Proto-Indo-Iranian language

Short description: Reconstructed proto-language

Proto-Indo-Iranian

Proto-Indo-Iranic (PIIr)
Reconstruction of| Indo-Iranian languages
Region| Eurasian Steppe
Era| Late 3rd m. BCE

Reconstructed
ancestor

Proto-Indo-European

Lower-order reconstructions|

* Proto-Indo-Aryan
* Proto-Iranian
* Proto-Nuristani

Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Languages

* * *

* List of Indo-European languages

* * *

Historical

* Albanian
* Persian
* Parthian
* Armenian
* Balto-Slavic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Hellenic
* Greek
* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Italic
* Romance

Extinct

* Anatolian
* Tocharian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Messapian
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Thracian

* * *

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European language

* Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut

* * *

Hypothetical

* Daco-Thracian
* Graeco-Armenian
* Graeco-Aryan
* Graeco-Phrygian
* Indo-Hittite
* Italo-Celtic
* Thraco-Illyrian

* * *

Grammar

* Vocabulary
* Root
* Verbs
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Numerals
* Particles

* * *

Other

* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse)
* Proto-Celtic
* Proto-Italic
* Proto-Greek
* Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian)

Philology

* Hittite texts
* Hieroglyphic Luwian
* Linear B
* Rigveda
* Avesta
* Homer
* Behistun
* Gaulish epigraphy
* Latin epigraphy
* Runic epigraphy
* Ogam
* Gothic Bible
* Armenian Bible
* Slanting Brahmi
* Old Irish glosses

Origins

* Homeland
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Society
* Religion

* * *

Mainstream

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Indo-European migrations
* Eurasian nomads

* * *

Alternative and fringe

* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Indigenous Aryans
* Baltic homeland
* Paleolithic Continuity Theory

Archaeology

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

* Domestication of the horse
* Kurgan
* Kurgan culture
* Steppe cultures
* Bug–Dniester
* Sredny Stog
* Dnieper–Donets
* Samara
* Khvalynsk
* Yamnaya
* Mikhaylovka culture
* Novotitorovka culture

Caucasus

* Maykop

East Asia

* Afanasievo

Eastern Europe

* Usatovo
* Cernavodă
* Cucuteni

Northern Europe

* Corded ware
* Baden
* Middle Dnieper

* * *

Bronze Age

Pontic Steppe

* Chariot
* Yamnaya
* Catacomb
* Multi-cordoned ware
* Poltavka
* Srubna

Northern/Eastern Steppe

* Abashevo culture
* Andronovo
* Sintashta

Europe

* Globular Amphora
* Corded ware
* Beaker
* Unetice
* Trzciniec
* Nordic Bronze Age
* Terramare
* Tumulus
* Urnfield
* Lusatian

South Asia

* BMAC
* Yaz
* Gandhara grave

* * *

Iron Age

Steppe

* Chernoles

Europe

* Thraco-Cimmerian
* Hallstatt
* Jastorf

Caucasus

* Colchian

India

* Painted Grey Ware
* Northern Black Polished Ware

Peoples and societies

Bronze Age

* Anatolian peoples (Hittites)

* Armenians
* Mycenaean Greeks
* Indo-Iranians

Iron Age

Indo-Aryans

* Indo-Aryans

Iranians

* Iranians
* Persians
* Medes
* Parthians
* Scythians
* Saka
* Sarmatians
* Massagetae
* Alans

East Asia

* Wusun
* Yuezhi

Europe

* Celts
* Gauls
* Celtiberians
* Insular Celts
* Cimmerians
* Hellenic peoples
* Italic peoples
* Germanic peoples
* Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia
* Thracians
* Dacians
* Illyrians
* Phrygians

Middle Ages

East Asia

* Tocharians

Europe

* Albanians
* Balts
* Slavs
* Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians
* Medieval Europe

Indo-Aryan

* Medieval India

Iranian

* Greater Persia

Religion and mythology

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European religion
* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
* Ancient Iranian religion

* * *

Historical

* Hittite

Indo-Aryan

* Vedic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian

* Persian
* Zoroastrianism
* Kurdish
* Yazidism
* Yarsanism
* Scythian
* Ossetian

Others

* Armenian

Europe

* Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian)
* Greek
* Roman
* Celtic
* Irish
* Scottish
* Breton
* Welsh
* Cornish
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Norse
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Slavic

Practices

* Fire sacrifice
* Horse sacrifice
* Sati
* Winter solstice/Yule

Indo-European studies

Scholars

* Marija Gimbutas
* J. P. Mallory

Institutes

* Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European

Publications

* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
* The Horse, the Wheel and Language
* Journal of Indo-European Studies
* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

* v
* t
* e

Proto-Indo-Iranian, also called Proto-Indo-Iranic or Proto-Aryan,[1] is the reconstructed proto-language of the Indo-Iranian branch of Indo-European. Its speakers, the hypothetical Proto-Indo-Iranians, are assumed to have lived in the late 3rd millennium BC, and are often connected with the Sintashta culture of the Eurasian Steppe and the early Andronovo archaeological horizon.

