Tyrsenian languages

Short description: Extinct pre-Indo-European language family

Tyrsenian

Tyrrhenian
Geographic
distribution| Italy, Switzerland, France (Corsica), Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Greece (island of Lemnos)
Linguistic classification| One of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions|

* Etruscan †
* Raetic †
* Lemnian † (possibly a daughter language or dialect of Etruscan; uncertain)
* ?Camunic †

Glottolog| None

Approximate area of Tyrsenian languages

Tyrsenian (also Tyrrhenian or Common Tyrrhenic)[1] is a language family of closely related extinct ancient languages, proposed by linguist Helmut Rix in 1998, that has gained acceptance in scholarship.[2] It is named after the Tyrrhenians (Ancient Greek, Ionic: Τυρσηνοί Tyrsenoi), an exonym used by the ancient Greeks to refer to the Etruscans.

The family would consist of the Etruscan language of northern, central and south-western Italy, and eastern Corsica; the Raetic language of the Alps, in northern Italy and Austria, named after the Rhaetian people; and the Lemnian language attested in Lemnos in the northern Aegean Sea. Camunic in northern Lombardy, between Etruscan and Raetic, may belong to the family as well, but evidence of such is limited. The Tyrsenian languages are Pre-Indo-European languages,[3] and more specifically Paleo-European.[4][1][5][6]

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 2 History
* 2.1 Origin
* 2.2 Extinction
* 2.3 Lemnian language
* 3 Languages
* 4 Evidence
* 5 Fringe scholarship and superseded theories
* 5.1 Aegean language family
* 5.2 Anatolian languages
* 5.3 Northeast Caucasian languages
* 6 See also
* 7 Notes
* 8 References
* 9 Sources

## Classification

See also: Social:Etruscan language, Raetic language, Lemnian, and Camunic language

Tyrrhenian language family tree as proposed by de Simone and Marchesini (2013)[7]

In 1998 the German linguist Helmut Rix proposed that three then unclassified ancient languages belonged to a common linguistic family he called Tyrrhenian: the Etruscan language spoken in Etruria, the Raetic language of the Eastern Alps, and the Lemnian language, only attested by a small number of inscriptions from the Greek island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea.[8]

Rix's Tyrsenian family is supported by a number of linguists such as Stefan Schumacher,[9][10] Carlo De Simone,[11] Norbert Oettinger,[12] Simona Marchesini,[7] and Rex E. Wallace.[13] Common features among Etruscan, Raetic, Lemnian have been found in morphology, phonology, and syntax.[14] On the other hand, few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scant number of Raetic and Lemnian texts and possibly also to the early date at which the languages split.[1][14]

## History

### Origin

Tyrsenian was probably a Paleo-European language family predating the arrival of Indo-European languages in Europe.[4][5][15] Helmut Rix dated the end of the Proto-Tyrsenian period to the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC.[16] Carlo De Simone and Simona Marchesini have proposed a much earlier date, placing the Tyrsenian language split before the Bronze Age.[7][17] This would provide one explanation for the low number of lexical correspondences.[1]

In 2004, Van der Meer proposed that Raetic could have split from Etruscan from around 900 BC or even earlier, at any rate no later than 700 BC since divergences are already present in the oldest Etruscan and Raetic inscriptions, like in the grammatical voices of past tenses and in the endings of male gentilicia. From around 400 BC, the Rhaeti became isolated from the Etruscan area by the Cisalpine Celts, thus limiting contact between the two languages.[18] Such a late date has garnered little consensus as the split would still be too recent to match the archaeological data, the Rhaeti in the second Iron Age being characterised by the Fritzens-Sanzeno culture, in continuity with late Bronze Age culture and early Iron Age Laugen-Melaun culture. The Raeti are not believed, archeologically, to descend from the Etruscans, as well as it is not believed plausible that the Etruscans are descended from the Rhaeti,[19] while the relationship between the Etruscan and Raetic languages is thought to date back to a remote stage of prehistory.[19]

### Extinction

The language group seems to have died out in Lemnos around the 6th century BC (by assimilation of the speakers to Greek), and as regards Etruscan around the 1st century AD in Italy (by assimilation to Latin).[20] The latest Raetic inscriptions are dated to the 1st century BC (by assimilation to Latin).[1]

