Physical attractiveness

Short description: Aesthetic assessment of physical traits

Venus de Milo at the Louvre has been described as a "classical vision of beauty".[1][2][3][lower-alpha 1]

Michelangelo's David is considered a symbol of young male beauty and strength.

Ishtar, Mesopotamian goddess of sexual love and war. The goddess has been associated with sexuality, love, and fertility.[5][6][7] Xi Shi (西施), born 506 BC, was one of the Four Great Beauties of ancient China.[8]

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry,[9] sociocultural dependent attributes and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.[10]

In many cases, humans subconsciously attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to physically attractive people, a psychological phenomenon called the Halo effect.[11] From research done in the United States and United Kingdom, it was found that objective[12] measures of physical attractiveness and intelligence are positively correlated and that the association between the two attributes is stronger among men than among women.[13] Evolutionary psychologists have tried to answer why individuals who are more physically attractive should also, on average, be more intelligent, and have put forward the notion that both general intelligence and physical attractiveness may be indicators of underlying genetic fitness.[13] A person's physical characteristics can signal cues to fertility and health,[14][15][16] with statistical modeling studies showing that the facial shape variables that reflect aspects of physiological health, including body fat and blood pressure, also influence observers' perceptions of health.[17] Attending to these factors increases reproductive success, furthering the representation of one's genes in the population.[18]

Heterosexual men tend to be attracted to women who have a youthful appearance and exhibit features such as a symmetrical face,[19] full breasts, full lips, and a low waist–hip ratio.[20][21] Heterosexual women tend to be attracted to men who are taller than they themselves are and who display a high degree of facial symmetry, masculine facial dimorphism, upper body strength, broad shoulders, a relatively narrow waist, and a V-shaped torso.[22][23][24][25]

## Contents

* 1 General contributing factors
* 1.1 Facial features
* 1.2 Symmetry
* 1.3 Body scent
* 1.4 Genetics
* 1.5 Youthfulness
* 1.6 Leg-to-body ratio
* 1.7 Genitalia
* 1.8 Skin color
* 1.9 Hands
* 1.10 Height
* 1.11 Body language
* 1.11.1 Standing postures
* 1.11.2 Movement patterns
* 2 Interpersonal attraction
* 3 Male-specific factors
* 3.1 Sexual dimorphism
* 3.2 Waist-to-chest ratio
* 3.3 Flat abdomen
* 3.4 Musculature
* 3.5 Body hair
* 3.6 Facial hair
* 3.7 Jawline
* 4 Female-specific factors
* 4.1 Facial features
* 4.1.1 General
* 4.1.2 Eyes
* 4.2 Breasts
* 4.3 Buttocks
* 4.4 Body mass
* 4.5 Waist–hip ratio
* 4.6 Feet size
* 4.7 Hair
* 4.8 Fertility-driven attractiveness
* 4.9 Sexual ornamentation
* 5 Neural correlates of perceiving attractiveness
* 6 Facial similarity and racial preferences
* 7 Group attractiveness effect
* 8 Social effects
* 9 Misconceptions
* 9.1 The golden ratio
* 9.2 Ideal body shape for women
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 12.1 Principal sources
* 13 External links

## General contributing factors

The Mannerist movement was not afraid to exaggerate body proportions for an effect considered attractive; Juno in a niche, engraving by Jacopo Caraglio, probably of a drawing by Rosso Fiorentino, 1526

Generally, physical attractiveness can be viewed from a number of perspectives; with universal perceptions being common to all human cultures, cultural and social aspects, and individual subjective preferences. The perception of attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[26]

Some physical features are attractive in both men and women, particularly bodily[27] and facial symmetry,[28][29][30][31] although one contrary report suggests that "absolute flawlessness" with perfect symmetry can be "disturbing".[32] Symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry "signals past illness or injury".[33] One study suggested people were able to "gauge beauty at a subliminal level" by seeing only a glimpse of a picture for one-hundredth of a second.[33] Other important factors include youthfulness, skin clarity and smoothness of skin; and "vivid color" in the eyes and hair.[28] However, there are numerous differences based on gender.

A 1921 study of the reports of college students regarding those traits in individuals which make for attractiveness and repulsiveness argued that static traits, such as beauty or ugliness of features, hold a position subordinate to groups of physical elements like expressive behavior, affectionate disposition, grace of manner, aristocratic bearing, social accomplishments and personal habits.[34]

Grammer and colleagues have identified eight "pillars" of beauty: youthfulness, symmetry, averageness, sex-hormone markers, body odor, motion, skin complexion and hair texture.[35] Traditionally in Samoa, body fat was acceptable or attractive.[36]

### Facial features

An Italian study published in 2008 studied the positions of the 50 soft-tissue landmarks of the faces of 324 white Northern Italian adolescent boys and girls to compare the features of a group of 93 "beautiful" individuals selected by a commercial casting agency with those of a reference group with normal dentofacial dimensions and proportions. The research found that, in comparison with the reference group, the attractive adolescents tended to have the following characteristics:

* the ratio between the volume of the forehead and that of the total face was larger;
* the nasal volume was smaller;
* the distance between outer canthi was larger;
* total facial height and depth were reduced.

Some tendencies differed by age and sex:

* the facial volume was smaller in older attractive boys than in their peers, but bigger in attractive girls;
* the faces of older attractive adolescents were less rounded (bigger ratio between facial area and volume), but the reverse was true for girls of any age;
* attractive older boys had smaller angles of facial convexity with more acute profiles, while in girls the reverse pattern was found;
* the nasolabial angle was reduced in girls, but in older boys the effect was reversed;
* older attractive boys tended to have more prominent chins.

The study concluded that attractive adolescents had more neotenous and juvenile features, but older attractive boys also showed tendencies towards sexual dimorphism.[37]

Contrary to common misconception, one study finds that non-severe facial scarring increases male attractiveness for short-term relationships.[38]

### Symmetry

Symmetrical faces and bodies may be signs of good inheritance to women of child-bearing age seeking to create healthy offspring. Studies suggest women are less attracted to men with asymmetrical faces,[39] and symmetrical faces correlate with long term mental performance[40] and are an indication that a man has experienced "fewer genetic and environmental disturbances such as diseases, toxins, malnutrition or genetic mutations" while growing.[40] Since achieving symmetry is a difficult task during human growth, requiring billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure, achieving symmetry is a visible signal of genetic health.

Studies have also suggested that women at peak fertility were more likely to fantasize about men with greater facial symmetry,[41] and other studies have found that male symmetry was the only factor that could significantly predict the likelihood of a woman experiencing orgasm during sex. Women with partners possessing greater symmetry reported significantly more copulatory female orgasms than were reported by women with partners possessing low symmetry, even with many potential confounding variables controlled.[42] This finding has been found to hold across different cultures. It has been argued that masculine facial dimorphism (in men) and symmetry in faces are signals advertising genetic quality in potential mates.[43] Low facial and body fluctuating asymmetry may indicate good health and intelligence, which are desirable features.[44] Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as being more physically attractive are more likely to favor men with a higher degree of facial symmetry, than are women who perceive themselves as being less physically attractive.[45] It has been found that symmetrical females and males have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, and to have more one-night stands. They are also more likely to engage in infidelity.[46] A study of quarterbacks in the American National Football League found a positive correlation between facial symmetry and salaries.[29]

### Body scent

Main article: Biology:Body odor

Double-blind studies found that women prefer the scent of men who are rated as facially attractive.[47] For example, both males and females were more attracted to the natural scent of individuals who had been rated by consensus as facially attractive.[48] Additionally, it has also been shown that women have a preference for the scent of men with more symmetrical faces, and that women's preference for the scent of more symmetrical men is strongest during the most fertile period of their menstrual cycle.[49] Within the set of normally cycling women, individual women's preference for the scent of men with high facial symmetry correlated with their probability of conception.[49] Men's body odor is also affected by their diet, with women expressing preferences for male body odor associated with increased dietary fruit and vegetable and protein content, and reduced carbohydrate content.[50]

### Genetics

Studies have explored the genetic basis behind such issues as facial symmetry and body scent and how they influence physical attraction. In one study in which women wore men's T-shirts, researchers found that women were more attracted to the bodily scents in shirts of men who had a different type of gene section within the DNA called major histocompatibility complex (MHC).[51] MHC is a large gene area within the DNA of vertebrates which encodes proteins dealing with the immune system[52] and which influences individual bodily odors.[53] One hypothesis is that humans are naturally attracted by the sense of smell and taste to others with dissimilar MHC sections, perhaps to avoid subsequent inbreeding while increasing the genetic diversity of offspring.[52] Furthermore, there are studies showing that women's natural attraction for men with dissimilar immune profiles can be distorted with use of birth control pills.[53] Other research findings involving the genetic foundations of attraction suggest that MHC heterozygosity positively correlates with male facial attractiveness. Women judge the faces of men who are heterozygous at all three MHC loci to be more attractive than the faces of men who are homozygous at one or more of these loci. Additionally, a second experiment with genotyped women raters, found these preferences were independent of the degree of MHC similarity between the men and the female rater. With MHC heterozygosity independently seen as a genetic advantage, the results suggest that facial attractiveness in men may be a measure of genetic quality.[54][55] General genetic heterozygosity has been demonstrated to be related to attractiveness in that people with mixed genetic backgrounds (i.e., mixed race people) as seen as more attractive than people with a more similar genetic parents. (i.e., single race people).[56] However, some studies have not found that mixed race individuals are rated as more attractive, and one found that only certain mixes were rated as more attractive; this study argued that equating race with genetics was incorrect and argued for social influences as the cause.[57]

### Youthfulness

A 2010 study by OkCupid (a US dating site) on 200,000 of its male and female users found that heterosexual women  - except those during their early to mid-twenties - are open to relationships with both somewhat older and somewhat younger men; they have a larger potential dating pool than men until age 26. At age 20, women, in a "dramatic change", begin sending private messages to significantly older men. At age 29, they become "even more open to older men". Male desirability to women peaks in the late 20s and does not fall below the average for all men until 36.[58] Other research indicates that women, irrespective of their own age, are attracted to men who are the same age or older.[59]

For the Romans especially, "beardlessness" and "smooth young bodies" were considered beautiful to both men and women.[60] For Greek and Roman men, the most desirable traits of boys were their "youth" and "hairlessness". Pubescent boys were considered a socially appropriate object of male desire, while post-pubescent boys were considered to be "ἔξωροι" or "past the prime".[60] This was largely in the context of pederasty (adult male interest in adolescent boys). Today, men and women's attitudes towards male beauty has changed. For example, body hair on men may even be preferred (see below).

A 1984 study said that gay men tend to prefer gay men of the same age as ideal partners, but there was a statistically significant effect (p < 0.05) of masculinity-femininity. The study said that more feminine men tended to prefer relatively older men than themselves and more masculine men tended to prefer relatively younger men than themselves.[61]

Cross-cultural data shows that the reproductive success of women is tied to their youth and physical attractiveness[62] such as the pre-industrial Sami where the most reproductively successful women were 15 years younger than their man.[63] One study covering 37 cultures showed that, on average, a woman was 2.5 years younger than her male partner, with the age difference in Nigeria and Zambia being at the far extreme of 6.5 to 7.5 years. As men age, they tend to seek a mate who is ever younger.[64]

25% of eHarmony's male customers over the age of 50 request to only be matched with women younger than 40.[65] The 2010 OkCupid study found that female desirability to its male users peaks at age 21, and falls below the average for all women at 31. After age 26, men have a larger potential dating pool than women on the site; and by age 48, their pool is almost twice as large. The median 31-year-old male user searches for women aged 22-to-35, while the median 42-year-old male searches for women 27-to-45. The age skew is even greater with messages to other users; the median 30-year-old male messages teenage girls as often as women his own age, while mostly ignoring women a few years older than him. Excluding the 10% most and 10% least beautiful women, women's attractiveness does not change between 18 and 40. If extremes are included, however, "there's no doubt that younger [women] are more physically attractive – indeed in many ways beauty and youth are inextricable. That's why most of the models you see in magazines are teenagers".[58]

Pheromones (detected by female hormone markers) reflects female fertility and the reproductive value mean.[66] As females age, the estrogen-to-androgen production ratio changes and results in female faces to appear more and more masculine (thus appearing less "attractive").[66] In a small (n=148) study performed in the United States, using male college students at one university, the mean age expressed as ideal for a wife was found to be 16.87 years old, while 17.76 was the mean ideal age for a brief sexual encounter. However, the study sets up a framework where "taboos against sex with young girls" are purposely diminished, and biased their sample by removing any participant over the age of 30, with a mean participant age of 19.83.[67] In a study of penile tumescence, men were found most aroused by pictures of young adult females.[68]

Signals of fertility in women are often also seen as signals of youth. The evolutionary perspective proposes the idea that when it comes to sexual reproduction, the minimal parental investment required by men gives them the ability and want to simply reproduce 'as much as possible.'[69] It therefore makes sense that men are attracted to the features in women which signal youthfulness, and thus fertility.[69] Their chances of reproductive success are much higher than they would be should they pair with someone older—and therefore less fertile.