Proto-Indo-Iranian was a satem language, likely removed less than a millennium from its ancestor, the late Proto-Indo-European language, and in turn removed less than a millennium from its descendants: Vedic Sanskrit (of the Rigveda)[2] and Old Avestan (of the Gathas).

It is the ancestor of Indo-Aryan languages, the Iranian languages, and the Nuristani languages, predominantly spoken in the Southern Asian subregion of Eurasia.

## Contents

* 1 Descriptive phonology
* 1.1 Two palatal series
* 1.2 Laryngeal
* 1.3 Accent
* 2 Historical phonology
* 3 Subsequent sound changes
* 4 Morphology and basic vocabulary
* 4.1 Personal pronouns (nominative case)
* 4.2 Three examples of verbs
* 4.3 Examples of noun declension
* 4.3.1 Masculine noun
* 4.3.2 Feminine noun
* 4.3.3 Neuter noun
* 4.4 An example of adjectival declension
* 4.5 Numerals
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 Bibliography
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Descriptive phonology

Proto-Indo-Iranian consonant segments  Type  | Labial  | Coronal  | Palatal  | Velar  | Laryngeal

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dental/alveolar | post-alveolar | first | second
Plosive | voiceless | *p | *t |  | *ć | *č | *k |
aspirated | *pʰ | *tʰ |  |  |  | *kʰ |
voiced | *b | *d |  | *ȷ́ | *ǰ | *g |
voiced aspirated | *bʰ | *dʰ |  | *ȷ́ʰ | *ǰʰ | *gʰ |
Fricative | voiceless |  | *s | *š |  |  | *H
voiced |  | (*z)  | *ž |  |  |
aspirated |  |  | *žʰ |  |  |
Nasal  | *m | *n |  |  |  |
Liquid  |  | (*l)  | *r *r̥ |  |  |
Semivowel  |  |  |  | *y | *w |
PII vowel segments  High  | *i (*ī) | *u (*ū)

|
|

Low  | *a *ā

In addition to the vowels, *H, and *r̥ could function as the syllabic core. In many reconstructions, instances of *iH and *uH occur instead of *ī and *ū.

### Two palatal series

Proto-Indo-Iranian is hypothesized to have contained two series of stops or affricates in the palatal to postalveolar region.[3] The phonetic nature of this contrast is not clear, and hence they are usually referred to as the primary or first series (*ć *ȷ́ *ȷ́ʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European palatovelar *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ) and the second or secondary series (*č *ǰ *ǰʰ, continuing Proto-Indo-European plain and labialized velars, *k, *g, *gʰ and *kʷ, *gʷ, *gʷʰ, in palatalizing contexts). The following table shows the most common reflexes of the two series (Proto-Iranian is the hypothetical ancestor to the Iranian languages, including Avestan and Old Persian):[4][5]

PII  | Proto-Indo-Aryan  | Sanskrit  | Proto-Iranian  | Avestan  | Old Persian  | Nuristani[6]

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*ć | *ś  | ś ([ɕ]/[ç])  | *ts | s  | θ  | ċ ([t͡s])
*ȷ́ | *ź  | j ([d͡ʑ]/[ɟ])  | *dz | z  | d  | j̈ ([d͡z]) (> z)
*ȷ́ʰ | *źh  | h ([ɦ])
*č | *c  | c ([t͡ɕ]/[c]])  | *č | č  | č  | č
*ǰ | *j  | j ([d͡ʑ]/[ɟ])  | *ǰ | ǰ  | ǰ  | ǰ
*ǰʰ | *žh  | h ([ɦ])

### Laryngeal

Proto-Indo-European is usually hypothesized to have had three to four laryngeal consonants, each of which could occur in either syllabic or non-syllabic positions. In Proto-Indo-Iranian, the laryngeals merged as one phoneme /*H/. Beekes suggests that some instances of this /*H/ survived into Rigvedic Sanskrit and Avestan as unwritten glottal stops as evidenced by metrics.[7]

### Accent

Like Proto-Indo-European and Vedic Sanskrit (and also Avestan, though it was not written down[8]), Proto-Indo-Iranian had a pitch accent system similar to present-day Japanese, conventionally indicated by an acute accent over the accented vowel.

