13][14] | Assembly-independent republic  |
Poland  | Andrzej Duda  | Direct election, by majority  | Bicameral  | 1989  | One-party state (Polish People's Republic)
Samoa  | Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1960  | Trust Territory of New Zealand |
Serbia  | Aleksandar Vučić  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Unicameral  | 1991  | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro)  |
Singapore  | Tharman Shanmugaratnam  | Direct election (since 1993)  | Unicameral  | 1965  | State of Malaysia  |
Slovakia  | Zuzana Čaputová  | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament)  | Unicameral  | 1993  | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia)  |
Slovenia  | Nataša Pirc Musar  | Direct election, by two-round system  | Bicameral  | 1991  | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia)  |
Somalia  | Hassan Sheikh Mohamud  | Parliament  | Bicameral  | 2012[note 14] | One-party state  |
Trinidad and Tobago  | Christine Kangaloo  | Parliament  | Bicameral  | 1976  | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[15])[9] |
Vanuatu  | Nikenike Vurobaravu  | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1980  | British–French condominium (New Hebrides)  |
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
Country  | Head of state  | Head of state elected by  | Cameral structure  | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted  | Previous government form  | Notes
Botswana  | Mokgweetsi Masisi  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1966  | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate)  |
Kiribati  | Taneti Maamau  | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote  | Unicameral  | 1979  | Protectorate  | Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.[16]
Marshall Islands  | David Kabua  | Parliament  | Bicameral  | 1979  | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)  |
Nauru  | Russ Kun  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1968  | UN Trusteeship between Australia , New Zealand, and the United Kingdom .  |
South Africa  | Cyril Ramaphosa  | Parliament, by majority  | Bicameral  | 1961  | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[17][18][19])[9] | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961-1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984.
Assembly-independent systems
Country  | Head of state  | Head of state elected by  | Cameral structure  | Assembly-independent republic adopted  | Previous government form  | Notes
File:Flag of Federated States of Micronesia.svg Federated States of Micronesia  | Wesley Simina  | Parliament, by majority  | Unicameral  | 1986  | UN Trust Territory (Part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands)  | The president is assisted by the vice-president, both of whom are elected by the FSM Congress from among the at-large members to serve for four-year terms.[20]
Guyana  | Irfaan Ali  | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote[21] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority)  | Unicameral  | 1980  | Full parliamentary republic  |
San Marino  | Francesco Mussoni
Giacomo Simoncini  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1291  | Theocracy (part of the Papal States)  | Two collective heads of state and heads of government, the Captains Regent
Suriname  | Chan Santokhi  | Parliament  | Unicameral  | 1987  | Full parliamentary republic  |
Directorial systems
Country  | Head of state  | Head of state elected by  | Cameral structure  | Parliamentary republic adopted  | Previous government form  | Notes
File:Flag of Switzerland (Pantone).svg Switzerland  | Guy Parmelin
Ignazio Cassis
Ueli Maurer
Simonetta Sommaruga
Alain Berset
Karin Keller-Sutter
Viola Amherd  | Parliament by exhaustive ballot at a joint sitting of both houses  | Bicameral  | 1848  | Confederation of states  | Also has citizen-initiated referendums

## List of former parliamentary republics and related systems

Country  | Became a
parliamentary
republic  | Status
changed  | Changed to  | Reason for change  | Notes

