Proto-Trans–New Guinea language

Short description: Reconstructed ancestor of the Trans–New Guinea languages

Proto-Trans–New Guinea

PTNG
Reconstruction of| Trans–New Guinea languages
Region| New Guinea Highlands
Lower-order reconstructions|

* Proto-Anim
* Proto-Awyu–Ok
* Proto-Momuna–Mek

Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.

## Contents

* 1 Phonology
* 2 Pronouns
* 3 Morphology
* 4 Lexicon
* 5 Reconstructions
* 6 Lexical comparison
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 9 Bibliography
* 10 Further reading
* 11 External links

## Phonology

Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels /i e a o u/; three phonations of stops at three places /p t k/, /ᵐb ⁿd ᵑɡ/, /m n ŋ/; plus a palatal affricate /ᶮdʒ/, the fricative /s/, and the approximants /l j w/. Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.

Consonants[1]: 136 | Bilabial | Apical | Palatal | Velar

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Plosive  | p | t |  | k
Prenasalised plosives | ᵐb | ⁿd  | ᶮdʒ | ᵑg
Nasals  | m | n | ɲ | ŋ
Fricatives  |  | s  |  |
Laterals  |  | l |  |
Semivowels  | w |  | j |

The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:

Vowels[1] | Front  | Central  | Back

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Close  | i |  | u
Mid  | e |  | o
Open  |  | a  |

## Pronouns

Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:

I | *na | we | *ni

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thou | *ga | you | *gi
s/he | *(y)a, *ua | they | *i

There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto-Trans–New Guinea.)

## Morphology

Studies group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea (NENG) group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:[2][1]: 147–148

Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes

| singular | dual | plural

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1st person  | *-Vn | *-u(l,t) | *-un, *-i
2nd person  | *-an  | *-i(l,t)  | *-ai, *-i, *-a
3rd person  | *-a, *-i | *-ai

Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes

| proto-Northeast New Guinea | proto-Madang | proto-Finisterre-Huon | proto-Kainantu-Goroka | Proto-Trans–New Guinea (tentative)

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1sg  | *-Vn | *-in | ? | *-u | *-Vn
2sg  | *-an | *-an,*-i | *-an | *-an | *-Vn
3sg  | *-a,*-i | *-a,*-an | *-a,*-i | *-ai,*-i | *-a,*-i
1du  | *-u(l,t) | -*-u(l,t) | *-u(l,t) | *-ur | *-u(l,t)
2/3du  | *-i(l,t) | *-i(l,t) | *-i(l,t) | ? | *-i(l,t)
1pl  | *-un,*-i | *-un | *-un | *-un |
2/3pl  | *-ai,*-i,*-a | *-ai,*-i | *-e,*-i | *-a |

## Lexicon

Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:

Reflexes of *niman 'louse', which attest to an intermediate *iman in the east:
Chimbu–Wahgi: Mid/Nuclear Wahgi numan
Engan: Enga & Kewa lema
Finisterre–Huon: Kâte imeŋ, Selepet imen
Gogodala mi
Kainantu–Goroka: Awa nu, Tairora nume, Fore numaa, Gende (tu)nima
Southern Kiwai nimo
Koiarian: Managalasi uma
Kolopom: Kimaghama nome, Riantana nome
Kwale nomone
Madang: Kalam yman, Watiwa (Rai Coast) im, Sirva (Adelbert) iima
Mek: Kosarek ami
Marori nemeŋk
Paniai Lakes: Ekari yame (metathesis?)
Timor–Alor–Pantar: Western Pantar (h)amiŋ, Oirata amin (metathesis?)
Wiru nomo

Questionable branches:
Pauwasi: Yafi yemar
Central Sentani mi

The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma-.[1] Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV\- or nV\- form.[1]

* *mV (often *ma): Angaatɨha (Angan); Apalɨ, Waskia, Kalam (Madang); Kâte, Kombe (Finisterre-Huon)
* *na ~ *naa: Awara (Finisterre-Huon); Enga, Ku Waru, Middle Wahgi (Chimbu-Wahgi); Oksapmin