## Historical phonology

The most distinctive phonological change separating Proto-Indo-Iranian from Proto-Indo-European is the collapse of the ablauting vowels *e, *o into a single vowel, Proto-Indo-Iranian *a (but see Brugmann's law). Grassmann's law, Bartholomae's law, and the ruki sound law were also complete in Proto-Indo-Iranian.

A fuller list of some of the hypothesized sound changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Indo-Iranian follows:

* The Satem shift, consisting of two sets of related changes. The PIE palatals *ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ are fronted or affricated, eventually resulting in PII *ć, *ȷ́, *ȷ́ʰ, while the PIE labiovelars *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ merge with the velars *k *g *gʰ.[9]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*ḱm̥tóm | *ćatám | śatám  | satəm  |  | centum  | hund(red)  | id
*ǵónu | *ȷ́ā́nu | jā́nu  | zānu  | Kt. SE j̈õ  | genū  | knee  | id
*ǵʰimós | *ȷ́ʰimás | himá  | ziiā̊  | Kt. SE j̈im  | hiems  |  | 'winter' / 'snow'
*kʷós | *kás | kás  | ka  |  | quis  | who  | id
*gʷṓws | *gā́wš | gaus  | gao  | Kt. go  | bōs  | cow  | id
*gʷʰormós | *gʰarmás | gharmás  | garəma  |  | formus  | warm  | 'warmth, heat'

* The PIE liquids *l *r *l̥ *r̥ merge as *r *r̥.[10]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*ḱléwos | *ćráwas | śrávas  | srauua  |  | clueō  |  | 'fame, honour, word'
*wĺ̥kʷos | *wŕ̥kas | vŕ̥kas  | vəhrka  |  | lupus  | wolf  | id
*gʷʰormós | *gʰarmás | gharmás  | garəma  |  | formus  | warm  | 'warmth, heat'

* The PIE syllabic nasals *m̥ *n̥ merge with *a.[10]

PIE  | pre-PII  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*déḱm̥ | *dáćm̥ | *dáća | dáśa  | dasā  | Kt. duċ  | decem  | ten  | id
*gʷm̥tós | *gm̥tás | *gatás | gatá  | gata  | Kt. gëvë́  | ventus  | come  | 'come, gone'
*n̥bʰrós | *n̥bʰrás | *abʰrás | abhrá  | aβra  |  | imber  |  | 'rain, cloud'

* Bartholomae's law: an aspirate immediately followed by a voiceless consonant becomes voiced stop + voiced aspirate. In addition, dʰ + t > dᶻdʰ.[11]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | English  | Glossary

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*ubʰtós | *ubdʰás | sámubdha  | ubdaēna  |  | web, weave  | 'woven' / 'made of woven material'
*wr̥dʰtós | *wr̥dᶻdʰás | vr̥ddʰá  | vərəzda  |  |  | 'grown, mature'
*dʰéwgʰti | *dáwgdʰi | dógdhi  | *daogdi  | Pr. lüšt 'daughter'  | daugh(·ter)  | 'to milk'
*wóbʰsos | *wábžʰas |  | vaβžaka  | Kt. ušpi  | wasp  | id

* The Ruki rule: *s is retracted to *š when immediately following a liquid (*r *r̥ *l *l̥), a high vowel (*i *u), a PIE velar (*ḱ *ǵ *ǵʰ *k *g *gʰ *kʷ *gʷ *gʷʰ) or the syllabic laryngeal *H̥.[12] Its allophone *z likewise becomes *ž.[10]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*wisós | *wišás | víṣas  | viša  | Katë viš  | vīrus  |  | 'poison, venom'
*ḱeHs- | *ćH̥šam | aśiṣam  | sīšā  |  |  |  | 'teach!'
*ǵéwseti | *ȷ́áwšati | jóṣati  | zaošō  |  | gustus  |  | 'to like, taste'
*kʷsép- | *kšáp- | kṣáp-  | xšap-  |  |  |  | 'darkness'
*plúsis | *plúšiš | plúṣi  | *fruši  |  | pūlex  |  | 'flea, noxious insect'
*nisdós | *niždás | nīḷá/nīḍá  | *nižda  |  | nīdus  | nest  | 'nest'

* Before a dental occlusive, *ć becomes *š and *ȷ́ becomes *ž. *ȷ́ʰ also becomes *ž, with aspiration of the occlusive.[13]