### Lemnian language

After more than 90 years of archaeological excavations at Lemnos, nothing has been found that would support a migration from Lemnos to Etruria or to the Alps where Raetic was spoken. The indigenous inhabitants of Lemnos, also called in ancient times Sinteis, were the Sintians, a Thracian population.[21] While the results of the previous excavations indicate that the Early Iron Age inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek ra-mi-ni-ja, "Lemnian woman", written in Linear B syllabic script.[22][23] Scholars such as Norbert Oettinger, Michel Gras and Carlo De Simone think that Lemnian is the testimony of an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.[24][11][25] Alternatively, the Lemnian language could have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.[26]

A 2021 archeogenetic analysis of Etruscan individuals, who lived between 800 BC and 1 BC, concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous, and genetically similar to the Iron Age Latins, and that the Etruscan language, and therefore the other languages of the Tyrrhenian family, may be a surviving language of the ones that were widespread in Europe from at least the Neolithic period before the arrival of the Indo-European languages,[27] as already argued by German geneticist Johannes Krause who concluded that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as Basque, Paleo-Sardinian and Minoan) "developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution".[28] The lack of recent Anatolian-related admixture and Iranian-related ancestry among the Etruscans, who are genetically related to the European cluster, might also suggest that the presence of a handful of inscriptions found at Lemnos, in a language related to Etruscan and Raetic, "could represent population movements departing from the Italian peninsula".[27]

Strabo's (Geography V, 2) citation from Anticlides attributes a share in the foundation of Etruria to the Pelasgians of Lemnos and Imbros.[29][30] The Pelasgians are also referred to by Herodotus as settlers in Lemnos, after they were expelled from Attica by the Athenians.[31] Apollonius of Rhodes mentioned an ancient settlement of Tyrrhenians on Lemnos in his Argonautica (IV.1760), written in the third century BC, in an elaborate invented aition of Kalliste or Thera: in passing, he attributes the flight of Sintian Lemnians to the island Kalliste to "Tyrrhenian warriors" from the island of Lemnos.

## Languages

* Etruscan: 13,000 inscriptions, the overwhelming majority of which have been found in Italy; the oldest Etruscan inscription dates back to the 8th century BC, and the most recent one is dated to the 1st century AD.[32]
* Raetic: 300 inscriptions, the overwhelming majority of which have been found in the Central Alps; the oldest Raetic inscription dates back to the 6th century BC.[32][1]
* Lemnian: 2 inscriptions plus a small number of extremely fragmentary inscriptions; the oldest Lemnian inscription dates back to the late 6th century BC.[32]
* Camunic: may be related to Raetic; about 170 inscriptions found in the Central Alps; the oldest Camunic inscription dates back to the 5th century BC.[32]

## Evidence

Cognates common to Raetic and Etruscan are:

Etruscan  | Raetic  | Gloss

|
|

zal | zal | 'two'
-(a)cvil | akvil | 'gift'
zinace | t'inache | 'he made'
-s | -s | -'s  (genitive suffix)
-(i)a | -a | -'s  (second genitive case suffix)
-ce | -ku | -ed  (past active participle)

Cognates common to Etruscan and Lemnian are:

* shared dative-case suffixes *-si, and *-ale
* attested as aule-si Etruscan 'to Aule' on the Cippus Perusinus inscriptions
* attested as Hulaie-ši Lemnian 'for Hulaie', Φukiasi-ale 'for the Phocaean' on the Lemnos Stele
* a past tense suffix *-a-i
* -⟨e⟩ as in ame 'was' ( ← *amai) in Etruscan
* -⟨ai⟩ as in šivai 'lived' in Lemnian
* two cognate words describing ages
* avils maχs śealχisc Etruscan 'and aged sixty-five'
* aviš sialχviš Lemnian 'aged sixty'

## Fringe scholarship and superseded theories

### Aegean language family

A larger Aegean family including Eteocretan, Minoan and Eteocypriot has been proposed by G. M. Facchetti referring to some alleged similarities between on the one hand Etruscan and Lemnian, and on the other hand languages like Minoan and Eteocretan. If these languages could be shown to be related to Etruscan and Raetic, they would constitute a pre-Indo-European language family stretching from (at the very least) the Aegean Islands and Crete across mainland Greece and the Italian Peninsula to the Alps. A proposed relation between these languages has also been made previously by Raymond A. Brown.[33] Michael Ventris, who successfully deciphered Linear B with John Chadwick, also thought there to be a relation between Etruscan and Minoan.[34] Facchetti proposes a hypothetical language family derived from Minoan in two branches. From Minoan he proposes a Proto-Tyrrhenian from which would have come the Etruscan, Lemnian and Raetic languages. James Mellaart has proposed that this language family is related to the pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, based upon place name analysis.[4] From another Minoan branch would have come the Eteocretan language.[35][36] T. B. Jones proposed in 1950 reading of Eteocypriot texts in Etruscan, which was refuted by most scholars but gained popularity in the former Soviet Union. In any case, a relationship between the Etruscan language and Minoan (including Eteocretan and Eteocypriot), and a larger Aegean family, is considered unfounded.[3]