## Reconstructions

Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions[1]: 141–146 body parts

arm, forearm | *mbena
belly, internal organs | *mundun
blood | *ke(nj,s)a
bone | *kondaC
brain | *muk[V]
breast | *amu
buttocks | *simbi + modifier
cheek | *mVkVm
claw, hand | *sikal or *sakil
ear | *kand(i,e)k[V]
excrement 1 | [same as 'guts']
excrement 2 | *ata
eye 1 (cf. egg 2) | *(ŋg,k)iti-maŋgV
eye 2 | *ŋg(a,u)mu
eye 3 | *nVpV
fingernail | *(mb,p)(i,u)t(iu)C
foot, lower leg | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C]
forehead, head | *mVtVna
guts, intestines, bowels | *sim(i,u), *simbi
hair 1 | *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]
hair 2, leaf | *iti
head 1 | *kV(mb,p)utu
head 2 | *mVtVna
heart 1 (cf. belly, egg 2) | *mundu-maŋgV
heart 2 | *simu
heart 3 | *kamu
knee | *(ŋg,k)atuk
leg 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C]
leg 2, calf | *kitu
liver | *[ma]pVn
milk, sap | *muk
mouth, teeth | *maŋgat[a]
navel | *simu + modifier
neck 1 | *k(a,e)(nd,t)ak
neck 2, nape, side of | *kuma(n,ŋ)[V]
nose | *mundu
penis | *mo
saliva | *si(mb,p)at[V]
shoulder | *kinV
skin | *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu
testicles | *walaka
tongue 1 | *mbilaŋ
tongue 2 | *me(l,n)e
tooth 1 | (see mouth)
tooth 2 | *titi
urine | *[si]si, *siti, *pisi
kin terms
brother, older | *[mb]amba
father | *apa, *mbapa
grandparent | *apus[i]
husband, man | *ambi
mother, free form | *am(a,i,u)
mother, bound form | *na-
sibling, older | *nan(a,i)
sibling, older same sex | *[mb]amba
sister | *aya
age-gender and other social categories
baby | *ŋaŋa
boy | *nV
man, husband | *ambi
orphan, widow & child | *mbeŋga-masi
woman, female | *panV
birds, bird parts
bird 1 | *n[e]i
bird 2 | *yaka[i]
cassowary | *ku[y]a
egg 1 | *mun(a,e,i)ka
egg 2, fruit, seed | *maŋgV
tail | *a(mb,m)u
wing | *mbutu
insects
butterfly | *apa[pa]ta
fly | *ŋgambu
louse | *niman, *iman
mosquito | *kasin
plants, plant parts
bark | *ka(nd,t)ap[u]
casuarina | *kal(a,i)pV
fruit, seed (cf. egg 2) | *maŋgV
leaf 1, hair | *iti
leaf 2 | *sasak
root | *kindil
sap, milk | *muk
taro | *mV
tree, wood | *inda
inanimate world
ashes 1 | *sumbu
ashes 2 | *kambu-sumbu
ashes 3 | *la(ŋg,k)a
cloud 1, sky | *samb[V]
cloud 2 | *ka(mb,p)utu
fire 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p
fire 2 | *inda
fire 3 | *kambu
flame | *mbalaŋ
ground 1 | *man[a]
ground 2 | *maka[n]
lightning, light | *(mb,m)elak
moon 1 | *takVn[V]
moon 2 | *kal(a,i)m
morning | *k(i,u)tuma + X
night | *k(i,u)tuma
sand | *sa(ŋg,k)asiŋ
sky 1, cloud | *samb[V]
thunder, sky 2 | *kumut, *tumuk
smoke 1 | *kambu(s,t)(a,u)
smoke 2 | *kambu-la(ŋg,k)a
stone 1 | *kamb(a,u)na
stone 2 | *[na]muna
sun 1 | *kamali
sun 2 | *ketane
water 1 | *ok[V]
water 2 | *nok
wind 1 | *kumbutu
wind 2, breeze | *pinVm
artefacts
axe | *tu
fence | *wati
netbag 1 | *kun
netbag 2 | *at(i,u)
string, rope | *asi
intangible cultural concepts
instructions, language, word, speech | *mana
mind, thought | *n(o,u)man
name 1 | *imbi
name 2, who | *wani
shadow, spirit | *k(aw,o)nan
song, type of | *saŋ
witchcraft | *kum
independent pronouns (for subject, object, possessor)
1 singular | *na
2 singular | *ŋga
3 singular | *ya
3 singular | *wa
1 plural | *ni, *nu
1 plural | *ni
2 plural | *ŋgi, *ki
1 dual | *niLi, *nuLi
2 dual | *ŋgiLi, *kiLi
3 dual | *iLi
verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject
1 singular | *-Vn
2 singular | *-an
1 dual | *-uL
2/3 dual | *-iL
1 plural | *-un
1 singular different subject | *-pa
verbs
be (live, stay, sit) | *mVna-
bite | *s(i,u)-
blow | *pu + verb
break | *pa(ŋg,k)-
burn | *nd(a,e,i)-
burn, light a fire | *ki-
carry (on back, shoulder) | *kak(i,u)-
come | *me-
cook | *andu-
cut, chop | *tVk-
die | *kumV-
do, make | *ti-
dream | *kina(mb,p)-
eat, drink | *na-
fly, flutter | *putu(putu)-
give | *mV-
go 1 | *pu-
go 2 | *yata-
hit | *tu-
know, hear, see | *nVŋg-
laugh | *ŋgiti (+ verb)
live, be, sit | see 'be'
put | *(m,p)a(l,t)V-
say, speak | *nde-
see, know, perceive | *nVŋg-
shoot | *tVmV-
sleep 1, lie down | *kin(i,u)[m]
sleep 2 | *p(e,i)t(e,i)o-
speak, talk | *nde-
spit | *kasipa-
stand | *t(a,e,i)k[V]-
swell | *su + verb
take | *(nd,t)a-
tie | *ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi
turn (oneself) | *mbuli[ki] + verb
urinate | *X + *si- (urine + verb)
vomit | *mVŋ[g]V ti-
adjectives
blue | *muk[V]
cold | *kukam(o,u)
dry | *ŋgatata
full | *t(o,u)k(i,u) ti-
heavy | *kenda
long | *k(o,u)t(u,i)p
new | *kVtak
short | *tumba
straight | *tutu[tu]ku
conjunctions
and | *ito
negatives
not | *ma- (+ verb)
numerals
two | *ta(l,t)(a,e)

## Lexical comparison

Lexical comparison between Trans-New Guinean languages[3][4]

Body parts  family | language | head | hair | ear | eye | nose | tooth | tongue | leg | blood | bone | skin | breast