PIE  | pre-PII  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*h₁oḱtṓ | *Haćtā́ | *Haštā́ | aṣṭá  | ašta  |  | octō  | eight  | 'eight'
*dr̥ḱtós | *dr̥ćtás | *dr̥štás | dr̥ṣṭá  | dərəšta  |  |  |  | 'seen, visible, apparent'
*mr̥ǵt- | *mr̥ȷ́d- | *mr̥žd- | mr̥ḷ-/mr̥ḍ-  | mərəžd-  |  |  |  | 'to forgive, pardon'
*uǵʰtós | *uȷ́dʰás | *uždʰás | ūḍhá  | *užda  | Kt. SE ṓzë 'came'  | vector  | weight  | 'carried'

* The sequence *ćš was simplified to *šš.[14]

PIE  | pre-PII  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*h₂éḱs- | *Háćšas | *Háššas | ákṣa  | aša  |  | axis  | axle  | 'axle, shoulder'

* The "second palatalization" or "law of palatals": *k *g *gʰ develop palatal allophones *č *ǰ *ǰʰ before the front vowels *i, *e.[11] through an intermediate *kʲ *gʲ *gʲʰ.

PIE  | pre-PII  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*-kʷe | *-kʲa | *-ča | -ca  | -ča  |  | -que  |  | 'and'
*gʷih₃wós | *gʲiHwás | *ǰiHwás | jīvás  | juuō  | Kt. ǰiv- 'to be alive'  | vīvus  | quick  | 'alive, living'
*gʷʰénti | *gʲʰánti | *ǰʰánti | hánti  | jaiṇti  | Kt. SE ǰaň-  | -fendit  |  | 'slays'

* Brugmann's law: *o or *ó in an open syllable lengthens to *ā.[15]

PIE  | pre-PII  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | Glossary

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*deh₃tórm̥ | *daHtā́rm̥ | *daHtā́ram | dātā́ram  | dātārəm  |  | datōrem  | 'giver' (accusative singular)

* The vowels *e *o merge with *a. Similarly, *ē, *ō merge with *ā. This has the effect of giving full phonemic status to the second palatal series *č *ǰ *ǰʰ.

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*dédeh₃ti | *dádaHti | dádāti  | dadāiti  | Kt. pře-  | dat  |  | 'to give'
*h₃dónts | *Hdánts | dant  | dantan  | Kt. dut  | dēns  | tooth  | 'tooth'
*bʰréh₂tēr | *bʰráHtā | bhrā́tr̥  | brātar  | Kt. břo  | frāter  | brother  | 'brother'
*wṓkʷs | *wā́kš | vā́k  | vāxš  |  | vōx  |  | 'voice'

* In certain positions, laryngeals were vocalized to *i. This preceded the second palatalization.[16][17]

* Following a consonant, and preceding a consonant cluster

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | Glossary

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*ph₂tréy | *pitráy | pitré  | piθrē  |  | patrī  | 'father' (dative singular)

* Following a consonant and word-final

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Glossary

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*-medʰh₂ | *-madʰHi | -mahi  | -maidī/-maiδi  |  | (1st person plural middle ending)

* The laryngeal *h₂ (and possibly *h₁) aspirates the previous stop consonant and satem palatals. Notably this creates new voiceless aspirated stops. The laryngeal also disappears if it's followed by a vowel.

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*gʰegʰróbh₂e | *ǰagrábʰa | jagrabha  | jāgərəbuš  |  |  |  | 'grabbed'
*m̥ddh₁éh₂ | *adᶻdʰáH | addhā́  | azdā  |  |  |  | 'known'
*méǵh₂os | *máȷ́ʰas | máhas  | mazah  |  |  |  | 'greatness'
*dʰugh₂tḗr | *dʰúgʰHtā |  | duγδar  |  |  | daughter  | id
*(s)pHóy(m)nos | *pʰáy(m)nas | phéna  |  |  |  |  | 'foam'
*pl̥th₂ús | *pr̥tʰúš | pṛthú  | pərəθu  |  |  | flat  | 'broad'
*kh₂idéti | *kʰidáti | khidáti  |  |  | caedō  |  | 'to cut'

* The Indo-European laryngeals all merged into one phoneme *H, which may have been a glottal stop. This was probably contemporary with the merging of *e and *o with *a.[citation needed]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Latin  | English  | Glossary

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*ph₂tḗr | *pHtā́ | pitā́  | ptā  |  | pater  | father  | id

* According to Lubotsky's Law, *H disappeared when followed by a voiced nonaspirated stop and another consonant:[18]

PIE  | PII  | Sanskrit  | Avestan  | Nuristani  | Glossary

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*bʰéh₂geti | *bʰáǰati | bhájati  | bažat̰  |  | 'to divide, distribute'

## Subsequent sound changes

Among the sound changes from Proto-Indo-Iranian to Indo-Aryan is the loss of the voiced sibilants *z, *ẓ, *ź; among those to Proto-Iranian is the de-aspiration of the PIE voiced aspirates.