### Anatolian languages

A relation with the Anatolian languages within Indo-European has been proposed,[lower-alpha 1][38] but is not accepted for historical, archaeological, genetic, and linguistic reasons.[39][40][3] If these languages are an early Indo-European stratum rather than pre-Indo-European, they would be associated with Krahe's Old European hydronymy and would date back to a Kurganisation during the early Bronze Age.[citation needed]

### Northeast Caucasian languages

A number of mainly Soviet or post-Soviet linguists, including Sergei Starostin,[41] suggested a link between the Tyrrhenian languages and the Northeast Caucasian languages in an Alarodian language family, based on claimed sound correspondences between Etruscan, Hurrian, and Northeast Caucasian languages, numerals, grammatical structures and phonologies. Most linguists, however, either doubt that the language families are related, or believe that the evidence is far from conclusive.[citation needed]

## See also

* Camunic language (possibly related to Raetic)
* Old European hydronymy
* Pre-Indo-European languages
* Paleo-European languages

## Notes

1. ↑ Steinbauer tries to relate both Etruscan and Raetic to Anatolian.[37]

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Marchesini, Simona. "Raetic". http://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Lingua&id=41&lang=en.
2. ↑ Sen, Ranjan (2022). "The Greco-Roman tradition". written at Oxford, United Kingdom (in en). The Oxford History of Phonology. Oxford University Press. p. 111. "Rix's (1998) hypothesis that Etruscan is related to Rhaetic (eastern Alps) and Lemnian (Aegean Sea) to form a 'Tyrsenian' language family has gained acceptance."
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Bellelli & Benelli 2018.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Mellaart 1975.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Haarmann 2014.
6. ↑ Harding 2014, p. 1912: Italy was home to a number of languages in the Iron Age, some of them clearly Indo-European (Latin being the most obvious, although this was merely the language spoken in the Roman heartland, that is, Latium, and other languages such as Italic, Venetic or Ligurian were also present), while the centre-west and northwest were occupied by the people we call Etruscans, who spoke a language which was non-Indo-European and presumed to represent an ethnic and linguistic stratum which goes far back in time, perhaps even to the occupants of Italy prior to the spread of farming.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 de Simone & Marchesini 2013.
8. ↑ Rix 1998.
9. ↑ Schumacher 1998.
10. ↑ Schumacher 2004.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 de Simone 2011.
12. ↑ Oettinger 2010.
13. ↑ Wallace 2018.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Kluge, Sindy; Salomon, Corinna; Schumacher, Stefan (2013–2018). "Raetica". Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna. http://www.univie.ac.at/raetica/wiki/Raetica.
15. ↑ Harding 2014.
16. ↑ Rix 2008.
17. ↑ Marchesini 2019.
18. ↑ Van der Meer 2004.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Marzatico 2019: Se resta il fatto che la documentazione archeologica smentisce in tutta evidenza un rapporto filogenetico fra Etruschi e Reti, visti anche fenomeni di continuità come nell'ambito della produzione vascolare di boccali di tradizione Luco/Laugen (fig. 8), non è escluso che la percezione di prossimità esistenti fra la lingua e la scrittura delle due entità etniche possano avere indotto eruditi del tempo a costruite "a tavolino" un rapporto di parentela.(...) [If the fact remains that the archaeological documentation clearly denies a phylogenetic relationship between the Etruscans and the Reti, also considering phenomena of continuity as in the sphere of the vascular production of traditional Luco / Laugen mugs (fig. 8), it is not excluded that the perception of proximity existing between the language and the writing of the two ethnic entities may have induced scholars of the time to build a kinship relationship "at the table". (...)]
20. ↑ Freeman, Philip. The Survival of Etruscan. p. 82
21. ↑ Ficuciello 2013.
22. ↑ [1], Word study tool of ancient languages