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Trans–New Guinea | Proto-Trans–New Guinea  | *kobutu; *kV(mb,p)utu; *mUtUna; *mVtVna | *iti; *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *zumun | *ka(nd,t)(i,e)C; *kat(i,e)C; *tVmV(d) | *g(a,u)mu; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *nVpV | *mundu; *mutu | *magata; *maŋgat[a]; *titi | *balaŋ; *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e; *me(n,l)e | *kani(n); *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C; *kitu | *ke(ñj,s)a; *kesa | *kondaC; *kwata(l,n) | *gatapu; *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu | *amu
West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha[4] | *kaˈnda |  | *kʷⁱɛr |  |  |  |  |  | *wⁱɛk | *ˈtɔkar | *pak | *sɔn
Asmat–Kamoro  | Proto-Asmat–Kamrau[4] | *uɸu | *ɸini | *jiɸ[a/o]ne | *manaN | *miC | *siC | *komane | *mawu | *ese | *eake |  | *awo
Ok–Oksapmin  | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin  |  |  |  | *kiin | *(mu)duum |  | *fV(lV)ŋ |  | *xeim |  |  |
Greater Awyu  | Proto-Awyu-Dumut  | *kɑibɑn; *xaiban | *möxö; *muk; *ron | *turun | *kerop | *togut |  | *fɔgat; *fɔgɛt; *pogɑt |  | *gom |  | *kɑt; *xa(t) | *ɑm; *om
Kayagaric  | Proto-Gondu River[4] | *toxom | *upm | *itipaːm | *sakam | *jup | *o[x/ɣ]om | *maetap | *apit | *jes | *nomop | *pip | *etum
Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom[4] | *tipV; *mVrV[w] | *muen[a] | ? *mVrVk; *[ndz][o/u]an | *VnV | *ŋgon | *t[e]r[a]k | *mepreŋg |  | *iendz |  |  | *mam
Anim | Proto-Fly River[4] |  |  |  | *kindV[C] |  | *kam | *sas |  |  | *mbai[a]ŋg; *ɸia[u] |  |
Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf[4] | *gia |  | *tu; *jeja | *kuɸino | *dasi | *ta; *bese | *koda; *sasa | *idini |  | *ɸia | *nikopi; *ko[j]ipo | *jono
Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River[4] |  | *duɾumə; *duɾum | *towap | *baɾid | *miw | *suwə; *kam; *su | *jimə; *jim |  | *nauɾə | *naɾak(ə); *baig |  | *bub
Anim | Proto-Marind[4] | *pa |  | *kembet, *kambet | *kind | *aŋgi₂p | *maŋgat | *inum | *tegu | *do | *haiau, *hiau | *ugu | *bub
Marori  | Morori  | merao | pu |  | ayix |  | terox |  | tegu | ŋgorom | ŋgwar | par |
Gogodala-Suki  | Gogodala  | ganabi | tita | igibi | tao | mina | poso | mɛlɛpila |  |  | gosa | kaka | omo
Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai[4] | *kepuɾu | *mus[ua] | *gaɾe | *idomaɾi | *wodi | *ibo(-nVɾV) | *uototoɾo[p/b]e | *sakiɾo | *kaɾima; *sa[w]i | *soɾo | *tama | *amo
Paniai Lakes  | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect)  | migo | iyo |  | peka | juma | egó | etá |  | emo | mitoo | kadó | ama
Dani  | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)  | mʋkkʋl-oak | nesi | nesakko | neil-ekken | namisaŋ | naik | namili |  | mep | noak | nakap | neilak
Somahai | Momuna  | toko | toko-ate |  | otu |  | ija |  | i jo-ku | janɨ | toko | ke |
Mek  | Proto-Mek[4] |  | *p[ɔ]t[ɔ]ŋ | *aᵓ | *atiŋ |  | *jo̝ | *se̝l[ija]mu | *jan | *e̝ne̝ŋ | *jɔk |  | *mɔᵘm
Awin-Pa  | Proto-Kamula-Elevala[4] | *ke̝ba |  | *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] | *kinɔ | *kine̝ | *bate̝ | *taⁱ | *tama |  | *ke̝dɔ |  |
East Strickland | Gobasi  | ulʌkib | o dɔsɔ | dulo | hiɔ̃ | mina | mɔi | ili | hɔma | sõho | kib | kɔlɔf | tɔnu
Duna-Bogaya  | Duna  | kuni | hini | kɔhane; konane | le | kuma | ne; nee | ogone; ɔgɔne | tia | kuyila | kuni | pulu | abu; adu; amu
Duna-Bogaya  | Bogaya  | yeľʌ; yela | heepi; yeľʌ eľika | hona; hɔnʌn | kina; ki:nʌn | kuuma; pfouľu | yagai; yʌkʌi | iki; ɩkin | yehei; yehʌi | sokoya; yesʌ | hakale; hʌv̧ʌľe | hugwa; hukuʌn | alu; ʌľu