Post-Indo-Iranian Phonological Development  PII  | → Vedic Sanskrit | Special developments  | → Proto-Iranian | Special developments

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*p  | p  |  | *p  | *f (before consonant)
*pʰ  | ph  |  | *f  | *p (after consonant)
*b  | b  |  | *b  |
*bʰ  | bh  |  | *b  |
*t  | t  | ṭ (after *š, *ž, or *žʰ);

kṣ (PII tć → kṣ)

| *t  | *θ (before consonant)
*tʰ  | th  | ṭh (after *š or *ž)  | *θ  | *t (after consonant)
*d  | d  | ḍ (after *š, *ž, or *žʰ)  | *d  |
*dʰ  | dh  | ḍh (after *š or *ž)  | *d  |
*k  | k  |  | *k  | *x (before consonant)
*kʰ  | kh  |  | *x  | *k (after consonant)
*g  | g  |  | *g  |
*gʰ  | gh  | kṣ (PII gʰžʰ → kṣ)  | *g  |
*ć  | ś  | ch (PII *sć/šć → ch);

cch (PII *VsćV/VšćV → VcchV);
kṣ (PII ćš → kṣ)

| *c  | ∅ (before *š)
*ȷ́  | j  | jj (PII *zȷ́/žȷ́ → jj)  | *j  | ∅ (before *š)
*ȷ́ʰ  | h  | jj (PII *zȷ́ʰ/žȷ́ʰ → jj);

kṣ (PII ȷ́ʰžʰ → kṣ)

| *j  | ∅ (before *š)
*č  | c  | ch (PII *sč/šč → ch);

cch (PII *VsčV/VščV → VcchV)

| *č  |
*ǰ  | j  | jj (PII *zǰ/žǰ → jj)  | *ǰ  |
*ǰʰ  | h  | jj (PII *zǰʰ/žǰʰ → jj)  | *ǰ  |
*s  | s  | ḥ (before a pause)  | *h  | *s (before nasals and plosives, or after plosives and *n)
*š  | ṣ  | ḥ (before a pause)  | *š  |
*ž  | ∅ (lengthening previous vowel)  |  | *ž  | ∅ (after a palatal obstruant)
*žʰ  | ∅ (lengthening previous vowel)  |  | *ž  | ∅ (after a palatal obstruant)
*y  | y  |  | *y  |
*w  | v  | u (after a vowel)  | *w  |
*m  | m  |  | *m  |
*n  | n  | ñ (before or after a palatal consonant);

ṇ (after a retroflex consonant or *r within the same word with no palatal or dental consonant in between)

| *n  |
*r  | r  | ḥ (before a pause)  | *r  |
*r̥  | ṛ  | īr (before *H);

ūr (before *H in the neighborhood of labials)

| *r̥  |
*i  | i  |  | *i  |
*a  | a  |  | *a  |
*ā  | ā  |  | *ā  |
*u  | u  |  | *u  |
*H  | ∅ (lengthening previous vowel)  | i (in between consonants)  | *H  |
Proto-Indo-Iranian | Old Iranian (Av, OP) | Vedic Sanskrit

|
|

*Háćwas "horse" | Av aspa, OP asa | áśva
*bʰaHgás "portion, share" | Av bāga | bhāgá
*bʰráHtā "brother" | Av, OP brātar | bhrā́tr̥
*bʰúHmiš "earth, land" | OP būmiš | bhū́mi-
*mártyas "mortal, man" | Av maṣ̌iia, OP martiya | mártya
*mā́Has "moon" | Av mā̊, OP māha | mā́s
*wásr̥ "spring" | Av vaŋhar | vásara "morning"
*Hr̥tás "truth" | Av aṣ̌a, OP arta | r̥tá
*dʰráwgʰas "lie" | Av draoγa, OP drauga | drógha "using malicious words"
*sáwmas "pressed (juice)" | Av haoma | sóma-

## Morphology and basic vocabulary

Proto-Indo-Iranian has preserved much of the morphology of Proto-Indo-European (PIE): thematic and athematic inflection in both nouns and verbs, all three numbers (singular, dual and plural), all the tense, mood and voice categories in the verb, and the cases in the noun.

### Personal pronouns (nominative case)

Pronouns, nouns and adjectives are inflected into the eight cases of PIE: nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, vocative, ablative, locative and instrumental (with also a comitative/sociative meaning).

Pronoun  | PIE  | PII

|
|

I | *éǵ > *eǵHóm  | *aȷ́Hám > *aȷ́ʰám
You | *túh₂  | *túH
He | *ey- (*eyóm?)