This may explain why combating age declines in attractiveness occurs from a younger age in women than in men. For example, the removal of one's body hair is considered a very feminine thing to do.[70] This can be explained by the fact that aging results in raised levels of testosterone and thus, body hair growth. Shaving reverts one's appearance to a more youthful stage[70] and although this may not be an honest signal, men will interpret this as a reflection of increased fertile value. Research supports this, showing hairlessness is considered sexually attractive by men.[71]

### Leg-to-body ratio

These drawings of two male and two female figures is a remake of the drawing of the extremes of leg-to-body ratio (LBR), as used in the experiment by Swami et al. (2006) to find out what LBR is considered the most attractive for British men and women. The male figure with the lowest LBR and shortest legs at left had the highest average attractiveness ratings whereas the male figure with the highest LBR and longest legs at right had the lowest ratings from . The female figure with the lowest LBR and shortest legs at left had the lowest average attractiveness ratings whereas the figure with the highest LBR and longest legs at right had the highest average attractiveness ratings[72]

"Leg-to-body ratio" is seen as an indicator of physical attractiveness but there appears to be no single accepted definition of leg-length: the 'perineum-to-floor' measure[lower-alpha 2] is the most frequently used, but arguably the distance from the ankle bone to the outer hip bone is more rigorous.[73] With the latter metric, the most attractive male leg-to-body ratio (judged by American women) is 1:1.[73] A Japanese study using the former metric found the same result for male attractiveness but women with longer legs than the rest of their body were judged to be more attractive.[74] Excessive deviations from the mean were seen as indicative of disease.[74] A study using Polish participants found that legs 5% longer than the average for both sexes was considered most attractive.[75] The study concluded this preference might stem from the influence of long-legged runway models.[76] Another study using British and American participants found "mid-ranging" leg-to-body ratios to be most ideal.[77]

A study by Swami et al. of British male and female undergraduates showed a preference for men with legs as long as the rest of their body and women with 40% longer legs than the rest of their body.[72] The researcher concluded that this preference might be influenced by American culture, in which long-legged women are portrayed as more attractive.[72]

Marco Bertamini criticized the Swami et al. study for using a picture of the same person with digitally altered leg lengths which he felt would make the modified image appear unrealistic.[78] Bertamini also criticized the Swami study for only changing the leg length while keeping the arm length constant.[78] After accounting for these concerns in his own study, Bertamini, using stick figures, also found a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men.[78] When Bertamini investigated the issue of possible sexual dimorphism of leg length, he found two sources that indicated that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women.[79] Following this review of existing literature on the subject, he conducted his own calculations using data from 1774 men and 2208 women. Using this data, he similarly found that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women. These findings made him rule out the possibility that a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men is due proportionately longer legs being a secondary sex characteristic of women.[79]

### Genitalia

A 2006 study of 25,594 heterosexual men found that "men who perceived themselves as having a large penis were more satisfied with their own appearance".[80]

A 2014 study criticized previous studies based on the fact that they relied on images and used terms such as "small", "medium", and "large" when asking for female preference. The new study used 3D models of penises from sizes of 4 inches (10 cm) long and 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) in circumference to 8.5 inches (22 cm) long and 7 inches (18 cm) in circumference and let the women "view and handle" them. It was found that women overestimated the actual size of the penises they experimented with when asked in a follow-up survey. The study concluded that "women on average preferred the 6.5-inch (17 cm) penis in length both for long-term and for one-time partners. Penises with larger girth were preferred for one-time partners."[81]

Evidence from various cultures suggests that heterosexual men tend to find the sight of women's genitalia to be sexually arousing.[82]

### Skin color

Manual laborers who spent extended periods of time outside developed a darker skin tone due to exposure to the sun. As a consequence, an association between dark skin and the lower classes developed. Light skin became an aesthetic ideal because it symbolized wealth. "Over time society attached various meanings to these colored differences. Including assumptions about a person's race, socioeconomic class, intelligence, and physical attractiveness."[83]

Some research has suggested that redder and yellower skin tones,[84] reflecting higher levels of oxygenated blood,[85] carotenoid and to a lesser extent melanin pigment, and net dietary intakes of fruit and vegetables,[86] appear healthier, and therefore more attractive.[87] However, there is little direct evidence that skin colour is actually related to health or immune system strength.[88]

A historical preference for lighter-skinned women has been documented across many cultures.[89][90] However, the accuracy of this research has been questioned by other authors.[91] Experimental studies show that white Western men are more attracted to dark-tanned women, rather than medium-tanned or pale women.[92][93][94] A 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned (but not lightest) women in New Zealand and California.[95] However, other research has found that African-American males and females consider medium complexion as more attractive than lighter or darker skin, while white and Hispanic women seek to tan their skin in order to increase their attractiveness to the opposite sex.[96] There is a direct correlation between being tan and self-perceived attractiveness, especially among young women.[97]

The relationship between attractiveness and skin colour may also intersect with ethnicity and prior experience.[98] Skin color preferences may shift over time, as in Western culture, where tanned skin used to be associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower-class, but since the mid-20th century it has generally been considered more attractive and healthier than before, with sun tanning becoming fashionable.[99][100][101][102][103] In the African state of Mali, skin bleaching is common as it is thought to improve one's social standing and attractiveness to the opposite sex, although there has also been vocal opposition to this notion from pop culture icons.[104]

Skin radiance or glowing skin may influence perception of beauty and physical attractiveness.[105][106]

### Hands

Hands have been found to be physically attractive.[107] The type of hands that are physically attractive are those with longer index and ring fingers.[108] Men have a smaller index-to-ring-finger ratio than women. The gender differences in the ratio between the index and ring fingers are said to be influenced by exposure to testosterone within the womb.[109] In a study where participants were shown computer-based images of hands, male participants found feminine hands with a smaller index finger less attractive. Whereas females found masculine hands with a longer ring finger more attractive. The study suggests that finger length has an effect on physical attraction because it gives indication of the desirable sex-hormone dependent traits which one may possess.[108] Another study found that averageness, healthiness of the skin, how fat the hands appear to be, and the grooming of the hands, all affect the attractiveness of hands.[110] What is meant by averageness is the degree to which the hands look like an average of the hands in the population. Average-looking hands give an indication of an individual's health (because there are no abnormalities). The healthier-looking the skin on the hands, the more attractive they appear. Reasons given for this say skin health may reflect an individual's overall health. Healthy skin can show that someone is free from illness because some illnesses have a bad effect on the look of skin. These features are found attractive because they show that the person has good genes and is therefore a suitable mate to reproduce with. Skin health may also give an indication of socioeconomic status, as rough hands may indicate a low-paying, laborious job. Low socioeconomic status might show that someone does not have resources to provide for the offspring, and is therefore less attractive. The more fat the hands appear, the less attractive they are. This is because of the co-morbidity associated with obesity. If someone is overfat, they may have another disease, which means they may not be able to produce healthy offspring. The attractiveness of the hands also gives an indication of other features of the individual, people with more attractive hands have been found to be taller and slimmer.[107] In most of these hand attractiveness studies, only white, European hands were used, and the participants were 18–26 years old. So, the attractiveness of non-white hands and of different age groups was not tested. Also, the people who rated the hand attractiveness were white Europeans, so their ratings may not represent how individuals of other skin colours and cultures would rate the hands.

### Height

Females' sexual attraction towards males may be determined by the height of the man.[111] The online dating Website eHarmony only matches women with men taller than themselves, because of complaints from women matched with shorter men.[65]

Other studies have shown that heterosexual women often prefer men taller than they are, rather than a man with above average height. While women usually desire men to be at least the same height as themselves or taller, several other factors also determine male attractiveness, and the male-taller norm is not universal.[112]> For example, taller women are more likely to relax the "taller male" norm than shorter women.[113] Furthermore, professor Adam Eyre-Walker, from the University of Sussex, has stated that there is, as yet, no evidence that these preferences are evolutionary preferences, as opposed to merely cultural preferences.[114] Still, the cultural perceived attractiveness preferences for taller men are powerful and confirmed by multiple studies. One study of speed-daters by Stulp found that "women were most likely to choose [men] 25 cm taller than themselves, whereas men were most likely to choose women only 7 cm shorter than themselves".[115]

Additionally, women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element within beauty.[116] According to one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as "only tops" tend to prefer shorter men, while gay men who identify as "only bottoms" tend to prefer taller men.[117]

In romances in Middle English literature, all of the "ideal" male heroes are tall, and the vast majority of the "valiant" male heroes are tall too.[118]

Most men tend to be taller than their female partners.[21] It has been found that, in Western societies, most men prefer women shorter than themselves.[119] Having said this, height is a more important factor for a woman when choosing a man than it is for a man choosing a woman.[120] Western men tend to view women taller than themselves as less attractive,[119] and many people view heterosexual couples where the woman is taller to be less ideal.[119] Women who are 0.7 to 1.7 standard deviations below the mean female height have been reported to be the most reproductively successful,[114] since fewer tall women get married compared to shorter women.[119] However, in other ethnic groups, such as the Hadza people from Tanzania, a study has found that height is irrelevant in choosing a mate.[112] Another study found the same preference in rural Gambia.[119]

In Middle English literature, "tallness" is a characteristic of ideally beautiful women.[121] The British Fashion Model Agents Association (BFMA) says that female models should be at least 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) tall.[122]

### Body language

#### Standing postures

A statue of Venus standing in a contrapposto pose with her weight borne predominantly on one leg. As shown here, this posture accentuates the curvature of her figure.

Standing in a contrapposto posture (with bodyweight predominantly supported by one leg which is either straight, or very slightly bent, and with the other leg slightly bent) has been found to be more attractive looking than standing in a more plain, upright posture. This was found to be the case for both men and women. This posture may lower a person's observable waist-hip ratio and make their hips look wider and their waists thinner. For women especially, this can accentuate the curvature of their figure on one side of their body and make them seem more attractive. Such poses have been used in historical sculpture to emphasize an ideal of physical beauty.[123][124] It has also been demonstrated that the contrapposto posture in women elicits more neural activity in brain areas linked to perception and attractiveness assessments than a standing position.[125]

#### Movement patterns

The way an individual moves can indicate health and even age and influence attractiveness.[126] A study reflecting the views of 700 individuals and that involved animated representations of people walking, found that the physical attractiveness of women increased by about 50 percent when they walked with a hip sway. Similarly, the perceived attractiveness of males doubled when they moved with a swagger in their shoulders.[127]

## Interpersonal attraction

In the social psychology perspective, interpersonal attraction is when someone experiences a positive attitude or evaluation regarding a particular person having potential of being a significant other. This includes "three components conventionally ascribed to attitudes: behavioral (tendency to approach the person), cognitive (positive beliefs about the person), and affective (positive feelings for the person)."[128] With these three components, psychology has created five elements of interpersonal attraction. These include proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, reciprocity, and responsiveness.[129]

## Male-specific factors

Arnold Schwarzenegger, one of the most notable figures in bodybuilding, 1974

Further information: Social:Masculine beauty ideal

Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, wide chest and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller and larger than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism.[22][23] Women, regardless of sexual orientation, tend to be more interested in a partner's physical attractiveness than men.[130][131][132]

### Sexual dimorphism

Main article: Biology:Sexual dimorphism

The degree of differences between male and female anatomical traits is called sexual dimorphism. Female respondents in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle were significantly more likely to choose a masculine face than those in menses and luteal phases,[133] (or in those taking hormonal contraception).[22][23][134][135] This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are more genetically attractive,[136] rather than the best caregivers.[137] However, women's likeliness to exert effort to view male faces does not seem to depend on their masculinity, but to a general increase with women's testosterone levels.[138]