23. ↑ Heffner 1927.
24. ↑ Wallace 2010, pp. 97–102: Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kamania on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.
25. ↑ Drews 1995.
26. ↑ De Ligt 2009.
27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Posth, Zaro & Spyrou 2021.
28. ↑ Krause & Trappe 2021, p. 217: It's likely that Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known.
29. ↑ Myres 1907, para. 16.
30. ↑ Strabo, Lacus Curtius, University of Chicago, https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/5B*.html, "And again, Anticleides says that they (the Pelasgians) were the first to settle the regions round about Lemnos and Imbros, and indeed that some of these sailed away to Italy with Tyrrhenus the son of Atys"
31. ↑ Herodotus, The Histories, Perseus, Tufts, 6, 137, https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0126:book=6:chapter=137:section=1
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 Marchesini 2009.
33. ↑ Brown 1985, p. 289.
34. ↑ Chadwick 1967, p. 34: "The basic idea was to find a language which might be related to Minoan. Ventris' candidate was Etruscan; not a bad guess, because the Etruscans, according to ancient tradition, came from the Aegean to Italy.".
35. ↑ Facchetti 2001.
36. ↑ Facchetti 2002, p. 136.
37. ↑ Steinbauer 1999.
38. ↑ Palmer 1965.
39. ↑ Wallace 2010; Posth, Zaro & Spyrou 2021; Barker & Rasmussen 2000, p. 44; MacIntosh Turfa 2017; De Grummond 2014; Shipley 2017
40. ↑ Penney, John H. W. (2009). "The Etruscan language and its Italic context" (in en). Etruscan by definition: the cultural, regional and personal identity of the Etruscans. Papers in honour of Sybille Haynes. London: British Museum Press. pp. 88–94. "These further Anatolian connections are not very convincing, though the relationship between Etruscan and Lemnian remains secure. Before concluding that this still makes an eastern origin for Etruscan most likely, a further language with Etruscan affinities must be noted. This is Raetic, a language attested in some 200 very short inscriptions from the Alpine region to the north of Verona. Despite their brevity, a number of linguistic patterns can be recognised which point to a relationship with Etruscan."(....) The correspondences (of Etruscan) with Raetic seem entirely convincing, but it is important to note that there are differences between the languages too (for instance, the patronymic suffixes are similar but not identical), so that Raetic cannot just be seen as a form of Etruscan. As in the case of Lemnian, we have related languages belonging to the same family, so should we suppose that Proto-Tyrrhenian may have extended rather widely in prehistoric times? Certainly the introduction of Raetic into the argument, with the ensuing geographical complications, makes the notion of a straightforward migration of Etruscans from Asia Minor seem a little too simple. And it is not in the end clear that we can be sure that the Etruscans did come from outside Italy, at least in any period of which we can hope to give a historical account, whatever the romantic attractions of scenarios such as displacement in the wake of the Trojan War."
41. ↑ Starostin, Sergei; Orel, Vladimir (1989). "Etruscan and North Caucasian". in Shevoroshkin, Vitaliy. Explorations in Language Macrofamilies. Bochum Publications in Evolutionary Cultural Semiotics. Bochum.

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* v
* t
* e

Primary language families

Africa|

* Afroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Khoe–Kwadi
* Kx'a
* Niger–Congo
* Nilo-Saharan?
* Tuu
* Mande?
* Songhay?
* Ijaw?
* Ubangian?
* Kadu?

| Isolates|

* Bangime
* Hadza
* Jalaa
* Sandawe
* Laal?
* Shabo?

|

Europe
and Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Ainu
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Dravidian
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Great Andamanese
* Hmong–Mien
* Hurro-Urartian
* Indo-European
* Japonic
* Kartvelian
* Koreanic
* Kra–Dai
* Mongolic
* Nivkh
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian
* Ongan
* Sino-Tibetan
* Tungusic
* Turkic
* Tyrsenian
* Uralic
* Yeniseian
* Yukaghir
* Digaro?
* Hrusish?
* Kho-Bwa?
* Miju?
* Siangic?