*só

| *ayám

*sá

She | *séh₂  | *sáH
It | *tód  | *tád
We | *wéy > *weyóm  | *wayám
You (all) | *yū́  | *yúH
They (m.) | *tóy  | *táy
They (f.) | *téh₂es  | *tā́s (or *táHas?)
They (n.) | *téh₂  | *táH

### Three examples of verbs

In verbs, the chief innovation is the creation of a passive conjugation with the suffix *-yá, with middle inflection.[19]

The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugated in the present tense.

"To bear/carry"  Pronoun  | PIE  | PII

|
|

I | *bʰéroh₂ > *bʰéroh₂mi | *bʰáraHmi
You | *bʰéresi | *bʰárasi
He, she, it | *bʰéreti | *bʰárati
We | *bʰéromos > *bʰéroh₂mos?  | *bʰáraHmas
You (all) | *bʰérete | *bʰáratʰa
They | *bʰéronti | *bʰáranti
"To call/summon"  Pronoun  | PIE  | PII

|
|

I | (*ǵʰéwyemi >) *ǵʰwéyoh₂mi?  | *ȷ́ʰwáyaHmi
You | *ǵʰwéyesi | *ȷ́ʰwayasi
He, she, it | *ǵʰwéyeti | *ȷ́ʰwáyati
We | *ǵʰwéyomos > *ǵʰwéyoh₂mos?  | *ȷ́ʰwáyaHmas
You (all) | *ǵʰwéyete | *ȷ́ʰwayatʰa
They | *ǵʰwéyonti | *ȷ́ʰwáyanti
"To be" (athematic)  Pronoun  | PIE  | PII

|
|

I | *h₁ésmi  | *Hásmi
You | *h₁ési  | *Hási
He, she, it | *h₁ésti  | *Hásti
We | *h₁smós  | *Hsmás
You (all) | *h₁sté  | *Hstʰá
They | *h₁sénti  | *Hsánti

### Examples of noun declension

Despite Proto-Indo-Iranian preserving much of the original morphology of Proto-Indo-European, an important innovation in the noun is the creation of a genitive plural ending *-nām used with vowel stems.[19]

The following examples lack the dual number.

#### Masculine noun

"Wolf"  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nom. | PIE *wĺ̥kʷos > PII *wŕ̥kas | PIE *wĺ̥kʷoes > PII *wŕ̥kā(s)
Gen. | *wĺ̥kʷosyo > *wŕ̥kasya | *wĺ̥kʷoHom > *wŕ̥kāna(H)m
Dat. | *wĺ̥kʷoey > *wŕ̥kāy | *wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas
Acc. | *wĺ̥kʷom > *wŕ̥kam | *wĺ̥kʷoms > *wŕ̥kāns
Voc. | *wĺ̥kʷe > *wŕ̥ka | *wĺ̥kʷoes > *wŕ̥kā(s)
Abl. | *wĺ̥kʷead > *wŕ̥kāt | *wĺ̥kʷomos > *wŕ̥kaybʰyas
Loc. | *wĺ̥kʷey/oy > *wŕ̥kay | *wĺ̥kʷoysu > *wŕ̥kayšu
Instr. | *wĺ̥kʷoh₁ > *wŕ̥kā | *wĺ̥kʷōys > *wŕ̥kāyš

#### Feminine noun

"Cow" (e.g., Latin "vacca")  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nom. | PIE *woḱéh₂ > PII *waćáH | PIE *woḱéh₂es > PII *waćā́s
Gen. | *woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs | *woḱéh₂oHom > *waćáHnām
Dat. | *woḱéh₂ey > *waćáyaHy | *woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas
Acc. | *woḱā́m > *waćā́m | *woḱéh₂m̥s > *waćā́s
Voc. | *woḱéh₂ > *waćay | *woḱéh₂es > *waćā́s
Abl. | *woḱéh₂s > *waćáyaHs | *woḱéh₂mos > *waćáHbʰyas
Loc. | *woḱéh₂(i) > *waćáyaH(m) | *woḱéh₂su > *waćáHsu
Instr. | *woḱéh₂h₁ > *waćáyaH́ | *woḱéh₂mis > *waćáHbʰiš

#### Neuter noun

"Yoke"  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nom. | PIE *yugóm > PII *yugám | PIE *yugéh₂ > PII *yugáH
Gen. | *yugósyo > *yugásya | *yugóHom > *yugā́na(H)m
Dat. | *yugóey > *yugā́y | *yugómos > *yugáybʰyas
Acc. | *yugóm > *yugám | *yugéh₂ > *yugáH
Voc. | *yugóm > *yugám | *yugéh₂ > *yugáH
Abl. | *yugéad > *yugā́t | *yugómos > *yugáybʰyas
Loc. | *yugéy/óy > *yugáy | *yugóysu > *yugáyšu
Instr. | *yugóh₁ > *yugā́ | *yugṓys > *yugā́yš

### An example of adjectival declension

The morphology in adjectival declension is identical to the one in noun declension. The following example lacks the dual number.