It is suggested that the masculinity of facial features is a reliable indication of good health, or, alternatively, that masculine-looking males are more likely to achieve high status.[139] However, the correlation between attractive facial features and health has been questioned.[140] Sociocultural factors, such as self-perceived attractiveness, status in a relationship and degree of gender-conformity, have been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces.[141] Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as physically attractive are more likely to choose men with masculine facial dimorphism, than are women who perceive themselves as physically unattractive.[45] In men, facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry – it has been suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health.[142] One study called into question the importance of facial masculinity in physical attractiveness in men, arguing that when perceived health, which is factored into facial masculinity, is discounted it makes little difference in physical attractiveness.[143] In a cross-country study involving 4,794 women in their early twenties, a difference was found in women's average "masculinity preference" between countries.[144][145]

A study found that the same genetic factors cause facial masculinity in both males and females such that a male with a more masculine face would likely have a sister with a more masculine face due to the siblings having shared genes. The study also found that, although female faces that were more feminine were judged to be more attractive, there was no association between male facial masculinity and male facial attractiveness for female judges. With these findings, the study reasoned that if a woman were to reproduce with a man with a more masculine face, then her daughters would also inherit a more masculine face, making the daughters less attractive. The study concluded that there must be other factors that advantage the genetics for masculine male faces to offset their reproductive disadvantage in terms of "health", "fertility" and "facial attractiveness" when the same genetics are present in females. The study reasoned that the "selective advantage" for masculine male faces must "have (or had)" been due to some factor that is not directly tied to female perceptions of male facial attractiveness.[146]

In a study of 447 gay men in China, researchers said that tops preferred feminized male faces, bottoms preferred masculinized male faces and versatiles had no preference for either feminized or masculinized male faces.[147]

In pre-modern Chinese literature, the ideal man in caizi jiaren romances was said to have "rosy lips, sparkling white teeth" and a "jasper-like face" (Chinese: 唇紅齒白、面若冠玉).[148][149]

In Middle English literature, a beautiful man should have a long, broad and strong face.[150]

### Waist-to-chest ratio

The physique of a slim waist, broad shoulders and muscular chest are often found to be attractive to both females and males.[151] Further research has shown that, when choosing a mate, the traits females look for indicate higher social status, such as dominance, resources, and protection.[152] An indicator of health in males (a contributing factor to physical attractiveness) is the android fat distribution pattern which is categorized as more fat distributed on the upper body and abdomen, commonly referred to as the "V shape."[152] When asked to rate other men, both heterosexual and homosexual men found low waist-to-chest ratios (WCR) to be more attractive on other men, with the gay men showing a preference for lower WCR (more V-shaped) than the straight men.[153]

Other researchers found waist-to-chest ratio the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant.[154]

Women focus primarily on the ratio waist to chest or more specifically waist to shoulder. This is analogous to the waist to hip ratio (WHR) that men prefer. Some studies have shown that attractive bodily traits in the eyes of a heterosexual woman would include a tall, athletic physique, with wide shoulders, and a slim waist area.[155] Research has additionally shown that college males had a better satisfaction with their body than college females.[156] The research also found that when a college female's waist to hip ratio went up, their body image satisfaction decreased.[156]

Some research has shown that body weight may have a stronger effect than WHR when it comes to perceiving attractiveness of the opposite sex. It was found that waist to hip ratio played a smaller role in body preference than body weight in regards to both sexes.[157]

Psychologists Viren Swami and Martin J. Tovee compared female preference for male attractiveness cross culturally, between Britain and Malaysia. They found that females placed more importance on WCR (and therefore body shape) in urban areas of Britain and Malaysia, while females in rural areas placed more importance on BMI (therefore weight and body size). Both WCR and BMI are indicative of male status and ability to provide for offspring, as noted by evolutionary theory.[158]

Females have been found to desire males that are normal weight and have the average WHR for a male. Females view these males as attractive and healthy. Males who had the average WHR but were overweight or underweight are not perceived as attractive to females. This suggests that WHR is not a major factor in male attractiveness, but a combination of body weight and a typical male WHR seem to be the most attractive. Research has shown that men who have a higher waist to hip ratio and a higher salary are perceived as more attractive to women.[159]

### Flat abdomen

A 1982 study found that an abdomen that protrudes was the "least attractive" trait for men.[160]

In Middle English literature, a beautiful man should have a flat abdomen.[161]

### Musculature

File:RONNIE COLEMAN.jpgRonnie Coleman posing Ronnie Coleman posing in 2009

Men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to men are more muscular than the men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to women. From this, some have concluded that men perceive a more muscular male body to be ideal, as distinct from a woman's ideal male, which is less muscular than what men perceive to be ideal.[162] This is due to the within-gender prestige granted by increased muscularity and within-gender competition for increased muscularity.[162] Men perceive the attractiveness of their own musculature by how closely their bodies resemble the "muscle man."[163] This "muscle man" ideal is characterized by large muscular arms, especially biceps, a large muscular chest that tapers to their waist and broad shoulders.[163] Among Australian university students, the male body composition found to be most attractive (12.16 kg fat, 63.27 kg muscle) was in line with the composition that was perceived as healthiest, and was well within the healthy range.[164]

In a study of stated profile preferences on Match.com, a greater percentage of gay men than lesbians selected their ideal partner's body type as "Athletic and Toned" as opposed to the other two options of "Average" or "Overweight".[165]

In pre-modern Chinese literature, such as in Romance of the Western Chamber, a type of masculinity called "scholar masculinity" is depicted wherein the "ideal male lover" is "weak, vulnerable, feminine, and pedantic".[148]

In Middle English literature, a beautiful man typically has thick, broad shoulders, a square and muscular chest, a muscular back, strong sides that taper to a small waist, large hands and arms and legs with huge muscles.[166]

### Body hair

Studies based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate men with no trunk (chest and abdominal) hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings decline as hairiness increases.[167][168] Another study, however, found that moderate amounts of trunk hair on men was most attractive, to the sample of British and Sri Lankan women.[169] Further, a degree of hirsuteness (hairiness) and a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.6 is often preferred when combined with a muscular physique.[169]

In a study using Finnish women, women with hairy fathers were more likely to prefer hairy men, suggesting that preference for hairy men is the result of either genetics or imprinting.[170] Among gay men, another study reported gay males who identify as "only tops" prefer less hairy men, while gay males who identify as "only bottoms" prefer more hairy men.[117]

### Facial hair

One study shows that men with facial hair covering the cheeks, upper lip, and lower jaw were perceived as more physically attractive than men with patchy facial hair.[171] In this study, men's facial hair was split into four categories, each differing in the thickness and coverage: very light, light, medium, and heavy. Light facial hair was rated as the most attractive, followed by medium, heavy, and the least attractive was 'very light'. This study suggests that some facial hair is better than none because it shows masculine development, as beard growth requires the conversion of testosterone. An earlier study found that women from Western and Oceanic cultures are more attracted to clean-shaven faces than beards. However, they also rated full-bearded men as having higher status than clean-shaven men.[172]

### Jawline

An attractive male jaw angle may have the following features: [citation needed]

* 115–130° in profile view
* interregional width similar to facial width
* vertical position in frontal view at the corners of the mouth or at least not below the lower lip
* jawline slope in frontal view nearly parallel to (with a maximum 15° downward deviation from) a line extending from the lateral canthus to the alare
* ascending ramus slope 65°–75° to the Frankfurt horizontal
* visible curvature in oblique view

Because it generates the gonial angle, the ramus has a function in attractiveness.[citation needed] The gonial or jaw angle is the angle formed by the ramus and the rest of the mandible. It can range from 90 to 140 degrees, with the population average being 128 +/- 2.36 degrees for males and 126 +/-2.41 degrees for females. Larger, more obtuse gonial angles result in a rounder, feminine appearance, whereas more acute gonial angles result in square, masculine faces.[173][174]

This exact ratio is not seen as ideal in every ethnic group. Most research shows that attractive bigonial width and Ramus measurements have similarities, but the jutting square chin is a prominently European-heritage trait - which means it should not be held as a universal indicator of attractiveness.[175][176] Men with low submental fat were viewed to have "better jawlines" and a more "youthful look".[177]

## Female-specific factors

Further information: Social:Feminine beauty ideal

Research indicates that heterosexual men tend to be attracted to young[64] and beautiful women[178] with bodily symmetry.[179] Rather than decreasing it, modernity has only increased the emphasis men place on women's looks.[180] Evolutionary psychologists attribute such attraction to an evaluation of the fertility potential in a prospective mate.[64]

### Facial features

#### General

A University of Toronto study found that the facial proportions of Jessica Alba were close to the average of all female profiles. Namie Amuro inspired the small-face fad in Japan which caused Japanese women to buy beauty products such as masks and creams to try to obtain a small face like hers.[181] An 1889 U.S. newspaper ad for arsenic complexion wafers decried blotches, moles, pimples, freckles, and "all female irregularities".[182] Arsenic was known to be poisonous during the Victorian era.[183]

Research has attempted to determine which facial features communicate attractiveness. Facial symmetry has been shown to be considered attractive in women,[184][185] and men have been found to prefer full lips,[186] high forehead, broad face, small chin, small nose, short and narrow jaw, high cheekbones,[39][187] clear and smooth skin, and wide-set eyes.[64] The shape of the face in terms of "how everything hangs together" is an important determinant of beauty.[188] Women with thick, dark limbal rings in their eyes have also been found to be more attractive. The explanation given is that because the ring tends to fade with age and medical problems, a prominent limbal ring gives an honest indicator of youth.[189]

In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have noses like hazelnuts.[190] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have straight and fine noses.[191]In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the rabbis considered a delicate nose to be the ideal type of nose for women.[192] In Japan, during the Edo period, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have tall noses which were straight and not "too tall".[193]

In a cross-cultural study, more neotenized (i.e., youthful looking) female faces were found to be most attractive to men while less neotenized female faces were found to be less attractive to men, regardless of the females' actual age.[194] In a study of Italian women who have won beauty competitions, it was found that their faces had more "babyish" (pedomorphic) traits than those of the "normal" women used as a reference.[195]

In a cross-cultural study, Marcinkowska et al. said that 18-to-45-year-old heterosexual men in all 28 countries surveyed preferred photographs of 18-to-24-year-old white women whose faces were feminized using facial image editing software over faces of 18-to-24-year-old white women that were masculinized using that software, but there were differences in preferences for femininity across countries. The higher the National Health Index (based on eight national health statistics taken from the World Health Organization Statistical Information Service using data from 2002 to 2006) of a country, the more were the feminized faces preferred over the masculinized faces. Among the countries surveyed, Japan had the highest femininity preference and Nepal had the lowest femininity preference.[196]

Michael R. Cunningham of the Department of Psychology at the University of Louisville found, using a panel of East Asian, Hispanic and White judges, that the female faces tended to be judged as more attractive if they had a mixture of youthful and sexually mature features. Hispanic and East Asian women were judged as more attractive than White and Black women, and they happened to possess more of the attributes defined as attractive, however the authors noted that it would be inaccurate to conclude that any ethnic group was more attractive than the other, based on their sample.[197] Using a panel of African Americans and whites as judges, Cunningham found more neotenous faces were perceived as having both higher "femininity" and "sociability".[89] The authors found no evidence of ethnocentric bias in the Asian or White samples, as Asians and Whites did not differ significantly in preference for neonate cues, and positive ratings of white women did not increase with exposure to Western media.[198]

Rather than finding evidence for purely "neonate" faces being most appealing, Cunningham found faces with "sexually-mature" features at the "periphery" of the face combined with "neonate" features in the "center of the face" most appealing in women.[89] Upon analyzing the results of his study, Cunningham concluded that preference for "neonate features may display the least cross-cultural variability" in terms of "attractiveness ratings"[89] and, in another study, Cunningham concluded that there exists a large agreement on the characteristics of an attractive face.[199]

In computer face averaging tests, women with averaged faces have been shown to be considered more attractive.[31][200] This is possibly due to average features being more familiar and, therefore, more comfortable.[184]