Bosavi | Kaluli  | mise; misẽ | misẽ fɔ̃; mise foon | kenẽ; malo | si | migi | beso; bis | eʌn; sano | gidaafoo; gip | hɔbɔ; hooboo | ki | dɔgɔf; toogoof} | bo; bu
Kutubu  | Proto-Lake Kutubu[4] | *uni | *iti |  | *hʲĩ | *sabe | *mete | *atu | *kotage |  | *kigi | *ga[o/u] | *hʲokõ
Enga-Kewa-Huli  | Enga (Sari dialect)  | aiyomba | iri | kale | lenge | lya | neŋge |  | moko | taiyoko | kuli | yoŋge | andu
Wiru  | Wiru  | tobou | pine; píne | kabidi | lene | timini | kime | keke; keké | kawa | kamate | tono | kepene | adu
Chimbu-Wahgi  | Kuman  | bit-na; bɩtiɩno | iŋguno; yungo | kina-na; kunano | gumutino; ongomit-na | guma-ne; gumano | siŋguno | dirambino | kati; kat-na | borɔmai; bořumai; maiam | yambiřo; yombura | gaŋgino | amu-na; amuno
Madang | Proto-Madang  | *gat(a,i)(m) | *imunu | *kaun(i) | *amu | *mutu(gu) | *make | *mele | *kani(n) | *ka(d,r)a; *kara | *kwaten | *ga(n,r)a | *amu(na)
Finisterre  | Mungkip  | kʰige | sɨsa; sɪsa | maget; magitnɛ | dae; da·ge | miminɛ; mimiŋge | ma | mabɛm; mabim | kada | we·q | kwadi; kwadzi | girim | nom
Huon  | Selepet  | kun; kun- | somot; somot- | âdâp-; ɔndɔp | sen; sen- | hâme-; hɔme | sât-; sot | nibilam-; nimbilam |  | hep- | haǥit; hahit- | hâk-; hɔk | nam; nam-
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka  | *-'no-N; *pia- |  | *ä-Q-ra-N |  | *-hi-Q |  | *-mäpi-V |  | *nade-V |  |  | *nä-N
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu  | *piᵄtɐ | *jɐᵘsi | *ɑːtoː | *wu | *ipi | *wɐⁱ | *m₂ɑːpiɾi | *ipu | *wi[ʔt]ipɐ | *muʔjɑːni |  | *nɑːNmɐ
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Northern Kainantu  | *noːN | *jɐᵘ | *ɑːʔ | *u | *siʔ | *wɐj | *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ | *tɐɾ | *nɑːɾeː | *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ |  | *nɑːN
Angan | Simbari  | minta | mindata | kaantɨka | sɨmta | sɨmputa | maanka | kwaavlɨlɨ | sɨwla | mɨnjaaka | yankinta | kɨlaaka | aamɨnta
Turama-Kikori  | Proto-Rumu-Omati[4] | *mab | *b[au]t | *go̝ | *isĩ | *ju | *magu |  | *tãᵋ |  | *tab |  | *sõ̝
Goilalan | Fuyug  | hul ha; ondobe | are; hul haluma | gadolo | hul li; im | hul hunga; unge | hul usi | hul asese | soga | tana | hude | hul hoda; ode | hul duda
Goilalan | Tauade  | kɔrɔtɔ | awutu | kepapaí | tavai | ki:tʰ | nɔtɔvai | aivi | lɔ'vai | il'iví | keniví | kɔtipai | data
Greater Binanderean  | Proto-Binandere  | *ciro; *giti | *tu |  | *dibe; *diti |  | *di | *VwVwV |  | *ju; *or{a,o}rә | *bobo; *wetu | *tamә | *ami
Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian  |  | *fómo |  | *ni | *uri |  |  |  | *taɣo |  | *vata | *amu
Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross)  |  | *iku(va) |  | *(u)bu(i)vi(ma) | *ʒaʒore | *vono(ne); *wano(ne) |  |  | *ruu | *esi(ne) | *ahiri | *n(a)u(ne)
Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher)[4] |  | *igu |  | *ubuma | *jajɔɾɛ | *ɣɔnɔnɛ | *majanɛ | *ɔda | *ɾɔo̝ | *e̝tinɛ | *ahe̝ɾe̝ | *nuunɛ
Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross)  | *ada | *weʔia | *ane-ma | *ne(u) | *uru-ma | *gade | *afie | *[n,y]u-ka |  | *nena | *roʔ(o,a) |
Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher)[4] | *ada | *u[w]e[t/k]a | *anema | *ne | *uɾuma | *gade | *api[j]e |  | *daweʔa | *nena | *ɾoʔo | *sisu
Yareban | Proto-Musa River[4] | *bo-tai | *idi | *ome | *nai-tai | *iboʔo | *ni[ʔ]o | *meana | *buɾi | *iwa | *tai | *ope | *ama
Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect)  | ilolo | liʔimu | ʔope | ini | durumu | maʔa | goba | ʔau | lala | kisa | ʔopi | ama
Dagan | Daga  | iwa | igumewa | darinewa | yamewa | ginewa | nodonewa | mɛriwa |  | dɛnip | kaemewa | ɛpiwa | amewa
Nature  family | language | louse | dog | pig | bird | egg | tree | sun | moon | water | fire | stone | path