|
|
|
|
|

Full parliamentary republics
Abkhazia SSR Abkhazia  | 1921  | 1931  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Creation of the Abkhaz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
Template:Country data Abkhaz ASSR | 1931  | 1991  | Full parliamentary republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Abkhazia
Abkhazia  | 1991  | 1994  | Semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted  |
Template:Country data First Republic of Armenia | 1918  | 1920  | One-party parliamentary republic | Creation of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic  |
Template:Country data Armenian SSR | 1920  | 1991  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Armenia
First Austrian Republic  | 1920  | 1929  | Semi-presidential system | Constitutional amendment  |
Template:Country data Azerbaijan Democratic Republic | 1918  | 1920  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Creation of the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic  |
Template:Country data Azerbaijan SSR | 1920  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Azerbaijan
Template:Country data Belarusian Democratic Republic | 1918  | 1920  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Creation of the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic  |
Template:Country data Byelorussian SSR | 1920  | 1990  | Full parliamentary republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Byelorussia
Belarus  | 1990  | 1994  | Presidential republic | New constitution adopted  |
Brazil  | 1961  | 1963  | Presidential system | Referendum  |
Burma (present-day Myanmar) | 1948  | 1962  | Military dictatorship | 1962 Burmese coup d'état  |
Chile  | 1891  | 1924  | Military junta | 1924 Chilean coup d'état  |
1925  | 1925  | Presidential system | New constitution  |
Republic of China  | 1947  | 1972 (de facto)  | Presidential system | Constitution suspended  | The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution which is generally in effect, but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which have a sunset clause that will terminate them in the event of a hypothetical resumption of ROC rule in Mainland China.
1991 (de jure; nominally remains parliamentary)  | Semi-presidential system | Additional articles of the Constitution adopted
First Czechoslovak Republic  | 1920  | 1939  | One-party state | Munich agreement  |
Third Czechoslovak Republic  | 1945  | 1948  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Coup d'état  |
Fourth Czechoslovak Republic  | 1948  | 1989  | Multi-party parliamentary republic | Velvet Revolution  | One-party system under the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
Fifth Czechoslovak Republic  | 1989  | 1992  | State dissolved | Velvet Divorce  |
Template:Country data East Indonesia State of East Indonesia  | 1946  | 1950  | State dissolved | Merged to the Republic of Indonesia  |
First Republic of Estonia  | 1920  | 1934  | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Estonian coup d'état | In June 1940, Estonia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
1934  | 1938  | One-party presidential republic | New constitution adopted
France French Third Republic | 1870  | 1940  | Puppet state | World War II German occupation |
France French Fourth Republic  | 1946  | 1958  | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted  |
Template:Country data Democratic Republic of Georgia | 1918  | 1921  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Creation of the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Socialist Soviet Republic of Abkhazia  |
Template:Country data Georgian SSR | 1921  | 1991  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Georgia
Guyana  | 1970  | 1980  | Assembly-independent republic  | New constitution adopted  |
Hungary  | 1946  | 1949  | One-party state | Creation of the People's Republic of Hungary  |
Indonesia  | 1945  | 1959  | Presidential system | Presidential constitution reinstated  |
Israel  | 1948  | 1996  | Semi-parliamentary system | Constitutional amendment  |
Kenya  | 2008  | 2013  | Presidential system | New constitution and elections  | A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013
The switch to a fully presidential system was legislated in 2010, but only took effect in 2013.
Second Republic of Korea  | 1960  | 1961  | Military junta | 16 May coup  |
Template:Country data Kazakh SSR | 1936  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kazakhstan
Template:Country data Kirghiz SSR | 1936  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Kirghizia
Kyrgyzstan  | 2010  | 2021  | Presidential republic | Referendum  | The 2010 Constitution of Kyrgyzstan introduced a parliamentary system to the country while remaining a de facto semi-presidential republic, with the President retaining many forms of executive powers such as appointing a Prime Minister as the head of government. The decision was subjected to a parliamentary vote of confidence.[22]
First Republic of Latvia  | 1922  | 1934  | One-party parliamentary republic | 1934 Latvian coup d'état  | In June 1940, Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
1934  | 1940  | State dissolved | World War II Soviet occupation
Lithuania First Republic of Lithuania  | 1920  | 1926  | One-party state | 1926 Lithuanian coup d'état  | In June 1940, Lithuania was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
File:Flag of Lithuania (1988-2004).svg Lithuania  | 1990  | 1992  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic | New constitution adopted  | In February 1993, Lithuania holds its first presidential election since the state re-established.
Template:Country data Moldavian SSR (present-day Moldova) | 1940  | 1990  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Moldavia
Nigeria  | 1963  | 1966  | Military dictatorship
(which led in 1979 to the democratic, presidential Second Nigerian Republic) | Coup d'état  |