Commenting on the prevalence of whiteness in supposed beauty ideals in his book White Lies: Race and the Myth of Whiteness, Maurice Berger states that the schematic rendering in the idealized face of a study conducted with American subjects had "straight hair," "light skin," "almond-shaped eyes," "thin, arched eyebrows," "a long, thin nose, closely set and tiny nostrils" and "a large mouth and thin lips",[201] though the author of the study stated that there was consistency between his results and those conducted on other races. Scholar Liu Jieyu says in the article White Collar Beauties, "The criterion of beauty is both arbitrary and gendered. The implicit consensus is that women who have fair skin and a slim figure with symmetrical facial features are pretty." He says that all of these requirements are socially constructed and force people to change themselves to fit these criteria.[202]

On average, symmetrical features are one ideal, while unusual, stand-out features are another.[203] A study performed by the University of Toronto found that the most attractive facial dimensions were those found in the average female face. However, that particular University of Toronto study looked only at white women.[204]

A 2011 study, by Wilkins, Chan and Kaiser found correlations between perceived femininity and attractiveness, that is, women's faces which were seen as more feminine were judged by both men and women to be more attractive.[205]

A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have faces like a full moon.[190][206][207]

In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have round faces which were like a "full moon".[191]

In Japan, during the Edo period, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have oval faces. which were shaped like ovals.[193]

In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the rabbis considered full lips to be the ideal type of lips for women.[192]

Historically, in Chinese and Japanese literature, the feminine ideal was said to include small lips.[208] Women would paint their lips thinner and narrower to align with this ideal.[209][210]

A study that used Chinese, Malay and Indian judges said that Chinese women and Chinese men with retrusive mandibles (where the mouth is flat and in-line with the rest of the face) were judged to be the most attractive and Chinese men and Chinese women with a protruding mandible (where the jaw projects outward) were judged to be the least attractive.[211]

Classical Persian literature, paintings, and miniatures portrayed traits such as long black curly hair, a small mouth, long arched eyebrows, large almond shaped eyes, a small nose, and beauty spots as being beautiful for women.[212]

#### Eyes

A study that investigated whether or not an eyelid crease makes Chinese-descent women more attractive using photo-manipulated photographs of young Chinese-descent women's eyes found that the "medium upper eyelid crease" was considered most attractive by all three groups of both sexes: white people, Chinese and Taiwanese nationals together as a group, and Taiwanese and Chinese Americans together as a group. Similarly, all three groups of both genders found the absence of an eye crease to be least attractive on Chinese women.[213]

In the late sixteenth century, Japanese people considered epicanthic folds to be beautiful.[214]

A study that used Russian, American, Brazilian, Aché, and Hiwi raters, found that the only strong distinguisher between men and women's faces was wider eyes relative to facial height for women, and this trait consistently predicted attractiveness ratings for women.[215]

In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have dark black eyes which are large and long and in the shape of almonds. Furthermore, the eyes should be lustrous, and they should have long eyelashes.[191]

A source written in 1823, said that a component of the Persian female beauty ideal was for women to have large eyes which are black in color.[206] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have eyes that are shaped like almonds.[190]

In Chinese, the phrase "lucent irises, lustrous teeth" (Chinese: 明 眸 皓 齒) is used to describe a beautiful woman with "clear eyes" and "well-aligned, white teeth",[216] and the phrase "moth-feeler eyebrows" (Chinese: 蛾眉) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her eyebrows as being thin and arched like moth antennae.[216] In the Chinese text The Grotto of the Immortals (Chinese: 遊 仙 窟) written during the Tang dynasty period, narrow eyes were the preferred type of eyes for women, and, in the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉 房 秘 訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having small eyes.[217]

In Japan, during the Edo period, one piece of evidence, the appearance of the "formal wife" of Tokugawa Iesada as determined by "bone anthropologist" Suzuki Hisashi, indicates that large eyes were considered attractive for women,[193] but,in another piece of evidence, the 1813 Japanese text Customs, Manners, and Fashions of the Capital (Japanese: 都 風 俗 化 粧 伝), indicates that large eyes were not considered attractive for women.[218]

### Breasts

Research has shown that most heterosexual men enjoy the sight of female breasts, with a preference for large, firm breasts.[219][220] However, a contradictory study of British undergraduates found younger men preferred small breasts on women.[221] Smaller breasts were widely associated with youthfulness.[126] Cross-culturally, another study found "high variability" regarding the ideal breast size.[221] Some researchers in the United Kingdom have speculated that a preference for larger breasts may have developed in Western societies because women with larger breasts tend to have higher levels of the hormones estradiol and progesterone, which both promote fertility.[222]

A study by Groyecka et al., in which they examined Poles and Yali of New Guinea, demonstrated that men's judgements of breast appearance is affected by the occurrence of breast ptosis (i.e., sagginess, droopiness).[223] Greater breast ptosis (more sagging breasts) is perceived as less attractive and attributed to a woman of older age. These findings are coherent with previous research that link breast attractiveness with female youthfulness. Unlike breast size, breast ptosis seems to be a universal marker of female breast attractiveness.

A study showed that men prefer symmetrical breasts.[179][224] Breast symmetry may be particularly sensitive to developmental disturbances and the symmetry differences for breasts are large compared to other body parts. Women who have more symmetrical breasts tend to have more children.[225]

Historical literature often includes specific features of individuals or a gender that are considered desirable. These have often become a matter of convention, and should be interpreted with caution. In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have small breasts.[191] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have breasts like pomegranates or lemons.[190] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉 房 秘 訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having firm breasts.[217] In Sanskrit literature, beautiful women are often said to have breasts so large that they cause the women to bend a little bit from their weight.[226] In Middle English literature, beautiful women should have small breasts that are round like an apple or a pear.[227]

### Buttocks

A remake of a drawing used to research perceptions of the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women.

Biological anthropologist Helen E. Fisher of the Center for Human Evolution Studies in the Department of Anthropology of Rutgers University said that, "perhaps, the fleshy, rounded buttocks... attracted males during rear-entry intercourse."[228] In a recent study, using 3D models and eye-tracking technology Fisher's claim was tested and was shown that the slight thrusting out of a woman's back influence how attractive others perceive her to be and captures the gaze of both men and women.[229][230] Bobbi S. Low et al. of the School of Natural Resources and Environment at the University of Michigan, said the female "buttocks evolved in the context of females competing for the attention and parental commitment of powerful resource-controlling males" as an "honest display of fat reserves" that could not be confused with another type of tissue,[231] although T. M. Caro, professor in the Center for Population Biology and the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, at University of California, Davis, rejected that as being a necessary conclusion, stating that female fatty deposits on the hips improve "individual fitness of the female", regardless of sexual selection.[231]

In a 1995 study, black men were more likely than white men to use the words "big" or "large" to describe their conception of an attractive woman's posterior.[232] In a 2009 experiment to research what South African, British white and British African men considered to be the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women. This image shown here only shows the two extreme variations of size on black female figures used in the experiment. The left-hand figure received the highest average attractiveness rating from South African men while a figure with an intermediate size received the highest ratings from both white and black British men. The right-hand figure did not receive the highest average attractiveness rating from any group.[233]

### Body mass

Body Mass Index (BMI) is an important determinant to the perception of beauty.[234] Even though the Western ideal is for a thin woman, some cultures prefer plumper women,[89][235] which has been argued to support that attraction for a particular BMI merely is a cultural artifact.[235] The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[236] One cross-cultural survey comparing body-mass preferences among 300 of the most thoroughly studied cultures in the world showed that 81% of cultures preferred a female body size that in English would be described as "plump".[237]

Availability of food influences which female body size is attractive which may have evolutionary reasons. Societies with food scarcities prefer larger female body size than societies that have plenty of food. In Western society, males who are hungry prefer a larger female body size than they do when not hungry.[238]

BMI has been criticised for conflating fat and muscle, and more recent studies have concentrated on body composition. Among Australian university students, the most attractive body composition for women (10.31 kg fat, 42.45 kg muscle) was found to be lower in fat than both the most healthy appearing composition, and below the healthy range.[164]

In the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices. When American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, the men chose figures of average build. This indicates that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[235] Some researchers believe women themselves may play a role in enforcing the thinness ideal, however they assert that this does not mean that the ideal does not ultimately trace its origins to patriarchical norms (the "male gaze").[239] Popenoe writes that societies with abundant food sources often value thin women, while those with food scarcity value women with fat bodies. In the West, women with thin bodies became the ideal in the 19th century, as the fat body became associated with criminality and backwardness.[240] Some implicated the fashion industry for the promulgation of the notion of thinness as attractive.[241][242]

East Asians have historically preferred women whose bodies had small features. For example, during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, women in Chinese harems wanted to have a thin body in order to be attractive for the Chinese emperor. Later, during the Tang dynasty, a less thin body type was seen as most attractive for Chinese women.[243] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to be slender like a "cane" or a "twig".[191] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉 房 秘 訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as not being "large-boned".[217]

In the Victorian era, women who adhered to Victorian ideals were expected to limit their food consumption to attain the ideal slim figure.[244] In Middle English literature, "slender" women are considered beautiful.[245]

According to research on females, women consider a full body with good distribution to be highly important to be considered attractive by men.[246]

### Waist–hip ratio

Main article: Waist–hip ratio

A WHR of 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and ovarian cancers.[247] Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs.[248][249] Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) has been proposed by evolutionary psychologists to be an important component of human male mate choice, because this trait is thought to provide a reliable cue to a woman's reproductive value.[250]

Both men and women judge women with smaller waist-to-hip ratios more attractive.[251] Ethnic groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women,[252] ranging from 0.6 in China,[253] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[254][255][256] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[257][258] A study found the Machiguenga people, an isolated indigenous South American ethnic group, prefer women with high WHR (0.9).[259] The preference for heavier women, has been interpreted to belong to societies where there is no risk of obesity.[260]

In Chinese, the phrase "willow waist" (Chinese: 柳 腰) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her waist as being slender like a willow branch.[216]

In the Victorian era, a small waist was considered the main trait of a beautiful woman.[244] The term "wasp waist" describes an extreme fashion silhouette, produced by a style of corset and girdle.

### Feet size

According to some studies, most men prefer women with small feet,[261][262] such as in ancient China where foot binding was practiced.[263]

In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the rabbis considered small feet to be the ideal type of feet for women.[192]

### Hair

Men have been found to prefer long-haired women.[64][264] [265] An evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that malnutrition and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins causes loss of hair or hair changes. Hair therefore indicates health and nutrition during the last 2–3 years. Lustrous hair is also often a cross-cultural preference.[126]

A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have black hair,[266] which was also preferred in Arabian society in the Middle Ages.[191] In Middle English literature, curly hair is a necessary component of a beautiful woman.[267]

### Fertility-driven attractiveness

There are some subtle changes in women's perceived attractiveness across the menstrual cycle. During their most fertile phase, we can observe some changes in women's behavior and physiology. A study conducted by G. Miller (2007) examined the amount of tip earnings by lap dancers across the menstrual cycle. He found that dancers received nearly US$15 more when they were near ovulation than during the rest of the month. This suggests that women either are more attractive during ovulation phase, or they experience a significant change in their behavior.[268] Some other studies have found that there are subtle differences in women's faces when in their fertile phase. Bobst and Lobmaier (2012) created 20 prototyped photographs, some of a female during ovulation and some during the luteal phase. Men were asked to choose the more attractive, the more caring and the more flirtatious faces. They found a significant preference for the follicular phase (ovulation). This suggests that subtle shape differences in faces occurring during the female's ovulation phase are sufficient to attract men more.[269] This idea is supported by another study, where a similar experiment was done. Men and women had to judge photographs of women's faces taken during their fertile phase. They were all rated more attractive than during non-fertile phase. There are some subtle visible cues to ovulation in women's faces, and they are perceived as more attractive, leading to the idea that it could be an adaptive mechanism to raise a female's mate value at that specific time (when probability of conception is at its highest).[268]

Women's attractiveness, as perceived by men and women, slightly differs across her menstrual cycle, being at peak when she is in her ovulation phase. Jones et al. (2008), focused on women's preferences for masculinity, apparent health and self-resemblance and found that it varies across the cycle. They explained that the function of the effects of menstrual cycle phase on preferences for apparent health and self-resemblance in faces is to increase the likelihood of pregnancy.[270]