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Trans-New Guinea  | Proto-Trans-New Guinea  | *niman |  |  | *n(e,i); *n(e)i; *n[e]i; *yak; *yaka[i]; *yanem | *maŋgV; *munaka; *mun(a,u)ka | *ida; *inda ~ *iñja | *kamali; *kamuli; *ketana | *kal(a,i)m; *kamali; *takVn; *takVn[V] | *nok; *(n)ok; *ok(u); *ok[V] | *inda; *k(a,e)dap; *k(a,e)(n,d)ap; *kambu; *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p | *kamb(a,u)na; *(na)muna; *[na]muna |
West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha  | *mɛⁱn | *jaˈmbar | *[ku]ˈndur |  | *wun | *wiˈra | *kaˈminV | *kaˈpas | *kiˈra |  | *war |
Asmat-Kamoro  | Proto-Asmat-Kamrau  | *amo | *juwuɾi | *oɸo |  | *[a]sa | *ose | *jawu | *buɾa | *m[oi/ui] | *usa | *jeta |
Ok-Oksapmin  | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin  |  | *mVjaan | *kVŋ; *saamVVn | *aleem; *ilnem |  |  | *ataan | *kajoop |  |  |  |
Greater Awyu  | Proto-Awyu-Dumut  | *gut | *angay; *ɑgɑi; *set | *wi | *yet | *wɑidin | *yin | *seyɑt | *wɑkot | *ox | *yin | *irop |
Kayagaric  | Proto-Gondu River  | *num | *epe | *wakum | *suopam | *map-jaxam | *wom | *taːm | *xa[x/ɣ]atam | *o[x/ɣ]om | *atu | *maitn | *kamein
Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom | *nemeŋg | *n[ia] | *k[o/u][a] |  | *uak | *nd[ua]t |  | *kumbanV | *ndzu |  | *mete |
Anim | Proto-Fly River  | *n[u]m[u]ŋg |  | *mbasik |  | *kanV | *nde |  |  |  | *tae |  |
Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf  | *uani | *gaso | *maɸa | *ewesa | *ɸutu; *usu | *de | *nowumu; *siwio | *bubei | *ogo | *maɸi; *ta[j]e |  | *jigei
Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River  | *oɾ[eae]n | *s[eae]; *diɾean | *m[i/e]nawə | *dawod | *sVɣaɾə | *naukə | *manom | *manom | *mau[g/k]ə | *j[i]au | *didigə | *ewean
Anim | Proto-Marind  | *nahun; *mba[m/mb] | *ŋgat | *basik | *ujub | *magaw | *de | *katane | *mandou | *adeka | *tekaw | *ketaɾ; *seŋga | *isas
Marori  | Morori  | nemeŋk | koro | bosik | ujif | vi | kwi | kum |  | deke | sir | mere |
Gogodala-Suki  | Gogodala  | ami | soke | uai |  |  |  | kadɛpa |  | wi | ila |  | nabidi
Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai  | *nimo | *[k]umu |  | *wowogo | *kikopu | *nuk₂a; *kota | *saɾik₂i; *si[w]io | *sagomi; *owe | *kobo | *keɾa | *(nok₂oɾa-)kopi | *gabo
Paniai Lakes  | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect)  | uka | dodi | ekina | bedo | nipo | pija | meuka; tani | agoo | uwo | bodija | mogo | itá
Dani  | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)  | napɩ | jekke | wam | sʋe | sʋe-kken | e | mo | tuki | i | ettu | helep | kwe
Somahai | Momuna  | amega | kwoka | uwo |  | magisaga | kwo | ɨkɨ |  | iŋga | kukwa | kɨ |
Mek  | Proto-Mek  | *ami | *gam | *be̝sam | *mak, *mag | *do̝[k] | *gal | *k[ɛ]t[e̝]ŋ | *wal | *m[ɛ/a]g | *o̝ᵘg | *gɛⁱl; *gidig | *bi[t/s]ig
Awin-Pa  | Proto-Kamula-Elevala  | *awV | *ti | *m₂aⁱnæ | *te̝ja | *m[ɔ/o̝]k[ɔ/o̝] | *je̝ | *gani |  |  |  | *ike̝ |
East Strickland | Gobasi  | om | sɔf | bɔi | sigɔ | wigɔ hɔlɔ | hɔmɔ̃n | õs | ogɔ | hõ | dɔbu | yo |
Duna-Bogaya  | Duna  | tete | yawi | isa | heka | hapa | lowa; lɔwa | hewa | eke | yu | lɔwa kiliana; lowa puru | kana; kuna |
Duna-Bogaya  | Bogaya  | fando; fiľʌ | ɔv̧ɔpi; yau | ʌpʌn | aka; pitʌkʌ | oondi; pitʌkʌ ɔ̃udi | dowa; tɔuʌ | owa; ɔwa | kaiyuu; kʌiu | paiyuku; pʌiuku | dowada; tɔun | haana; hʌnʌ |
Bosavi | Kaluli  | fe; fẽ | gasa; kasʌ | kabɔ | ɔ̃bẽ; oloone; oobaa | ɔ̃bẽ uš; us | i | of; ɔf | ili | hɔ̃n; hoon | de; di | u |
Kutubu  | Proto-Lake Kutubu  |  | *g[e/ẽ/a]s[a/ã] | *mena | *hʲaka | *kapa | *ita |  | *he̝ge̝ | *hẽ | *ita | *kana | *ig[i]a
Enga-Kewa-Huli  | Enga (Sari dialect)  | tilya | yana | mena | yaka | yaka tuku | ita | niki; nira | kana | indaki | ira | kan | kait
Wiru  | Wiru  | nomo; nomò | tue | kaì | ini; inì | mu̧ | yomo; yomò | lou; loú | tokene | ue; uè | toe | kue; kué |
Chimbu-Wahgi  | Kuman  | numan | aʝg; agi; akɬ̥ | bogla; bugɬa | kua | mugɬo; muɬo | endi | ande; andesuŋgua | ba | nigl; nikɬ̥ | baugl; doŋga | kombuglo; kombugɬo | konbo; konumbo
Madang | Proto-Madang  | *[n]iman |  |  | *kVbara | *munaka | *tari | *kamali | *kalam; *takun | *yag(V) | *k(a,e)dap | *namanu |
Finisterre  | Mungkip  | mi; mīŋ | sap | kare | jāŋ | qiliq | bɛm | maim; male | jaʁip | ime; imɛ | kuduk; kugup | qawade | tɛlɛ; tɛrɛpmēŋ
Huon  | Selepet  | imen | soso |  | nâi; nɔi |  | nak | dewutâ; dewutɔ | emesenŋe | to | kɔlɔp | kât; kɔt | giop
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka  | *nu-N | *iya-N | *poe-V |  |  | *yë-V |  |  | *no-N | *ida-V |  | *ä-N
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu  | *numɐ | *w₂ɐⁱni | *p₂uᵄɾɐ | *inɑːmɐ; *uwini | *uɾu | *jɐtɐɾi | *j₂uᵄni | *[u]toːnɐ | *noːni | *iʔjɐ | *oːni | *ɑːni
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Northern Kainantu  | *nuN | *ijɐN | *poːɾ | *nuN | *uɾ | *jɑːj | *ɑːʔ | *wi[ɾ]oːN | *noːN | *itɐ | *oː[ɾ/j] | *ɑːj
Angan | Simbari  | ila | njɨlɨka |  | ntaqatɨ | pantapta | ika | kwɨnja; nilya | lampaaka | aalya; wanya | ntɨka | sɨla |
Turama-Kikori  | Proto-Rumu-Omati  | *gutɔm | *gas | *gɔ[u]n | *gaᵋ | *d[ɔ]um | *i | *ɛsɔa |  | *wẽ̝ | *i |  | *dɛⁱ
Goilalan | Fuyug  | hi | ho; oi | ovo | Nemba; nembe | hulombo | i'i | evuli | hama | ʒu | oki | zo | enamba; inambe
Goilalan | Tauade  | dautʰ | kɔveřa | pɔřu | kide | mutuwu | eata | vatava | ɔne | ipi | e'na·m | evi'ti | bɔřiƀařa
Greater Binanderean  | Proto-Binandere  |  | *sinә | *pu |  | *munju | *i | *iji; *waeko | *inua |  | *awo | *g{o,e}mb{a,i}(ro) | *begata; *esa; *ndai
Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian  | *ʔumu |  |  | *ugu[fa] | *uni | *idí |  |  |  | *vené | *muni |
Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross)  | *(n)omo(ne) | *ɣuni | *aba | *teboare | *ma(va) |  | *mada | *bato | *vou; *wara | *ire | *hadi |
Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher)  | *nɔmɔnɛ | *ɣo̝ni | *aba | *ne̝ni; *t[e̝]b[o̝]ɾ[e̝] | *maɣa |  | *maˈda | *batɔ | *wɔu | *iɾɛ | *hadi | *e̝bi
Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross)  | *gue | *auna | *Dona | *erena | *une-ma | *yabo | *maida(ka) | *e(y)oʔa; *mohe- (?) | *koru | *ita |  |
Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher)  | *gu[w]e | *auna | *dona | *eɾena | *unema | *jabo | *me[i]daʔa | *ejoʔa | *koɾu | *ita | *waʔiga | *ida
Yareban | Proto-Musa River  | *uʔa | *kua | *boɾo | *gasiɾa; *ada | *baka; *uɾimi | *ana | *eweaka | *maɾabe; *sakaɾa | *adua | *inaʔa | *oma; *gebiɾo | *daʔaba
Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect)  | tuma | dari | talae | manu | muruʔu | ana | nina | dovele | ʔaʔama | eu | gomana | laea
Dagan | Daga  | kuisin | eao | tuan | nɛnip | bagua | oma | oam | siragam | kaum | om
Miscellaneous  family | language | man | woman | name | eat | one | two