"Immortal" (*n̥-mr̥t-ós)  Case  | Masculine

(singular)

| Feminine

(singular)

| Neuter

(singular)

|
|
|

Nom. | PIE *n̥mr̥tós > PII *amŕ̥tas | PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥taH | PIE *n̥mr̥tóm > PII *amŕ̥tam
Gen. | *n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya | *n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs | *n̥mr̥tósyo > *amŕ̥tasya
Dat. | *n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tāy | *n̥mr̥téh₂ey > *amŕ̥tayaHi | *n̥mr̥tóey > *amŕ̥tā́y
Acc. | *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam | *n̥mr̥tā́m > *amŕ̥tā́m | *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam
Voc. | *n̥mr̥té > *amŕ̥ta | *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥tay | *n̥mr̥tóm > *amŕ̥tam
Abl. | *n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tāt | *n̥mr̥téh₂s > *amŕ̥tayaHs | *n̥mr̥téad > *amŕ̥tā́t
Loc. | *n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay | *n̥mr̥téh₂(i) > *amŕ̥tayaH(m) | *n̥mr̥téy/óy > *amŕ̥tay
Instr. | *n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā | *n̥mr̥téh₂h₁ > *amŕ̥tayaH | *n̥mr̥tóh₁ > *amŕ̥tā́
Case  | Masculine

(plural)

| Feminine

(plural)

| Neuter

(plural)

|
|
|

Nom. | PIE *n̥mr̥tóes > PII *amŕ̥ā(s) | PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂es > PII *amŕ̥ā́s | PIE *n̥mr̥téh₂ > PII *amŕ̥áH
Gen. | *n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕāna(H)m | *n̥mr̥téh₂oHom > *amŕ̥áHnām | *n̥mr̥tóHom > *amŕ̥ā́na(H)m
Dat. | *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas | *n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas | *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas
Acc. | *n̥mr̥tóms > *amŕ̥āns | *n̥mr̥téh₂m̥s > *amŕ̥ā́s | *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH
Voc. | *n̥mr̥tóes > *amŕ̥ā(s) | *n̥mr̥téh₂es > *amŕ̥ā́s | *n̥mr̥téh₂ > *amŕ̥áH
Abl. | *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥aybʰyas | *n̥mr̥téh₂mos > *amŕ̥áHbʰyas | *n̥mr̥tómos > *amŕ̥áybʰyas
Loc. | *n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥ayšu | *n̥mr̥téh₂su > *amŕ̥áHsu | *n̥mr̥tóysu > *amŕ̥áyšu
Instr. | *n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥āyš | *n̥mr̥téh₂mis > *amŕ̥áHbʰiš | *n̥mr̥tṓys > *amŕ̥ā́yš

### Numerals

Numeral  | PIE  | PII

|
|

One (1) | *h₁óynos > *h₁óykos  | *Háykas
Two (2) | *dwóh₁  | *dwáH
Three (3) | *tréyes  | *tráyas
Four (4) | *kʷetwóres  | *čatwā́ras
Five (5) | *pénkʷe  | *pánča
Six (6) | *swéḱs  | *šwáćš
Seven (7) | *septḿ̥  | *saptá
Eight (8) | *oḱtṓw  | *Haštā́
Nine (9) | *h₁néwn̥  | *Hnáwa
Ten (10) | *déḱm̥  | *dáća

## See also

* Glossary of sound laws in the Indo-European languages
* Substratum in the Vedic language