Similarly, females prefer the scent of symmetrically faced men and men with masculine faces during fertile phases as well as stereotypical male displays such as social presence, and direct intrasexual competitiveness.[271]

During the follicular phase (fertile), females prefer more masculine traits (testosterone dependent traits such as face shape) than when in non-fertile phase. Those findings have been found in the voice, showing that females' preferences for more masculine voices over feminine voices increase the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle.[272]

But not only females' preferences vary across cycle, their behaviours as well. Effectively, men respond differently to females when they are on ovulatory cycle,[268] because females act differently. Women in the ovulatory phase are flirtier with males showing genetic fitness markers than in low fertile phase.[273] It has been shown in some studies that women high in estrogen are generally perceived to be more attractive than women with low levels of estrogen, based on women not wearing make-up. High estrogen level women may also be viewed as healthier or to have a more feminine face.[274]

Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.[275]

### Sexual ornamentation

Sexual ornaments are seen in many organisms; in humans, females have sexual ornamentation in the form of breasts and buttocks. The physical attraction to sexual ornaments is associated with gynoid fat, as opposed to android fat, which is considered unattractive.[276] In human females, proximate causes of the development of sexual ornaments are associated with the predominance of estrogen in puberty. The activation of estrogen receptors around the female skeletal tissue causes gynoid fat to be deposited in the breasts, buttocks, hips and thighs, producing an overall typical female body shape.[277] Specifically, female breasts are considered more attractive when symmetrical, rather than asymmetrical,[278] as this is thought to reflect good developmental stability.[279]

Sexual ornaments are considered attractive features as they are thought to indicate high mate value, fertility,[280] and the ability to provide good care to offspring. They are sexually selected traits present for the purpose of honest signalling and capturing the visual attention of the opposite sex, most commonly associated with females capturing the visual attention of males. It has been proposed that these ornaments have evolved in order to advertise personal quality and reproductive value.[281] Honest signalling with sexual ornaments is associated with ultimate causation of these evolved traits. The evolution of these ornaments is also associated with female-female competition in order to gain material benefits provided by resourceful and high status males.[282] In humans, once these sexual ornaments develop, they are permanent. It is thought that this is associated with the long-term pair bonding humans engage in; human females engage in extended sexual activity outside of their fertile period.[283] This relates to another ultimate cause of sexual ornaments with function in obtaining non-genetic material benefits from males. In other animal species, even other primate species, these advertisements of reproductive value are not permanent. Usually, it is the point at which the female is at her most fertile, she displays sexual swellings.[284]

Adolescence is the period of time whereby humans experience puberty, and experience anatomical changes to their bodies through the increase of sex hormones released in the body. Adolescent exaggeration is the period of time at which sexual ornaments are maximised, and peak gynoid fat content is reached.[282] In human females, the mean age for this is approximately 16 years. Female breasts develop at this stage not only to prepare for reproduction, but also due to competition with other females in displaying their reproductive value and quality to males.[282]

## Neural correlates of perceiving attractiveness

Most studies of the brain activations associated with the perception of attractiveness show photographs of faces to their participants and let them or a comparable group of people rate the attractiveness of these faces. Such studies consistently find that activity in certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex increases with increasing attractiveness of faces.[285][286][282][287][288] This neural response has been interpreted as a reaction on the rewarding nature of attractiveness, as similar increases in activation in the medial orbitofrontal cortex can be seen in response to smiling faces[289] and to statements of morally good actions.[282][288] While most of these studies have not assessed participants of both genders or homosexual individuals, evidence from one study including male and female hetero- and homosexual individuals indicate that some of the aforementioned increases in brain activity are restricted to images of faces of the gender which participants feel sexually attracted to.[290]

With regard to brain activation related to the perception of attractive bodies, one study with heterosexual participants suggests that activity in the nucleus accumbens and the anterior cingulate cortex increases with increasing attractiveness. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the medial part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures.[291] Recent research has found that the perception of women with lower Waist-to-Hip Ratios and larger breasts triggers distinct patterns of temporal and spatial brain activation, differing from those associated with larger WHRs and smaller breasts.[292] Specifically, attractive WHRs and breast sizes influenced brain activity related to visual processing differently than less attractive WHRs and breast sizes, impacting both early and late stages of temporal processing in men and women.[292] Moreover, research on upper body size shows that posterior brain regions are involved in perceiving body forms of differing attractiveness due to variations male upper body size, while frontal brain regions are engaged when these perceptions are explicitly rated.[293] Such brain activities are unique to processing male, but not female, body sizes.

For both men and women, there appear to be universal criteria of attractiveness both within and across cultures and ethnic groups.[19][294] When considering long-term relationships, some studies have found that men place a higher emphasis on physical attractiveness in a partner than women do.[295][296][297][298][299] On the other hand, some studies have found few differences between men and women in terms of the weight they place on physical characteristics when they are choosing partners for short-term relationships,[300][301][302][303] in particular with regard to their implicit, as opposed to explicitly articulated, preferences.[304] Other recent studies continue to find sex differences for long-term relationships.[305][306][307][302] While still valuing physical attractiveness, women tend to prioritize a man's status over his physical attractiveness, while men prioritize physical attractiveness over status.[308] There is also one study suggesting that only men, not women, place greater priority on bodily compared to facial attractiveness when looking for a short-term as compared to a long-term partner.[309]

Bangladeshi bride exemplifying wedding day beauty

Some evolutionary psychologists, including David Buss, have argued that this long-term relationship difference may be a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness which allowed for greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners,[310] although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was likely signaled less by physical features.[297] It is argued that the most prominent indicator of fertility in women is youth,[311][312][313] while the traits in a man which enhance reproductive success are proxies for his ability to accrue resources and protect.[313]

Studies have shown that women pay greater attention to physical traits than they do directly to earning capability or potential to commit,[314] including muscularity, fitness and masculinity of features; the latter preference was observed to vary during a woman's period, with women preferring more masculine features during the late-follicular (fertile) phase of the menstrual cycle.[272][315] Additionally, women process physical attractiveness differently, paying attention to both individual features and the aesthetic effect of the whole face.[316]

According to Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese brides place great importance on physical attractiveness for their wedding photographs. These brides go through hours of makeup to transform themselves into socially constructed beauty. Adrian notes that female beauty standards and practices in Taiwan are quite different from those found in the West. Women in Taiwan tend to avoid tanning, while Taiwanese women with tanned skin tones would be considered the ideal in the Western world.[317]

According to strategic pluralism theory, men may have correspondingly evolved to pursue reproductive strategies that are contingent on their own physical attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities, is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time seeking additional mates.[318]

## Facial similarity and racial preferences

Research has suggested that people give high attractiveness ratings to same-sex people who look like them, but only in a non-sexual context. On the other hand, people generally do not find similar-looking people of the opposite sex to be sexually attractive. It is theorized that people may prefer sexual partners who look different from them, which is consistent with a pattern of inbreeding avoidance.[319][320][321] Although one study found that individuals show a preference for similar-looking mates, after a physiological stress test they preferred dis-similar looking mates.[322][323]

One study found no strong evidence for a same-race preference in heterosexual people, and they note that evidence from two similar studies is conflicting. Some racial groups show a strong preference for partners of a different race or ethnicity, and this preference may be gendered.[324][325] One study suggested that attraction to people with different ethnic features may be related to the effects of heterozygosity, which are thought to be a fitness advantage.[326]

A 2014 study found that racial preferences in Asian-Americans varied by gender: while heterosexual Asian women preferred to date white men, heterosexual Asian men preferred to date Asian women.[327]

A 2012 study suggests that imbalance in interracial marriage (white male-Asian female marriages are more than twice as common as the reverse) may be attributed to the fact that Asian women are perceived as more feminine, and therefore more attractive, than white women.[328] This study received support from a 2018 study which tested its hypothesis using images of Asian and white individuals.[329]

A 2012 study using Black and Caucasian subjects found that inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in perceived male facial masculinity have no impact on attractiveness, and that skin color plays a more important role in attractiveness assessments of male faces within groups, but not between groups as a health signal.[330]

## Group attractiveness effect

The group attractiveness effect is where a group's overall attractiveness rating is higher than the mean of each individuals' attractiveness rating. This occurs because people selectively attend to the most attractive group members[331] and thus they get the most attention. Men selectively attend to attractive people more than women, it has been suggested that this could be because men are less invested in their offspring, so they are less choosy when it comes to sexual partners, and therefore they are more easily attracted. As a result of selective attention, people end up giving a group rating which is biased as the rating focuses mainly on the attractive members and ignores the less attractive members. So the overall attractiveness rating is skewed towards more attractive. The group attractiveness effect was investigated in a study which got participants to rate the physical attractiveness of a group of females as a whole, individually in a group, and individually on their own.[332] Participants were asked to give a rating of 1–7, with 1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive. The group attractiveness effect has been replicated with males as the main group and also with a group of both males and females. This effect may not be demonstrated across all cultures because the sample only contained Dutch university students.

## Social effects

Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable.[18] This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect.[18] Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[333][334] In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness.[188] In another study testing first impressions in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder.[335] Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the effects of attractiveness in this study were the same size as the ones for other demographic variables.[336]

In developed western societies, women tend to be judged for their physical appearance over their other qualities and the pressure to engage in beauty work is much higher for women than men. Beauty work is defined as various beauty "practices individuals perform on themselves or others to elicit certain benefits from a specific social hierarchy."[337] Being "beautiful" has individual, social and institutional rewards.[337] Although marketers have started to target the "metro-sexual" male and produce hygiene and beauty products geared towards men, the expectations placed on them is less than women.[338] The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such as haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the "pink tax."[339][340]

However, attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China foot binding was practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the feet from growing to normal size causing the women to have an attractive "lotus gait". In England, women used to wear corsets that severely constricted their breathing in order to achieve a visual effect of an exaggeratedly low waist-to-hip ratio.

People make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a person had positive personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that person was seen as more physically attractive.[341] Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g., materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive. This was true for both females and males.

Physical attractiveness can have various social effects. For instance, humans tend to self-organize into couples where both parties have loosely similar attractiveness levels as judged by third parties.[342][343][344] A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[26] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. According to further research done on the correlation between looks and earnings in men, the punishment for unattractiveness is greater than the benefits of being attractive. However, in women the punishment is found to be equal to the benefits.[345] Another study suggests that more physically attractive people are significantly more likely on average to earn considerably higher wages. Differences in income due to attractiveness was much more pronounced for men rather than women, and held true for all ranges of income.[346] In the US the earnings disparities along the attractiveness continuum (net of controls) are similar or greater than the black-white disparity.[347] A study from 2020 found that social scientists who are judged as being more attractive receive higher public speaking fees than less attractive social scientists, whereas for natural scientists, relative unattractiveness is a comparative advantage in terms of public speaking fees.[348]

It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. One writer speculated that "the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty" might possibly be linked to increasing incidence of depression.[349]

Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic or platonic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money.[30][188][333][334][350] Those who are attractive are treated and judged more positively than those who are considered unattractive, even by those who know them. Also, attractive individuals behave more positively than those who are unattractive.[351] One study found that teachers tend to expect that children who are attractive are more intelligent, and are more likely to progress further in school. They also consider these students to be more popular.[352] Voters choose political candidates who are more attractive over those who are less attractive.[353] Men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how "good" another person is.[354] In 1946, Soloman Asch coined the Implicit Personality Theory, meaning that the presence of one trait tends to imply the existence of other traits. This is also known as the halo effect. Research suggests that those who are physically attractive are thought to have more socially desirable personalities and lead better lives in general.[11] This is also known as the "what-is-beautiful-is-good effect" or physical attractiveness stereotype. Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is sometimes referred to as lookism (prejudice or discrimination based on physical appearance and especially physical appearance believed to fall short of societal notions of beauty).[355]

Some researchers conclude that little difference exists between men and women in terms of sexual behavior.[296][356] Other researchers disagree.[357] Symmetrically faced men and women have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, to engage in a wider variety of sexual activities, and to have more one-night stands. They are also prone to infidelity and are more likely to have open relationships.[46] Additionally, they have the most reproductive success. Therefore, their physical characteristics are most likely to be inherited by future generations.[358][359][360][361]