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Trans-New Guinea  | Proto-Trans-New Guinea  | *abV; *ambi | *panV; *pan(V) | *ibi; *imbi; *wani | *na; *na- |  | *ta(l,t)(a,e)
West Bomberai | Proto-Mbaham–Iha  | *nami-sar | *t[ɔ/u]mb[ɔ/u]r | *nⁱɛ | *nawa | *ɔkʷɔ[nɔ] |
Asmat-Kamoro  | Proto-Asmat-Kamrau  |  | *ɟawoɟa | *uwase | *n[a]- | *ɟawa[kV] | *kaboma
Ok-Oksapmin  | Proto-Ok-Oksapmin  |  |  | *win |  |  |
Greater Awyu  | Proto-Awyu-Dumut  |  | *ran; *rɑn | *füp; *pip | *ɑde; *en; *ɛn- |  | *rumo; *rumon
Kayagaric  | Proto-Gondu River  | *jo[k] | *enop | *na[k] | *xapti | *pa[x/ɣ]amo[x/k] | *tousiki
Kolopom | Proto-Kolopom | *ndz[ia]p | *jowa[k] | *n[e/a][k/ŋg] |  |  | *[j]enapa; *sVp
Anim | Proto-Fly River  | *anem | *anum |  |  | *ija (?) | *meas[i]
Anim | Proto-Inland Gulf  | *aneme | *anumu | *jiga |  | *jaigio | *measi
Anim | Proto-Lower Fly River  | *anem(ə) | *anum(ə) | *gag | *tamu | *ɣoɾ[e]a[u][k] | *mis
Anim | Proto-Marind  | *anem | *anum | *igij | *ɣawi[ɣ] | *ijako[d]; *ijakod | *inah
Marori  | Morori  | yexri |  | nex | kef | sekodu | yenadu
Gogodala-Suki  | Gogodala  | dala; dalagi | ato; susɛgi | gagi | na |  |
Kiwaian | Proto-Kiwai  | *dubu | *oɾobo; *upi | *paini, *paina | *oɾuso (sg.), *iɾiso (pl.) | *nak[o/u] | *netoa
Paniai Lakes  | Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect)  | jame |  | eka | nai | ena; kate | wijá
Dani  | Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect)  | ap | he; hʋmɩ | ettake |  | oppakke-at | p:ie
Somahai | Momuna  | mogo-mearu |  |  | nowa- |  |
Mek  | Proto-Mek  |  | *ge̝l | *si | *de̝-(b) | *[na]tɔn | *b[e̝/ɛ]te̝ne̝
Awin-Pa  | Proto-Kamula-Elevala  | *k[ɔ/o̝]b[a/ɔ] |  | *pi | *de̝- | *tV[n/d]o̝ |
East Strickland | Gobasi  | os | uliʌ | hũni | nɔwalaga | hele | bihinɔ̃n
Duna-Bogaya  | Duna  | anoa; anɔa | ima | yaka | nai-; neyana | du | yapa
Duna-Bogaya  | Bogaya  | ami; ʌmĩ | ĩmiʌ; imya | ʌmĩn; yaga | nã; nosii | mɔsʌ kɔmʌ; moso | efʌn; yeefa
Bosavi | Kaluli  | kalu | ga; kesali; kesari | wi | maya | ãgel; angel | a̧dep; ãdip
Kutubu  | Proto-Lake Kutubu  |  |  |  | *ne- | *hʲaga |
Enga-Kewa-Huli  | Enga (Sari dialect)  | akali | eŋda | keŋge | neŋge | mendai | lapoma
Wiru  | Wiru  | ali | atoa; atòa | ibini; ibíni | nakò; one ne nako | odene | takuta; ta kutà
Chimbu-Wahgi  | Kuman  | yagl; yakɬ̥ | ambu | kaŋgin; kangi-ne | neuŋgua | suařa | suo
Madang | Proto-Madang  |  | *na-gali(k) | *ibi; *wañim | *(n,ñ)a | *kati(ŋ,g)a | *arigita
Finisterre  | Mungkip  | mɛ | tam | buŋām; wow | nʌna | kubugaŋ | lifɛt
Huon  | Selepet  | lok | apet; ibi | kut; kut- | ne; ni- | konok | yâhâp
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka  | *kwe-(t)-V |  | *-wi-Q |  | *boda |
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Eastern Kainantu  | *wɐⁱ-iNti | *ɐnɑːjeː | *utu | *nɐ- | *moːʔjɑː | *tɑːɾɐ
Kainantu-Goroka  | Proto-Northern Kainantu  | *wɑːⁱNsɐ | *ɐnɑːsi | *wiʔ |  | *mɐnɑː | *tɑːN
Angan | Simbari  | kwala | aampala | yavata | an̲aantapyɨ | pɨrɨ'mɨna | pɨvɨraalna
Turama-Kikori  | Proto-Rumu-Omati  |  |  |  | *e̝ne̝ne̝n |  | *t[aⁱ/aᵋ]
Goilalan | Fuyug  | A'a; an | Amu; amuri | ifa | huni nene | fida | ʒuvalo
Goilalan | Tauade  | baře | iva | ape'te | ɔmei nai | kɔne | kupal'iai
Greater Binanderean  | Proto-Binandere  | *embә | *bam{u,o}nә | *jajo; *jawә | *ind-; *mind- | *daba |
Koiarian | Proto-Koiarian  |  | *maɣina | *ifí | *i- | *(i,o)gau |
Kwalean | Proto-Kwalean (Ross)  | *vaʒe | *no'ɣone | *ni | *anE- | *teba | *aheu
Kwalean | Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher)  | *wajɛ | *nɔgɔnɛ | *ni | *an- | *te̝bɔ | *ahɛu
Manubaran | Proto-Manubaran (Ross)  | *amie |  | *roka | *iri- | *yokohi | *(ye)(ka)ma[nu]
Manubaran | Proto-Mount Brown (Usher)  | *ami[j]e | *ɾema | *ɾoka | *iɾi- | *jokohi | *[ɾ/j]ema
Yareban | Proto-Musa River  | *e[ʔe]me | *aweta | *ibi | *it- | *demu |
Mailuan | Mailu (Ilai dialect)  | egi | avesa | omu | isiisi | ʔomu | ʔava
Dagan | Daga  | apan | oaen | yaoa | naiwan | daiton | dɛrɛ