Pakistan  | 1956  | 1958  | Military dictatorship | 1958 Pakistani coup d'état  |
1973 | 1978 | 1977 Pakistani coup d'état  |
1997 | 1999 | 1999 Pakistani coup d'état  |
2002 | 2003 | Assembly-independent republic | Constitutional amendment  |
Poland Second Polish Republic | 1919  | 1935  | Presidential system | New constitution adopted  |
Portugal First Portuguese Republic | 1911  | 1926  | Military dictatorship
(which led in 1933
to the Estado Novo one-party presidential republic) | 28 May coup  |
Philippines First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)  | 1899  | 1901  | Military dictatorship
(De facto United States Colony)  | Capture of Emilio Aguinaldo to the American forces  |
Fourth Philippine Republic  | 1973  | 1981  | Semi-presidential system
(de facto Military dictatorship under Martial Law between 1972 and 1986.)  | Constitutional amendment  |
Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo  | 1960  | 1965  | Military dictatorship
(De facto one-party state)  | 1965 Congolese coup d'état  |
Rhodesia  | 1970  | 1979  | Parliamentary system | Creation of Zimbabwe-Rhodesia  | Political rights were restricted to the white minority
File:Flag of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic.svg Russian SFSR  | 1917  | 1991  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic  | Referendum  |
Soviet Union  | 1922  | 1990  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1989
One-party system under the Communist Party of the Soviet Union
First Spanish Republic | 1873  | 1874  | Constitutional monarchy | Restoration of the monarchy  |
Second Spanish Republic Second Spanish Republic | 1931  | 1939  | One-party state
(which declared itself a constitutional monarchy in 1947) | Coup d'état  |
Suriname  | 1975  | 1987  | Assembly-independent republic  | New constitution adopted  |
Sri Lanka  | 1972  | 1978  | Semi-presidential system | New constitution adopted  |
Syria Syrian Republic  | 1930  | 1958  | State dissolved | Creation of the United Arab Republic | Merged into the United Arab Republic, which operated as a One-party presidential system
Syria Syrian Arab Republic  | 1961  | 1963  | One-party presidential system | 1963 Syrian coup d'état  |
Template:Country data Transvaal Transvaal Republic  | 1852  | 1902  | Colony of the British Empire  | Second Boer War |
Template:Country data Tajik SSR | 1929  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Tajikistan
Turkey  | 1923  | 2018  | Presidential system | Referendum  |
Template:Country data Turkmen SSR | 1925  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Turkmenistan
Uganda  | 1963  | 1966  | One-party state | Suspension of the constitution  |
File:Flag of the Ukrainian State.svg Ukrainian People's Republic  | 1917  | 1918  | Client state  | 1918 Ukrainian coup d'état  |
1918  | 1919  | One-party parliamentary republic  | Creation of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic |
1921  | State dissolved | Treaty of Riga  |
Ukrainian SSR  | 1919  | 1991  | Multi-party semi-presidential republic  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman until 1990
One-party system under the Communist Party of Ukraine
Template:Country data Uzbek SSR | 1924  | 1990  | Presidential republic | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Uzbekistan
Yugoslavia  | 1945  | 1953  | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency  | Constitutional amendment  | Had a collective head of state with a distinct chairman
One-party system under the Communist Party of Yugoslavia
Template:Country data Zimbabwe Rhodesia | 1979  | 1979  | Dependent territory  | Reversion to Southern Rhodesia  |
Zimbabwe  | 1980  | 1987  | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment  |
Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
Country  | Became a
parliamentary
republic
with an executive
presidency  | Status
changed  | Changed to  | Reason for change  | Notes
Gambia  | 1970  | 1982  | Presidential system | Constitutional amendment  | The president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct and separate from parliamentary elections in 1982.
Kenya  | 1964  | 2008  | Full parliamentary system  | Coalition and power-sharing  | Originally, the president was elected semi-directly by a constituency-based double simultaneous vote, with vacancies filled by Parliament; a motion of no confidence automatically entailed either the resignation of the president or snap parliamentary elections. Presidential elections were made fully direct in 1969, including after a vacancy, but their schedule remained linked to the parliamentary elections.
A separate Prime Minister existed between 2008 and 2013.
Yugoslavia  | 1953  | 1963  | Assembly-independent republic  | New constitution  | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
Assembly-independent systems
Country  | Became an
assembly-
independent
republic  | Status
changed  | Changed to  | Reason for change  | Notes
First Republic of Ghana  | 1960  | 1966  | Military dictatorship
(Which led to the fully parliamentary Second Republic of Ghana)  | Coup d'état  |
Pakistan  | 1985  | 1997  | Full parliamentary republic  | Constitutional amendment  |
2003 | 2010 | Constitutional amendment
Serbia and Montenegro  | 1992  | 2000  | Semi-presidential republic  | Constitutional amendment  |
Template:Country data Tanganyika (1961–1964) | 1962  | 1964  | State dissolved | Creation of the United Republic of Tanzania  | Merged into the United Republic of Tanzania, which operated as a One-party presidential system
Yugoslavia  | 1963  | 1980  | Directorial republic  | New constitution and the death of Josip Broz Tito  | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia
The change to a directorial system was legislated in 1973, but only took effect in 1980.
Directorial systems
Yugoslavia  | 1980  | 1992  | —  | Breakup of Yugoslavia  | One-party system under the League of Communists of Yugoslavia