Concern for improving physical attractiveness has led many persons to consider alternatives such as cosmetic surgery. It has led scientists working with related disciplines such as computer imaging and mathematics to conduct research to suggest ways to surgically alter the distances between facial features in order to make a face conform more closely to the "agreed-upon standards of attractiveness" of an ideal face by using algorithms to suggest an alternative which still resembles the current face.[28] One research study found that cosmetic surgery as a way to "boost earnings" was "not profitable in a monetary sense."[188] Some research shows that physical attractiveness has a marginal effect on happiness.[362]

## Misconceptions

### The golden ratio

The golden ratio, also known as the golden proportion, was considered the perfect measurement of harmony, beauty and proportion in Ancient Greece . Researchers Mohammad Khursheed Alam, Nor Farid Mohd Noor, Rehana Basri, Tan Fo Yew and Tay Hui Wen conducted a study to test if the golden ratio was a contributor to perceptions of facial attractiveness in various ethnic groups. A total of 286 people aged 18 to 25 participated in the survey, including 100 Malay (50 male, 50 female), 100 Malaysian Chinese (50 male, 50 female), and 86 Malaysian Indian (36 male, 50 female). This study excluded subjects of mixed race, those with craniofacial deformities, and those who had previously received orthodontic treatment or had face surgery. The results showed that the golden ratio had no significant association with physical attractiveness.[363][364]

### Ideal body shape for women

Some argue that body type preference is a mark of culture and regional beauty standards, and that there is no definitive "ideal body" for women, because it constantly shifts.[365][366][367] Some authors argue that body types have never been universal and that most evolutionary psychology studies on the "ideal female body" shape have been questioned or disproven due to external factors such as Eurocentric bias, unreliable data and idealized western gender roles.[368][369][370][371] On the internet, communities can create their own niche beauty standards that differ from the cultural norm.[372][373][374] It has been argued that the "perfect body" is a matter of personal preference and exposure to regional media.[375][376]

## See also

* Adornment
* Body proportions
* Artistic canons of body proportions
* Body shape
* Male body shape - Male musculo-skeletal characteristics
* Female body shape
* Circassian beauties
* Cultural views on the navel
* Feminine beauty ideal
* The Honest Body Project
* Human physical appearance
* Koinophilia
* Matching hypothesis
* Ovulatory shift hypothesis
* Sexual attraction
* Sexual capital
* Sexual fetishism

## Notes

1. ↑ However, one expert suggested that her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty".[4]
2. ↑ The "sitting body ratio" (SBR) is also quoted, where the trunk is measured with subject sitting on a flat table, and the leg-length determined by subtraction from standing height. This is almost the same as the perineum-to-floor distance but without the need to touch an intimate area.