## References

1. ↑ Peter Bellwood; Immanuel Ness (10 November 2014). The Global Prehistory of Human Migration. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-97059-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ.
2. ↑ Hock, Hans Henrich (2015). "Proto-Indo-European verb-finality: Reconstruction, typology, validation". in Kulikov, Leonid; Lavidas, Nikolaos. Proto-Indo-European Syntax and its Development. John Benjamins.
3. ↑ Burrow, pp. 78–79
4. ↑ Ramat, Anna Giacalone (1998). The Indo-European Languages (illustrated ed.). London; New York: Routledge. pp. 134. ISBN 0-415-06449-X. https://books.google.com/books?id=vwUMNCYbLL0C.
5. ↑ Cardona, George; Dhanesh Jain (2003). The Indo-Aryan Languages. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 24. ISBN 0-7007-1130-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=mK4kEuDXySIC.
6. ↑ Jakob Halfmann (25 November 2025). The Diversification of Indo-Iranian and the Position of the Nuristani Languages. Reichert Verlag. ISBN 978-3-7520-0912-5. https://medialibrary.reichert-verlag.de/en/9783752003543_the_diversification_of_indo_iranian_and_the_position_of_the_nuristani_languages/.
7. ↑ Beekes (1988), p. 50
8. ↑ Beekes, p. 55
9. ↑ Burrow, pp. 74–75
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Fortson, p. 182
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Fortson, p. 181
12. ↑ Kuiper, F. B. J. (1976). "Old East Iranian dialects". Indo-Iranian Journal 18: 242.
13. ↑ Burrow, p. 91
14. ↑ Burrow, pp. 92–94
15. ↑ Fortson, p. 183
16. ↑ Beekes, pp. 85–86
17. ↑ Lubotsky, p. 53
18. ↑ Beekes, pp. 88–89
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Fortson p. 205

## Bibliography

* Beekes, Robert Stephen Paul (1988). A Grammar of Gatha-Avestan. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08332-4. https://archive.org/details/Beekes.r.grammarOfGatha-avestan.1/page/n2.
* Burrow, T. (1973). The Sanskrit Language (third ed.). London: Faber & Faber. ISBN 0-571-04819-6. https://archive.org/details/BurrowTheSanskritLanguage/page/n0.
* Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (illustrated ed.). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-4051-0316-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=5hOtPBF6XWwC.
* Lubotsky, A. M. (1988). The System of Nominal Accentuation in Sanskrit and Proto-Indo-European. Leiden; New York: Brill. ISBN 90-04-08835-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=6jBnmLnhXWwC.
* Alexander Lubotsky, "The Indo-Iranian substratum" in Early Contacts between Uralic and Indo-European, ed. Carpelan et al., Helsinki (2001).
* Asko Parpola, 'The formation of the Aryan branch of Indo-European', in Blench and Spriggs (eds), Archaeology and Language III, London and New York (1999).

## Further reading

Contacts between Indo-Iranian and Uralic

* Kuz’Mina, E.E. (2007). "Indo-Iranian contacts with other linguistic groups". in J.P. Mallory. The Origin of the Indo-Iranians. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill. pp. 199–204. doi:10.1163/ej.9789004160545.i-763.53.
* Carpelan, Christian; Parpola, Asko (2017). "On the emergence, contacts and dispersal of Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Uralic and Proto-Aryan in an archaeological perspective". Language and Prehistory of the Indo-European Peoples: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective. Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European. 7. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanums Forlag. pp. 77–87. ISBN 9788763545310.
* Parpola, Asko (2017a). "Finnish vatsa ~ Sanskrit vatsá and the formation of Indo-Iranian and Uralic languages". Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Aikakauskirja 2017 (96): 245–286. doi:10.33340/susa.70229. https://www.sgr.fi/susa/96/susa96parpola.pdf.
* Holopainen, Sampsa (2019). Indo-Iranian borrowings in Uralic: Critical overview of sound substitutions and distribution criterion. Helsinki: University of Helsinki. PhD thesis.
* Holopainen, Sampsa (2020). "Indo-Iranian loanwords in Finnic - A critical overview". Acta Linguistica Petropolitana. Труды института лингвистических исследований XVI (3): 613–668. doi:10.30842/alp2306573716319. Access date: 11.05.2024.
* Bjørn, RG (2022). "Indo-European loanwords and exchange in Bronze Age Central and East Asia: Six new perspectives on prehistoric exchange in the Eastern Steppe Zone". Evol Hum Sci 4: e23. doi:10.1017/ehs.2022.16. PMID 37599704.
* Sámmol Ánte, Luobbal Sámmol (2022). "Proto-Uralic". The Oxford Guide to the Uralic Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 3–27 [25–26]. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198767664.003.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-876766-4. Accessed 10 May 2024.
* Holopainen, S. (2023). "The RUKI Rule in Indo-Iranian and the Early Contacts with Uralic". Internal and External Causes of Language Change: The Naxos Papers. Springer Nature. pp. 315–346. doi:10.1007/978-3-031-30976-2_11. ISBN 9783031309762.

## External links

* "Early Indo-Iranic loans in Uralic: Sounds and strata". Martin Joachim Kümmel, University of Jena. Seminar for Indo-European Studies. https://archive.org/download/early-indo-iranic-loans-in-uralic-sounds/Early_Indo_Iranic_loans_in_Uralic_Sounds.pdf.

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