| Isolates|

* Basque
* Burushaski
* Elamite
* Hattic
* Kusunda
* Nihali
* Sumerian

|

New Guinea
and the Pacific|

* Arai–Samaia
* Austronesian
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Border
* Bulaka River
* Central Solomons
* Chimbu–Wahgi
* Doso–Turumsa
* East Geelvink Bay
* East New Britain
* East Strickland
* Eleman
* Engan
* Fas
* Kaure–Kosare
* Kiwaian
* Kutubuan
* Kwomtari
* Lakes Plain
* Lower Mamberamo
* Lower Sepik
* Madang
* Mairasi
* North Bougainville
* Pauwasi
* Ramu
* Senagi
* Sentani
* Sepik
* Skou
* South Bougainville
* Teberan
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* Torricelli
* Trans-Fly
* Trans–New Guinea
* Turama–Kikorian
* Upper Yuat
* West Papuan
* Yam
* Yawa
* Yuat
* Northwest Papuan?
* Papuan Gulf?

| Isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Anêm?
* Ata?
* Kol
* Kuot
* Maybrat
* Mpur
* Porome
* Taiap?
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Sulka?
* Tambora
* Wiru

|

Australia|

* Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
* Bunuban
* Darwin Region?
* Eastern Daly
* Eastern Tasmanian
* Garawan
* Iwaidjan
* Jarrakan
* Marrku–Wurrugu?
* Mirndi
* Northern Tasmanian
* Northeastern Tasmanian
* Nyulnyulan
* Pama–Nyungan
* Southern Daly?
* Tangkic
* Wagaydyic
* Western Daly
* Western Tasmanian
* Worrorran
* Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?

| Isolates|

* Giimbiyu
* Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
* Tiwi

|

North
America|

* Algic
* Alsea
* Caddoan
* Chimakuan
* Chinookan
* Chumashan
* Comecrudan
* Coosan
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Iroquoian
* Kalapuyan
* Keresan
* Maiduan
* Muskogean
* Na-Dene
* Palaihnihan
* Plateau Penutian
* Pomoan
* Salishan
* Shastan
* Siouan
* Tanoan
* Tsimshianic
* Utian
* Uto-Aztecan
* Wakashan
* Wintuan
* Yukian
* Yuman–Cochimí

| Isolates|

* Chimariko
* Esselen
* Haida
* Karuk
* Kutenai
* Seri
* Siuslaw
* Takelma
* Timucua
* Waikuri
* Washo
* Yana
* Yokuts
* Yuchi
* Zuni

|

Mesoamerica|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

| Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Tarascan/Purépecha

|

South
America|

* Andoque–Urequena
* Arauan
* Araucanian
* Arawakan
* Arutani–Sape
* Aymaran
* Barbacoan
* Boran
* Cahuapanan
* Cariban
* Catacaoan
* Chapacuran
* Charruan
* Chibchan
* Choco
* Chonan
* Guaicuruan
* Guajiboan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Jirajaran
* Jivaroan
* Katembri–Taruma
* Mascoian
* Matacoan
* Nadahup
* Nambikwaran
* Otomákoan
* Pano-Tacanan
* Peba–Yaguan
* Quechuan
* Piaroa–Saliban
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Timotean
* Tiniguan
* Tucanoan
* Tupian
* Uru–Chipaya
* Witotoan
* Yanomaman
* Zamucoan
* Zaparoan
* Bora–Witoto languages?
* Chimuan?
* Esmeralda–Yaruro?
* Hibito–Cholón?
* Lule–Vilela?
* Macro-Jê?
* Tequiraca–Canichana?

| Isolates
(extant in 2000)|

* Aikanã?
* Alacalufan
* Camsá
* Candoshi
* Chimane
* Chiquitano
* Cofán?
* Fulniô
* Guató
* Hodï/Joti
* Irantxe?
* Itonama
* Kunza
* Leco
* Maku-Auari of Roraima
* Movima
* Mura-Pirahã
* Nukak?
* Puinave
* Huaorani/Waorani
* Trumai
* Urarina
* Warao
* Yamana
* Yuracaré

|

Sign languages|

* Arab
* BANZSL
* Chinese
* Francosign
* Germanosign
* Indo-Pakistani
* Japanese
* Original Thai
* Swedish
* Tanzanian?

| Isolates|

* See list of sign languages

|

See also|

* Language isolates
* Unclassified languages
* Creoles
* Pidgins
* Mixed languages
* Artificial languages

* Families in italics have no living members.
* Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

* v
* t
* e

Language families of Eurasia

Europe|

* Indo-European
* Uralic
* Basque
* Iberian
* Tartessian
* Paleo-Corsican
* Paleo-Sardinian
* Camunic
* Elymian
* Ligurian
* North Picene
* Sicani
* Tyrsenian
* Eteocretan
* Eteocypriot
* Minoan

West Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Hurro-Urartian
* Hattic
* Kassite ?
* Kaskian ?
* Philistine ?
* Sumerian
* Proto-Euphratean ?
* Elamite

Caucasian|

* Kartvelian
* Northeast Caucasian
* Northwest Caucasian

South Asia|

* Indo-European
* Dravidian
* Nihali
* Burushaski
* Kusunda
* Harappan ?