## References

1. ↑ "People: Just Deserts". Time. May 28, 1945. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775696,00.html. Retrieved August 5, 2011. "... "the most perfect all-over beauty of all time." Runner-up: the Venus de Milo.".
2. ↑ "Says Venus de Milo was not a Flapper; Osteopath Says She Was Neurasthenic, as Her Stomach Was Not in Proper Place.". The New York Times. April 29, 1922. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/04/29/103588246.pdf. "Venus de Milo ... That lady of renowned beauty..."
3. ↑ CBS News Staff (August 5, 2011). "Venus". CBS News. http://www.cbsnews.com/2300-3445_162-5417565.html. "The classical vision of beauty exemplified in Greek art, such as the 2nd century B.C. Venus de Milo (a.k.a. Aphrodite of Milos), was an ideal carried through millennia, laying the basis for much of Western art's depictions of the human form."
4. ↑ "Creating the Past: The Vénus de Milo and the Hellenistic Reception of Classical Greece". American Journal of Archaeology 109 (2): 227–50. 2005. doi:10.3764/aja.109.2.227. https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-archaeology_2005-04_109_2/page/227.
5. ↑ Wilkinson, Philip (1998). Illustrated Dictionary of Mythology. DK Pub.. ISBN 9780789434135. https://archive.org/details/illustrateddicti00wilk.
6. ↑ Day, John (2004). "Does the Old Testament Refer to Sacred Prostitution and Did It Actual Exist in Ancient Israel?". in McCarthy, Carmel; Healey, John F.. Biblical and Near Eastern Essays: Studies in Honour of Kevin J. Cathcart. Cromwell Press. pp. 2–21. ISBN 978-0-8264-6690-7.
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14. ↑ "Healthy body, healthy face? Evolutionary approaches to health perception.". Culture and Cognition: A Collection of Critical Essays.. Peter Lang International Publishers. 2015.
15. ↑ "Fluctuating asymmetry and preferences for sex-typical bodily characteristics". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105 (35): 12938–43. September 2008. doi:10.1073/pnas.0710420105. PMID 18711125. Bibcode: 2008PNAS..10512938B.
16. ↑ Bulczak, Grzegorz; Gugushvili, Alexi (2023-03-17). "Physical attractiveness and cardiometabolic risk" (in en). American Journal of Human Biology 35 (8): e23895. doi:10.1002/ajhb.23895. ISSN 1042-0533. PMID 36932650.
17. ↑ "Facial Shape Analysis Identifies Valid Cues to Aspects of Physiological Health in Caucasian, Asian, and African Populations" (in en). Frontiers in Psychology 8: 1883. 2017. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01883. PMID 29163270.
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19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Briscoe, Joanna (January 17, 2004). "Haven't I seen you somewhere before?". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/2004/jan/17/weekend7.weekend2. "Evolutionary psychologists claim there is an underlying standard script for beauty – a foundation for what we find appealing that transcends culture and ethnicity. There are various absolutes. For instance, to judge someone beautiful, the eye requires symmetry"
20. ↑ Fisher, Maryanne L. (2017). The Oxford Handbook of Women and Competition. Oxford University Press. p. 603. ISBN 978-0-19-937639-1.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Women's height, reproductive success and the evolution of sexual dimorphism in modern humans". Proceedings. Biological Sciences 269 (1503): 1919–23. September 2002. doi:10.1098/rspb.2002.2111. PMID 12350254. PMC 1691114. http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/daniel.nettle/procroysoc.pdf.
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28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Kershaw (2008).
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Berri, David J. (September 16, 2008). "Do Pretty-Boy Quarterbacks Make More Money?". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/14/sports/playmagazine/0914play-FBALL-QBS.html. "Research, though, has indicated that what we think of as facial attractiveness is really just facial symmetry"
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Willett, Edward (October 29, 2008). "A person's face can say a lot: Helen's face is said to have launched a thousand ships, while Medusa's could turn men to stone. And even today we talk about individuals with 'a face that can stop a clock.'". The Leader-Post (Regina). http://www.canada.com/reginaleaderpost/news/arts_life/story.html?id=89cfe85e-664a-4abf-ba93-faed9fd7704b. ""people preferentially mate with, date, associate with, employ, and even vote for physically attractive individuals." ... Symmetry is one trait we find attractive (but only if the face is right-side up: your symmetric face will, alas, do nothing to help you attract a mate if you constantly stand on your head."
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Murphy, Clare (December 4, 2003). "In the eye of the beholder?". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/3291271.stm. "Art historians, anthropologists and human psychologists in general agree that it is the symmetry of a face, its perfect proportion, or indeed its averageness – where no feature stands out – that has consistently down the ages been deemed attractive. ..."
32. ↑ Burkeman, Oliver (April 24, 2010). "This column will change your life: The beauty in imperfection". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/apr/24/change-your-life-beauty-imperfection. "Absolute flawlessness, it's long been observed, is disturbing. It offers no point of connection, and may help explain the "uncanny valley" effect, where almost-lifelike robots trigger revulsion in humans. ..."
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "A beauty fix plumps up psyche and overall health". The Edmonton Journal. February 10, 2006. http://www.canada.com/story_print.html?id=80528414-59df-4167-b5fb-fca13919d345&sponsor=. "Evolution taught us to lust after symmetry – a nicely balanced body and face – because asymmetry signals past illness or injury. We therefore define beauty quite elegantly, right down to the most ideal ratio of hips to breasts and upper lip to lower lip. Singh says one study showed that people were able to gauge beauty at a subliminal level, when shown pictures for a mere one-hundredth of a second. Another study showed babies prefer pretty faces."
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* "Face shape clue to mental decline". BBC News. 9 August 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/edinburgh_and_east/8192193.stm.
41. ↑ Radford, Tim (August 17, 2005). "How women dream of symmetrical men". The Guardian (London). https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/aug/17/genderissues.research. "The research once again confirms a hypothesis that beauty is not merely in the eye of the beholder: it is an indicator of genetic fitness. From a choice of computer-generated faces, volunteers routinely choose the most symmetrical as the most attractive. Physical symmetry is interpreted as a sign of good inheritance. And therefore, the theory goes, women in a position to conceive would be more attracted to someone more likely to engender the healthiest offspring."
42. ↑ "Human female orgasm and mate fluctuating asymmetry". Animal Behaviour 50 (6): 1601–15. 1995. doi:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80014-X.
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53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 Khan, Razib (August 16, 2008). "Taking the pill might make your brother hawt?". Discover Magazine. http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2008/08/taking-the-pill-might-make-your-brother-hawt/. Retrieved July 25, 2011. "Previous studies in animals and humans show that genes in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) influence individual odours and that females often prefer odour of MHC-dissimilar males, perhaps to increase offspring heterozygosity or reduce inbreeding. Women using oral hormonal contraceptives have been reported to have the opposite preference, raising the possibility that oral contraceptives alter female preference towards MHC similarity, with possible fertility costs.".
54. ↑ "MHC-heterozygosity and human facial attractiveness". Evol Hum Behav 26 (3): 213–26. May 2005. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.09.002.
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57. ↑ "The Biracial Advantage". https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/articles/201905/the-biracial-advantage.
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79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Bertamini & Bennet (2009), pp. 245, 246.
80. ↑ "The long and the short of it: Gay men's perceptions of penis size.". Gay & Lesbian Issues and Psychology Review 3 (2): 121–29. 2007.
81. ↑ Rettner, Rachel (June 5, 2014). "For One Night Stands, Girth Matters". http://www.livescience.com/46141-penis-size-girth.html.
82. ↑ Sanderson, S.K. (2001). The Evolution of Human Sociality: A Darwinian Conflict Perspective US: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 179. ISBN 0-8476-9534-4 (alk. paper)
83. ↑ Jones, Trina (2000). Shades of Brown: The Law of Skin Color.. Duke Law School.
84. ↑ "Facial Skin Coloration Affects Perceived Health of Human Faces". International Journal of Primatology 30 (6): 845–57. December 2009. doi:10.1007/s10764-009-9380-z. PMID 19946602.
85. ↑ "Skin blood perfusion and oxygenation colour affect perceived human health". PLOS ONE 4 (4): e5083. 2009. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0005083. PMID 19337378. Bibcode: 2009PLoSO...4.5083S.
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87. ↑ "Mate preferences and infectious disease: theoretical considerations and evidence in humans". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences 366 (1583): 3375–88. December 2011. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0136. PMID 22042915.
88. ↑ Tybur & Gangestad 2011: "Indeed, at the current time, little direct evidence addresses whether skin tone or colour reflects current infection levels or infectability. More research is clearly needed.",
89. ↑ 89.0 89.1 89.2 89.3 89.4 Cunningham et al. (1995).
90. ↑ "Skin color preference, sexual dimorphism and sexual selection: A case of gene culture co-evolution?". Ethnic and Racial Studies 9: 87–113. September 13, 2010. doi:10.1080/01419870.1986.9993516. "an overwhelming cross-cultural preference for lighter skin".
91. ↑ Polovick, Madeline (2017). "Orange Is the New Black": The Skin-Tanning Phenomenon and Its Influence on Perceptions of Race, Class, and Gender (Thesis). Senior Independent Study Theses. Retrieved 31 January 2023.
92. ↑ Polovick (2017), p. 14: "The researchers discovered that their findings did not support Van den Berghe and Frost’s hypothesis that men were more attracted to lighter-skinned women, especially as linked to a sign of fertility, because their data showed a preference for women with darker skin (measured by color parameters that indicated a skin value based on blue and green in comparison to red components)."
93. ↑ Polovick (2017), p. 12-13: "They chose to use tanned women as their research model because women have higher rates of tanning than men (Robinson et al. 1997b), and therefore are more likely to utilize tanned skin as an attractive trait. Their hypothesis was that both women and men would find a tanned female to be more physically and interpersonally attractive, healthier, taller, and thinner than a less tanned female. Only the men’s responses were statistically significant, demonstrating an overall preference for the dark-tanned female over then medium-tanned. Banerjee, Campo, and Greene found that their results contradict previous research that has shown a preference for medium tanned skin over dark-tanned skin (Broadstock et al. 1992). They also found that the men viewed the darker-tanned women as thinner" ... "They reason that women might tan more often than men because they believe men that find them more attractive that way; which, these perceptions of women by men were proven most likely accurate with their study."
94. ↑ Hurkman, Alexis Van (15 November 2010). The Color Correction Handbook: Professional Techniques for Video and Cinema. Pearson Education. p. 30-IA5. ISBN 978-0-321-71974-4. "Smith, Cornelissen and Tovee found that, contrary to previous cross-cultural studies on the topic, the observers showed a marked preference for the darker-complexioned, tanned volunteers."
95. ↑ "Human physique and sexual attractiveness in men and women: a New Zealand-U.S. comparative study". Archives of Sexual Behavior 39 (3): 804. June 2010. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9441-y. PMID 19139985. https://archive.org/details/sim_archives-of-sexual-behavior_2010-06_39_3/page/798. ""In the current study, men rated images with lighter skin tones as most attractive, especially so in the Californian sample. In New Zealand, men rated the female images of average skin color as most attractive, followed by the image which was lightened by 10 units of brightness and 15 units of contrast."".
96. ↑ Bulmer, Martin; Solomos, John (2 October 2017). Race, Migration and Identity. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN 978-1-317-51969-0. "For example, in a recent study examining Latina female college students who identified as white, pale skin was viewed as unattractive compared to tanned skin (Stephens and Fernandez, 2012). Furthermore, having the ideal, tan skin colour was associated with being more desirable in peer and dating contexts; more sexually appealing to men ... For example, in a study of African American male and female college students, Coard, Breland and Raskin found that participants preferred a medium skin tone over a lighter or darker skin tone."
97. ↑ Verma, N. M. P.; Srivastava, Alpana (20 August 2020). The Routledge Handbook of Exclusion, Inequality and Stigma in India. Taylor & Francis. p. 293. ISBN 978-1-000-09669-9. "A few studies have found that tanned skin is regarded as both more attractive and healthier than pale or very dark skin, and there is a direct correlation between the degree of tanning and perceived attractiveness, especially among young women."
98. ↑ "African and European perception of African female attractiveness". Evolution and Human Behavior 38 (6): 744–55. 2017. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2017.07.002.
99. ↑ Singer, Merrill; Beyer, Hans (2008). Killer Commodities: Public Health and the Corporate Production of Harm. AltaMira Press. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-7591-0979-7. "Harris investigated the history of the parasol... everywhere ordinary people were forbidden to protect themselves with such devices "pallid skin became a marker of upper-class status". At the beginning of the 20th century, in the United States, lighter-skinned people avoided the sun... Tanned skin was considered lower class."
100. ↑ "Use of sunscreen, sunburning rates, and tanning bed use among more than 10 000 US children and adolescents". Pediatrics 109 (6): 1009–14. June 2002. doi:10.1542/peds.109.6.1009. PMID 12042536. https://archive.org/details/sim_pediatrics_2002-06_109_6/page/1009.
101. ↑ "Effects of Suntan on Judgements of Healthiness and Attractiveness by Adolescents". J Appl Soc Psychol 22 (2): 157–72. January 1992. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.1992.tb01527.x.
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103. ↑ "Tan is 'In': Study Finds Light Brown More Attractive than Pale or Dark Skin". physorg.com. http://www.physorg.com/news78679968.html.
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106. ↑ "The effects of skin colour distribution and topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health". Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology 22 (4): 493–98. April 2008. doi:10.1111/j.1468-3083.2007.02512.x. PMID 18081752.
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197. ↑ Cunningham et al. (1995), p. 267: "Asian, Hispanic, and White participants were similar in giving higher ratings to targets with the neonate features of large eyes, greater distance between the eyes, and a smaller nose area (see Table 2). Women with the maturity qualities of higher cheek-bones and narrower faces and low levels of the male maturity cues of large chins and thick eyebrows were judged more positively."
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198. ↑ Cunningham et al. (1995), p. 271"The four-item measure of exposure to Western culture was not reliably associated with giving higher ratings to Whites (r = . 19, n s). The relation of rating Whites to frequency of viewing Western television, for example, was quite low(r=.01)."
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308. ↑ Stangor, Dr Charles (September 26, 2014). Initial Attraction. https://opentextbc.ca/socialpsychology/chapter/initial-attraction/.
309. ↑ Confer, Jaime C.; Perilloux, Carin; Buss, David M. (September 1, 2010). "More than just a pretty face: men's priority shifts toward bodily attractiveness in short-term versus long-term mating contexts". Evolution and Human Behavior 31 (5): 348–53. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.04.002. https://archive.org/details/sim_evolution-and-human-behavior_2010-09_31_5/page/348.
310. ↑ "Beauty is in the adaptations of the beholder: the evolutionary psychology of human female sexual attractiveness.". Sexual Nature, Sexual Culture. Chicago Series on Sexuality, History, and Society. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press. 1995. pp. 80–119. https://archive.org/details/sexualnaturesexu0000unse.
311. ↑ Mealey, Linda (2000). Sex differences development and evolutionary strategies. San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 978-0-12-487460-2. https://archive.org/details/sexdifferencesde0000meal.
312. ↑ Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer (2000). Mother nature: maternal instincts and how they shape the human species (1st ed.). New York: Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-345-40893-8.
313. ↑ 313.0 313.1 Trafford, Abigail; Cherlin, Andrew (March 6, 2001). "Second Opinion: Men's Health & Marriage". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/liveonline/01/health/health0306.htm. "The major reason for the imbalance between men and women in the later decades of life is because men tend to marry younger women as they get older."
314. ↑ "Women drawn to men with muscles". Reuters. July 10, 2007. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sex-muscles-idUSEIC04599320070710?feedType=RSS.
315. ↑ "Women's choice of men goes in cycles". bbc.co.uk. June 24, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/376321.stm.
316. ↑ "When admiring potential partners' faces, women look for both overall aesthetics and individual sexual appeal". TIME.com. August 26, 2009. http://healthland.time.com/2009/08/26/how-ladies-size-up-facial-attractiveness/.
317. ↑ Adrian, Bonnie (2003). Framing the Bride: Globalizing Beauty and Romance in Taiwan's Bridal Industry. University of California Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-520-23834-3.
318. ↑ "Why is muscularity sexy? Tests of the fitness indicator hypothesis". Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 33 (8): 1167–83. August 2007. doi:10.1177/0146167207303022. PMID 17578932. https://archive.org/details/sim_personality-and-social-psychology-bulletin_2007-08_33_8/page/1167.
319. ↑ Little, Anthony C.; Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M. (2011-06-12). "Facial attractiveness: evolutionary based research". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences (The Royal Society) 366 (1571): 1638–1659. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0404. ISSN 0962-8436. PMID 21536551. ""Male and female ‘siblings’ of both male and female participants were manufactured using computer-graphic methods detailed in DeBruine et al. [163]. Participants judged self-resemblance to be more attractive in the context of own-sex faces than in the context of opposite-sex faces. However, there was no such opposite-sex bias when the same faces were judged for averageness. This own-sex bias in preferences for self-resemblance indicates that, while self-resemblance is attractive in an exclusively prosocial (i.e. nonsexual) context, it is less attractive in a potential mating context. Stronger attraction to cues of kinship in own-sex faces than in opposite-sex faces is likely to promote prosocial behaviour towards own-sex kin, while minimizing occurrences of inbreeding with opposite-sex kin."".
320. ↑ "Resemblance to self increases the appeal of child faces to both men and women". Evol Hum Behav 25 (3): 142–54. May 2004. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2004.03.003.
321. ↑ "Trustworthy but not lust-worthy: context-specific effects of facial resemblance". Proceedings. Biological Sciences 272 (1566): 919–22. May 2005. doi:10.1098/rspb.2004.3003. PMID 16024346.
322. ↑ Bittles, A.H. (2012). Consanguinity in Context. Cambridge Studies in Biological and Evolutionary Anthropology. Cambridge University Press. p. 97. ISBN 978-1-107-37693-9. ""Also, although unstressed individuals showed a preference for visually similar mates, when subjected to physiological stress by cooling, they were more likepy to prefer dissimilar mates (Lass-Hennemann et al., 2010).""
323. ↑ "Effects of stress on human mating preferences: stressed individuals prefer dissimilar mates". Proceedings. Biological Sciences 277 (1691): 2175–83. July 2010. doi:10.1098/rspb.2010.0258. PMID 20219732.
324. ↑ Burke, Darren; Nolan, Caroline; Hayward, William Gordon; Russell, Robert; Sulikowski, Danielle (2013-10-01). "Is There an Own-Race Preference in Attractiveness?". Evolutionary Psychology (SAGE Publications) 11 (4): 147470491301100. doi:10.1177/147470491301100410. ISSN 1474-7049. ""Only two studies have directly investigated whether people perceive own-race faces to be more attractive than other-race faces using more than one race of participant (Rhodes et al., 2001; Rhodes et al., 2005), and these studies present conflicting findings."".
325. ↑ Khan, Razib (2008-07-21). "Why does race matter for women?". https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/why-does-race-matter-for-women.
326. ↑ Little, Anthony C; Hockings, Kimberley J; Apicella, Coren L; Sousa, Claudia (2012-01-01). "Mixed-Ethnicity Face Shape and Attractiveness in Humans". Perception (SAGE Publications) 41 (12): 1486–1496. doi:10.1068/p7278. ISSN 0301-0066. PMID 23586288.
327. ↑ "Online Dating Preferences of Asian Americans". Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 31 (6): 796–814. 2014. doi:10.1177/0265407513505925.
328. ↑ "A facial attractiveness account of gender asymmetries in interracial marriage". PLOS ONE 7 (2): 2. February 9, 2012. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0031703. PMID 22347504. Bibcode: 2012PLoSO...731703L.
329. ↑ "Sexual dimorphism and attractiveness in Asian and White faces". Visual Cognition 26 (6): 442–49. July 3, 2018. doi:10.1080/13506285.2018.1475437. "The perception that White faces are more masculine than Asian faces provides support for Lewis’ (2012) hypothesis that interracial marriage can be explained by differences in sexual dimorphism and thus advances our understanding of the gender asymmetries in interracial marriage."
330. ↑ "Cross-cultural effects of color, but not morphological masculinity, on perceived attractiveness of men's faces". Evolution and Human Behavior 33 (4): 260–67. July 1, 2012. doi:10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2011.10.003. http://bura.brunel.ac.uk/handle/2438/7032.
331. ↑ K. Maner, Jon; T. Kendrick, Douglas; Vaughn Becker, D.; W. Delton, Andrew; Hofer, Brian; J. Wilbur, Christopher; L. Neuberg, Steven (2003). "Sexually Selective Cognition: Beauty Captures the Mind of the Beholder". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85 (6): 1107–20. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.6.1107. PMID 14674817. https://www.cep.ucsb.edu/papers/Maner_et_al2003SexuallySelectiveCognitive.pdf.
332. ↑ Van Osch, Yvette; Blanken, Irene; H. J. Meijs, Maartje; Van Wolferen, Job (January 18, 2015). "A group's physical attractiveness is greater than the average attractiveness of its members: The group attractiveness effect". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 41 (4): 559–74. doi:10.1177/0146167215572799. PMID 25733515. https://journals-sagepub-com.gate3.library.lse.ac.uk/doi/full/10.1177/0146167215572799.
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335. ↑ "What is beautiful is good and more accurately understood. Physical attractiveness and accuracy in first impressions of personality". Psychological Science 21 (12): 1777–1782. December 2010. doi:10.1177/0956797610388048. PMID 21051521. https://archive.org/details/sim_psychological-science_2010-12_21_12/page/1777.
336. ↑ Gupta, Nabanita Datta; Etcoff, Nancy L.; Jaeger, Mads M. (2015). "Beauty in Mind: The Effects of Physical Attractiveness on Psychological Well-Being and Distress". Journal of Happiness Studies 17 (3): 1313–1325. doi:10.1007/s10902-015-9644-6.
337. ↑ 337.0 337.1 Kwan, Samantha; Trautner, Mary Nell (January 2009). "Beauty Work: Individual and Institutional Rewards, the Reproduction of Gender, and Questions of Agency". Sociology Compass 3 (1): 49–71. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9020.2008.00179.x.
338. ↑ Saltzberg, Elayne A.; Chrisler, Joan C. (1995). "Beauty Is the Beast: Psychological Effects of the Pursuit of the Perfect Female Body". Women: A Feminist Perspective.. 5 (5th ed.). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publishing Company. pp. 306–315.
339. ↑ Kottasova, Ivana (February 3, 2016). "'Pink tax' angers women from New York to London". CNN Money. https://money.cnn.com/2016/02/03/news/female-male-products-pricing-boots/.
340. ↑ Alter, Charlotte (December 21, 2015). "Women Pay More for Everything From Birth to Death, Report Finds". Time Magazine. http://time.com/4159973/women-pay-more-everything/.
341. ↑ "Personality goes a long way: The malleability of opposite-sex physical attractiveness". Personal Relationships 14 (4): 571–585. 2007. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6811.2007.00172.x.
342. ↑ Hitsch, Gunter; Hortaçsu, Ali; Ariely, Dan (March 1, 2020). "Matching and Sorting in Online Dating" (in en). American Economic Review 100 (1): 130–63. doi:10.1257/aer.100.1.130.
343. ↑ Feingold, A (1988). "Matching for attractiveness in romantic partners and same-sex friends: A meta-analysis and theoretical critique." (in en). Psychological Bulletin 104 (2): 226–235. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.104.2.226.
344. ↑ Hunt, Lucy; Eastwick, Paul; Finkel, Eli (June 26, 2015). "Leveling the Playing Field: Longer Acquaintance Predicts Reduced Assortative Mating on Attractiveness" (in en). Psychol. Sci. 26 (7): 1046–1053. doi:10.1177/0956797615579273. PMID 26068893. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26068893/.
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347. ↑ Monk, Ellis P.; Esposito, Michael H.; Lee, Hedwig (2021). "Beholding Inequality: Race, Gender, and Returns to Physical Attractiveness in the United States". American Journal of Sociology 127 (1): 194–241. doi:10.1086/715141.
348. ↑ Bi, Weilong; Chan, Ho Fai; Torgler, Benno (October 7, 2020). ""Beauty" premium for social scientists but "unattractiveness" premium for natural scientists in the public speaking market" (in en). Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 7 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1057/s41599-020-00608-6. ISSN 2662-9992.
349. ↑ Goleman, Daniel (December 8, 1992). "A Rising Cost Of Modernity: Depression". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/1992/12/08/science/a-rising-cost-of-modernity-depression.html. "Competing explanations range from a loss of beliefs in God or an afterlife that can buffer people against life's setbacks, to the stresses of industrialization, to the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty, to exposure to toxic substances."
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354. ↑ Persaud, Raj (April 30, 2005). "Science rewrites the rules of attraction". sensualism.com. London Times. http://www.sensualism.com/beauty/attraction.html.
355. ↑ "Definition of LOOKISM" (in en). https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/lookism.
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358. ↑ Rhodes, Gillian; Zebrowitz, Leslie A. (2002). Facial Attractiveness – Evolutionary, Cognitive, and Social Perspectives. Ablex. ISBN 978-1-56750-636-5.
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361. ↑ "Puisten" (in nl-NL). Acneacademie.nl. July 1, 2014. http://www.acneacademie.nl/puisten/.
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363. ↑ Alam, Mohammad Khursheed; Mohd Noor, Nor Farid; Basri, Rehana; Yew, Tan Fo; Wen, Tay Hui (November 12, 2015). "Multiracial Facial Golden Ratio and Evaluation of Facial Appearance". PLOS ONE 10 (11): e0142914. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0142914. ISSN 1932-6203. PMID 26562655. Bibcode: 2015PLoSO..1042914A.
364. ↑ "The Myth That Will Not Go Away". https://www.maa.org/external_archive/devlin/devlin_05_07.html.
365. ↑ "Ideal weight varies across cultures, but body image dissatisfaction pervades" (in en). https://medicalxpress.com/news/2007-10-ideal-weight-varies-cultures-body.html.
366. ↑ Edwards, Vanessa Van (2016-05-10). "Beauty Standards: See How Body Types Change Through History" (in en-US). https://www.scienceofpeople.com/beauty-standards/.
367. ↑ Ginsburg, Jacqueline Howard (2018-03-07). "The history of the 'ideal' woman and where that has left us" (in en). https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/07/health/body-image-history-of-beauty-explainer-intl/index.html.
368. ↑ Winegard, Benjamin M.; Winegard, Bo M.; Deaner, Robert O. (2014-07-01). "Misrepresentations of Evolutionary Psychology in Sex and Gender Textbooks" (in en). Evolutionary Psychology 12 (3): 474–508. doi:10.1177/147470491401200301. ISSN 1474-7049. PMID 25299988.
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370. ↑ Sypeck, Mia Foley; Gray, James J.; Ahrens, Anthony H. (November 2004). "No longer just a pretty face: Fashion magazines' depictions of ideal female beauty from 1959 to 1999" (in en). International Journal of Eating Disorders 36 (3): 342–347. doi:10.1002/eat.20039. ISSN 0276-3478. PMID 15478132. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/eat.20039.
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* Mathematics and architecture
* Mathematics and art
* Medieval aesthetics
* Music theory
* Neuroesthetics
* Painting
* Patterns in nature
* Philosophy of design
* Philosophy of film
* Philosophy of music
* Poetry
* Sculpture
* Theory of painting
* Theory of art
* Tragedy
* Visual arts