## See also

* List of countries by system of government
* Constitutional monarchy
* Parliamentary system
* Republic
* Republicanism
* Semi-presidential system
* Semi-parliamentary system

## Notes

1. ↑ Changed after the 2015 referendum.
2. ↑ Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
3. ↑ The Constitution of the Republic of China went into effect on 25 December 1947 as the Chinese Civil War was underway. On 1 October 1949, the Kuomintang-led Republic of China (ROC) was succeeded in Mainland China by the China , a single-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party. The ROC government was then confined to the island of Taiwan from 7 December. The provisions establishing a parliamentary republic remain in the Constitution but are suspended by the Additional Articles, which established direct presidential elections since 1996.
4. ↑ Under the Additional Articles, the Control Yuan ceased to be a parliamentary chamber in 1993 and the National Assembly was dissolved in 2005 leaving the Legislative Yuan as the unicameral chamber. Functions of the National Assembly were transferred to the Legislative Yuan and nationwide referendums. According to Judicial Yuan Interpretation no. 76, Shall the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan be considered en masse as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations? issued on May 3, 1957: The Constitution was enacted according to the exhortation of Dr. Sun Yat-Sen. In addition to the National Assembly, five Yuans have been established, the concept of which is not really analogous to the separation of powers system. The National Assembly representing all the nationals exercises the political power, the Legislative Yuan is the highest legislative institution of the nation and the Control Yuan is the highest monitoring institution of the nation. All of them are composed of representatives or members that are directly or indirectly elected by the people. Their functions and powers are similar to those important powers exercised by the parliaments of democratic nations. Although some of their approaches to the exercise of power, such as a regular annual assembly, quorum and resolution by the majority are not the same as those of parliaments of democratic nations, the National Assembly, the Legislative Yuan and the Control Yuan, from the perspective of the nature of their statuses and functions in the Constitution, should be considered as equivalent to the parliaments of democratic nations.
5. ↑ Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
6. ↑ Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ISBN 9780719078538), he quotes Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
7. ↑ "Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 29 November 2018. https://www.nytimes.com/2018/11/29/world/europe/georgia-president-salome-zurabishvili.html.
8. ↑ The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision.
9. ↑ In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
10. ↑ Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
11. ↑ The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
12. ↑ Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
13. ↑ Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
14. ↑ Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.

1. ↑ The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.

## References

1. ↑ Twomey, Anne. "Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister" (in en). The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-gough-whitlams-dismissal-as-prime-minister-74148.
2. ↑ "The President's Role". The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms?referral=PM.
3. ↑ Twomey, Anne. "Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister" (in en). The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/australian-politics-explainer-gough-whitlams-dismissal-as-prime-minister-74148.
4. ↑ "The President's Role". The Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/The-Presidents-role/articleshow/20154333.cms?referral=PM.
5. ↑ Arend Lijphart, ed (1992). Parliamentary versus presidential government. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-878044-1.
6. ↑ "Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm". https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/gg/art_54.html.
7. ↑ "Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates" (in de). https://www.bundesrat.de/DE/bundesrat/verteilung/verteilung-node.html.
8. ↑ "Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974". http://www.archontology.org/nations/malta/00_1964_74_s.php.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 "British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018". http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/01_realms.php.
10. ↑ "Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992". http://www.archontology.org/nations/mauritius/00_1968_1992_s.php.
11. ↑ Paxton, John (1984). The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-333-34731-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=L027DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
12. ↑ Constitution of Nepal
13. ↑ Kiran Khalid (9 April 2010). "Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers". CNN. http://www.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/asiapcf/04/09/pakistan.constitution/.
14. ↑ "'18th Amendment to restore Constitution'". Nation.com.pk. http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/Regional/Lahore/11-Apr-2010/18th-Amendment-to-restore-Constitution.
15. ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976". http://www.archontology.org/nations/trinidad/00_1962_1976_state.php.
16. ↑ "Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution". 2009-04-16. http://www.parliament.gov.ki/constitution.html.
17. ↑ "South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961". http://www.archontology.org/nations/south_africa/00_1910_1961_s.php.
18. ↑ Carlin, John (31 May 1994). "South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold". https://www.independent.co.uk/news/south-africa-returns-to-the-commonwealth-fold-1419686.html.
19. ↑ "Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans". Saskatoon Star-Phoenix. 11 October 1960. https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WUVkAAAAIBAJ&pg=5504,1422353.
20. ↑ "Executive" (in en-gb). https://www.gov.fm/index.php/national-government/executive.
21. ↑ Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President
22. ↑ Esengeldiev, Almaz. "Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum" (in en). https://freedomhouse.org/report/analytical-brief/2017/kyrgyzstans-2016-constitutional-referendum.

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