East Asia|

* Austroasiatic
* Sino-Tibetan
* Hmong–Mien
* Kra–Dai
* Austronesian
* Japonic

Indian Ocean rim|

* Great Andamanese
* Ongan
* Kenaboi
* Enggano

North Asia|

| Altaic ?|

* Turkic
* Mongolic
* Tungusic
* Koreanic ?
* Japonic ?

|

"Paleosiberian"|

* Koreanic
* Ainu
* Nivkh
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan
* Yukaghir
* Yeniseian

Other North Asia|

* Uralic
* Ruanruan ?
* Eskimo–Aleut

Proposed groupings|

* Alarodian
* Altaic
* Borean
* Nostratic
* Dené–Caucasian
* Eurasiatic
* Dené–Yeniseian
* Dravido-Korean
* Elamo-Dravidian
* Ibero-Caucasian
* Indo-Hittite
* Indo-Pacific
* Indo-Semitic
* Indo-Uralic
* Pontic
* Karasuk
* Turanian
* Eskimo–Uralic
* Ural–Altaic
* Uralic–Yukaghir
* Uralo-Siberian

| Arunachal|

* Greater Siangic
* Siangic
* Digaro
* Miju
* Hrusish
* Kho-Bwa

|

Southeast Asia|

* Andamanese
* Austric
* Austro-Tai
* Austronesian–Ongan
* East Asian
* Sino-Austronesian

Substrata|

* Atlantic
* Pre-Celtic
* Pre-Germanic
* Pre-Goidelic
* Pre-Greek
* Vasconic
* Pre-Vedic
* Pre-Finno-Ugric

* v
* t
* e

Etruscan-related topics

History|

* Origins
* Villanovan culture
* Padanian Etruria
* Founding of Rome
* Tyrrhenus
* Tyrrhenians
* Tarchon
* Caelius Vibenna
* Capys
* Lucius Tarquinius Priscus
* Tanaquil
* Servius Tullius
* Lucius Tarquinius Superbus
* Aruns (son of Tarquinius Superbus)
* Lars Porsena
* Lars Tolumnius
* Titus Vestricius Spurinna

Culture and society|

* Apollo of Veii
* Architecture
* Art
* Chimera of Arezzo
* Coins
* Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum
* Etruscan League
* Etruscan names for Greek heroes
* Etruscan Sibyl
* Extispicy
* Fanum Voltumnae
* Haruspex
* Jewelry
* Lausus
* Liver of Piacenza
* Mezentius
* Mythological figures
* Mythology
* Persius
* Poppilia
* Raeti
* Religion
* Sarcophagus of the Spouses
* Tages
* Terracotta warriors
* Titus Lartius
* Tomb of the Roaring Lions
* Vulca

Military history|

* Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)
* Siege of Rome (509 BC)
* Siege of Rome (508 BC)
* Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)
* Battle of Cumae (474 BC)
* Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)
* Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)
* Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)
* Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)
* Battle of Populonia (282 BC)

Language|

* Alphabet
* Cippus Perusinus
* Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum
* Liber Linteus
* Pyrgi Tablets
* Raetic language
* Lemnian language
* Tabula Capuana
* Tabula Cortonensis
* Tyrsenian languages
* Spanish words of Etruscan origin
* English words of Etruscan origin

Archeology|

* Bucchero
* Cuniculi
* Etruscology
* Impasto (pottery)
* Monteleone Chariot
* National Etruscan Museum
* Negau helmet
* Portonaccio
* Tomb of Orcus
* Tumulus of Montefortini
* Vicus Tuscus

Key sites|

* Acquarossa
* Adria
* Aleria
* Baratti
* Bologna
* Caere
* Ceri
* Cerveteri
* Civita di Bagnoregio
* Clusium
* Cumae
* Etruria
* Falerii
* Fescennia
* Fidenae
* Norchia
* Orvieto
* Perusia
* Poggio Colla
* Populonia
* Pyrgi
* Rusellae
* San Giovenale
* Spina
* Tarquinia
* Tuscania
* Veii
* Vetulonia
* Vie Cave
* Volsinii
* Volterra
* Vulci

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