For other lexical comparison tables of Papuan languages, see also:

* West Papuan languages
* West Bomberai languages
* West Papuan Highlands languages[broken anchor]
* Northwest Papuan languages[broken anchor]
* Trans-Fly–Bulaka River languages[broken anchor]
* Papuan Gulf languages
* Torricelli languages
* Sepik–Ramu languages
* East Papuan languages

## See also

* List of Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions (Wiktionary)

Synchronic reflexes

* Madang languages
* Kalam language#Evolution
* Apali language#Evolution
* Finisterre–Huon languages#Evolution
* Kâte language#Evolution
* Selepet language#Evolution
* Kainantu–Goroka languages#Evolution
* Engan languages
* Chimbu–Wahgi languages
* Wahgi language#Evolution
* East Strickland languages
* Greater Awyu languages#Evolution
* Mandobo language#Evolution
* Asmat–Kamrau languages#Evolution
* Asmat language#Evolution
* Ok languages#Evolution
* Telefol language#Evolution
* Marind–Yaqai languages#Evolution
* Paniai Lakes languages#Evolution
* Dani languages#Evolution
* Mek languages#Evolution
* Wiru language#Evolution
* Duna–Pogaya languages
* Kutubuan languages#Evolution
* Kiwaian languages
* Kiwai language#Evolution
* Tirio languages#Evolution
* Awin–Pa–Kamula languages
* Kolopom languages
* Morori language#Evolution
* Gogodala–Suki languages
* Inland Gulf languages#Evolution
* Greater Binanderean languages#Evolution
* Binandere language#Evolution
* Mailuan languages
* Dagan languages
* Goilalan languages
* Koiarian languages
* Kwalean languages
* Yareban languages
* Manubaran languages
* Timor–Alor–Pantar languages

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". in Palmer, Bill. The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. doi:10.1515/9783110295252-002. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
2. ↑ Suter, Edgar (1997). Ford, Kevin. ed. "A Comparative Look at the Dual and Plural Forms of verb Inflections and Pronouns in Northeast New Guinea Papuan Languages" (PDF). Language and Linguistics in Melanesia (Ukarumpa, Papua New Guinea: Linguistic Society of Papua New Guinea; Society on Pidgins and Creoles in Melanesia) 28: 17–68. ISSN 0023-1959. https://c-cluster-110.uploads.documents.cimpress.io/v1/uploads/3e7f6f32-0267-401f-b8e7-90dbb8dc152d~110/original?tenant=vbu-digital.
3. ↑ Greenhill, Simon J. (2021). "Database of the languages of New Guinea". Australian National University. http://transnewguinea.org/.
4. ↑ 4.00 4.01 4.02 4.03 4.04 4.05 4.06 4.07 4.08 4.09 4.10 4.11 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 Usher, Timothy; Suter, Edgar (2020). "Newguineaworld". https://newguineaworld.linguistik.uzh.ch/.