* Index
* Outline
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Evolutionary psychology

* History

Processes|

* Altruism
* Coevolution
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Kin selection
* Natural selection
* Sexual selection
* Social selection

Areas|

* Psychological development
* Morality
* Religion
* Depression
* Educational psychology
* Evolutionary aesthetics
* Music
* Darwinian literary studies
* Evolution of emotion

Biologists/
Neuroscientists|

* John Crook
* Charles Darwin
* Richard Dawkins
* Jared Diamond
* W. D. Hamilton
* Peter Kropotkin
* Gordon Orians
* Jaak Panksepp
* Margie Profet
* Giacomo Rizzolatti
* Randy Thornhill
* Robert Trivers
* Carel van Schaik
* Claus Wedekind
* Wolfgang Wickler
* David Sloan Wilson
* E. O. Wilson
* George C. Williams
* Richard Wrangham

Anthropologists|

* Jerome H. Barkow
* Robert Boyd
* Napoleon Chagnon
* Gregory Cochran
* Robin Dunbar
* Daniel Fessler
* Mark Flinn
* Henry Harpending
* John D. Hawks
* Joseph Henrich
* Ruth Mace
* Daniel Nettle
* Stephen Shennan
* Donald Symons
* John Tooby
* Pierre van den Berghe

Behavioral economists/
Political scientists|

* Samuel Bowles
* Ernst Fehr
* Herbert Gintis
* Dominic D. P. Johnson
* Gad Saad

Literary theory/
Aesthetics|

* Joseph Carroll
* Denis Dutton

Psychologists/
Cognitive scientists|

* Simon Baron-Cohen
* Justin L. Barrett
* Jay Belsky
* David F. Bjorklund
* Paul Bloom
* Pascal Boyer
* Joseph Bulbulia
* David Buss
* Josep Call
* Anne Campbell
* Peter Carruthers
* Leda Cosmides
* Martin Daly
* Daniel Dennett
* Paul Ekman
* Anne Fernald
* Aurelio José Figueredo
* David C. Geary
* Gerd Gigerenzer
* Jonathan Haidt
* Judith Rich Harris
* Stephen Kaplan
* Douglas T. Kenrick
* Simon M. Kirby
* Robert Kurzban
* Michael T. McGuire
* Geoffrey Miller
* Darcia Narvaez
* Randolph M. Nesse
* Steven Neuberg
* David Perrett
* Steven Pinker
* Paul Rozin
* Mark Schaller
* David P. Schmitt
* Todd K. Shackelford
* Roger Shepard
* Peter K. Smith
* Dan Sperber
* Anthony Stevens
* Frank Sulloway
* Michael Tomasello
* Mark van Vugt
* Andrew Whiten
* Glenn Wilson
* Margo Wilson

Research centers/
organizations|

* Center for Evolutionary Psychology
* Human Behavior and Evolution Society
* Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
* Max Planck Institute for Human Cognitive and Brain Sciences
* New England Complex Systems Institute

Related subjects
and articles|

* The Adapted Mind
* The Evolution of Human Sexuality
* Evolutionary Psychology
* Evolution and Human Behavior
* Biosocial criminology
* Criticism of evolutionary psychology
* Evolutionary anthropology
* Evolutionary medicine
* Evolutionary linguistics
* Evolutionary neuroscience
* Evolutionary psychology and culture
* Group selection
* Human evolution
* Memetics
* Primatology
* Sociobiology
* Sociocultural evolution

Lists|

* Evolutionary psychologists
* Evolutionary psychology research groups and centers
* Bibliography of evolution and human behavior

* Evolutionary psychology
* Psychology portal
* Evolutionary biology portal

* v
* t
* e

Outline of human sexuality

Physiology and biology|

* Erection
* Insemination
* Intersex
* Libido
* Nocturnal emission
* Orgasm
* Female and male ejaculation
* Pelvic thrust
* Pre-ejaculate
* Pregnancy
* Sexual arousal
* Sexual stimulation

Health and
education|

* Birth control
* Condom
* Masters and Johnson
* Reproductive medicine
* Andrology
* Gynaecology
* Urology
* Safe sex
* Sex education
* Sex therapy (PLISSIT model)
* Sexology
* Sexual dysfunction
* Erectile dysfunction
* Hypersexuality
* Hyposexuality
* Sexual medicine
* Sexual surrogate
* Sexually transmitted infection

Identity and diversity|

* Gender binary
* Gender identity
* Men who have sex with men
* Sexual identity
* Sexual orientation
* Women who have sex with women

Law|

* Age of consent
* Criminal transmission of HIV
* Child sexual abuse
* Incest
* Indecent exposure
* Obscenity
* Sexual abuse
* Cybersex trafficking
* Rape
* Sex trafficking
* Sexual assault
* Sexual harassment
* Sexual misconduct
* Sexual slavery
* Sexual violence

History|

* Blue Movie
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Feminist sex wars
* Golden Age of Porn
* History of erotic depictions
* Sexual revolution

Relationships
and society|

* Anarchism and love/sex
* Extramarital sex
* Family planning
* Flirting
* Free love
* Marriage
* Modesty
* Polyamory
* Premarital sex
* Promiscuity
* Romance
* Sex-positive movement
* Sexual abstinence
* Sexual addiction
* Sexual attraction
* Sexual capital
* Sexual ethics
* Sexual objectification
* Sexual slang

By country|

* Ancient Rome
* China
* India
* Japan
* Philippines
* South Korea
* United States

Sexual activities|

* Conventional sex
* Anal sex
* Bareback
* BDSM
* Child sex
* Creampie
* Edging
* Erotic sexual denial
* Fetishism
* Fingering
* Fisting
* Gang bang
* Group sex
* Masturbation
* Mechanics of sex
* Nipple stimulation
* Non-penetrative sex
* Facial
* Foot fetishism
* Footjob
* Forced orgasm
* Frot
* Handjob
* Mammary intercourse
* Sumata
* Oral sex
* 69
* Anilingus
* Cunnilingus
* Fellatio
* Irrumatio
* Paraphilia
* Pompoir
* Quickie
* Sex in space
* Sex positions
* Sexual fantasy
* Sexual fetishism
* Sexual intercourse
* Foreplay
* Sexual penetration
* Swinging
* Tribadism
* Urethral intercourse
* Urolagnia
* Virtual sex
* Cybersex
* Erotic talk
* Wet T-shirt contest

Sex industry|

* Red-light district
* Adult video games
* Erotica
* Pornography
* Film actor
* Prostitution
* Survival sex
* Sex museum
* Sex shop
* Sex tourism
* Child
* Female
* Sex worker
* Sex toy
* doll
* Strip club
* Webcam model

Religion and
sexuality|

* Buddhism
* Christian demonology
* Daoism
* Islam
* Mormonism
* Sex magic

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