## Bibliography

* Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2017). "The Trans New Guinea family". The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area. De Gruyter. pp. 21–196. doi:10.1515/9783110295252-002. ISBN 978-3-11-029525-2. https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/23887.
* Pawley, Andrew (1998). "The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment". in Jelle Miedema. Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 655–90. ISBN 978-90-420-0644-7. OCLC 41025250.
* Pawley, Andrew (2005). "The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications". in Andrew Pawley. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 67–107. ISBN 0-85883-562-2. OCLC 67292782.
* Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". in Andrew Pawley. Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15-66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
* Wurm, Stephen A., ed (1975). Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene: New Guinea area languages and language study 1. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. OCLC 37096514. http://www.papuaweb.org/dlib/bk/pl/C38/_toc.html. Retrieved 2019-09-23.

## Further reading

* Ross, Malcolm. 2014. Proto-Trans-New-Guinea. TransNewGuinea.org.

## External links

* TransNewGuinea.org - database of the languages of New Guinea (by Simon Greenhill)
* Timothy Usher's Newguineaworld site

Template:Trans–New Guinea languages

* v
* t
* e

Papuan language families
(Palmer 2018 classification)

Trans-New Guinea
subgroups|

| central Papua, Indonesia|

* Ok-Oksapmin
* Dani
* Asmat-Kamoro
* Mek
* Paniai Lakes
* West Bomberai
* Somahai

|

southeast Papua, Indonesia|

* Anim
* Greater Awyu
* Kayagaric
* Kolopom
* Marori

southwest Papua New Guinea|

* Gogodala-Suki
* Turama-Kikori
* Kiwaian
* Awin-Pa

central Papua New Guinea|

* Madang
* Finisterre-Huon
* Kainantu-Goroka
* Chimbu-Wahgi
* Enga-Kewa-Huli
* Bosavi
* East Strickland
* Kutubu
* Duna-Bogaya
* Wiru

Papuan Peninsula|

* Angan
* Greater Binanderean
* Dagan
* Mailuan
* Koiarian
* Goilalan
* Yareban
* Kwalean
* Manubaran

Eastern Nusantara
families and isolates|

* Timor-Alor-Pantar
* North Halmahera

* Tambora†

Bird's Head Peninsula
families and isolates|

* South Bird's Head
* Nuclear South Bird's Head
* Inanwatan–Duriankere
* Konda–Yahadian
* East Bird's Head
* Nuclear East Bird's Head
* Hatam–Mansim
* West Bird's Head

* Abun
* Mpur
* Maybrat
* Mor
* Tanah Merah

Northern Western New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Tor-Kwerba
* Lakes Plain
* Border
* Sko
* East Cenderawasih Bay
* Pauwasi
* Eastern
* Western
* Nimboran
* Sentani
* Mairasi
* Kaure
* Lepki-Murkim
* Senagi (Angor-Dera)
* Tofanma-Namla
* Yapen

* Abinomn
* Burmeso
* Elseng
* Kapauri
* Kembra
* Keuw
* Kimki
* Massep
* Mawes
* Molof
* Usku
* Yetfa

Central Western New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Bayono-Awbono

* Dem
* Uhunduni

Sepik-Ramu basin
families and isolates|

* Torricelli
* Sepik
* Lower Sepik-Ramu
* Lower Sepik
* Ramu
* Kwomtari
* Leonhard Schultze (Walio-Papi)
* Upper Yuat (Arafundi-Piawi)
* Yuat
* Left May
* Amto-Musan

* Busa
* Taiap
* Yadë

| Torricelli subgroups|

* Marienberg
* Arapesh
* Urim
* Maimai
* Wapei
* Palei
* One (West Wapei)
* Monumbo?

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Sepik subgroups|

* Middle Sepik
* Ndu
* Nukuma
* Yellow River
* Yerakai
* Upper Sepik
* Wogamus
* Iwam
* Abau
* Sepik Hill
* Tama
* Ram
* Amal

Ramu subgroups|

* Lower Ramu
* Ottilien
* Misegian
* Middle Ramu
* Grass?
* Tamolan
* Ataitan (Tanggu)

Gulf of Papua and southern New Guinea
families and isolates|

* Yam
* Pahoturi River
* Eleman
* Oriomo
* Teberan
* Doso-Turumsa
* Komolom
* Yelmek-Maklew

* Dibiyaso
* Kaki Ae
* Kamula
* Karami
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Purari
* Tabo

Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands
families and isolates|

* Baining
* North Bougainville
* South Bougainville
* Central Solomons
* Butam-Taulil

* Anêm
* Ata
* Kol
* Kuot
* Makolkol
* Sulka

Rossel Island
isolate|

* Yélî Dnye

Proposed groupings|

* West Papuan
* Northwest Papuan
* South Pauwasi
* East Papuan
* Southeast Papuan
* Papuan Gulf
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Arai–Samaia
* Asmat–Mombum
* Trans-Fly–Bulaka River
* Trans-Fly
* Dani–Kwerba
* East Bird's Head – Sentani
* Kwomtari–Fas
* Left May – Kwomtari
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* West Trans–New Guinea
* West Papuan Highlands
* Central and South New Guinea
* Central West New Guinea
* East New Guinea Highlands
* Yele – West New Britain
* Sepik–Ramu
* Indo-Pacific

Proto-language|

* Proto-Trans–New Guinea

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Trans–New Guinea language. Read more

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