Xincan languages

Short description: Extinct language family of Guatemala

Xincan

Ethnicity| 16,200 Xinca people (2003 census)
Geographic
distribution| Guatemala
Extinct| 1970s (3 semi-speakers reported)
Linguistic classification| One of the world's primary language families
Subdivisions|

* Yupiltepeque †
* Jumaytepeque †
* Chiquimulilla †
* Guazacapán †
* Sinacantán †
* ? Alagüilac †

ISO 639-3| xin
Glottolog| xinc1237[1]

Geographic distribution of the Xincan languages. Solid blue is the recorded range, transparent is the range attested by toponyms.

Xinca (or Xinka, Sinca, or Szinca) is a small extinct family of Mesoamerican languages; formerly, the language was regarded as a single language isolate. Xinca was once spoken by the Indigenous Xinca people in southeastern Guatemala, parts of El Salvador, and Honduras.

They have also historically been referred to as Popoluca or Popoluca-Xinca; Popoluca being a Nahuatl term for unintelligible speech.[2]

## Contents

* 1 Classification
* 1.1 Languages
* 2 History
* 2.1 Contemporary situation
* 3 Distribution
* 4 Phonology
* 4.1 Vowels
* 4.2 Consonants
* 5 See also
* 6 References
* 7 External links

## Classification

The Xincan languages have no demonstrated affiliations with other language families. Lehmann (1920) tried linking Xincan with Lencan, but the proposal was never demonstrated.[3] An automated computational analysis (ASJP 4) by Müller et al. (2013)[4] also found lexical similarities between Xincan and Lencan. However, since the analysis was automatically generated, the grouping could be either due to mutual lexical borrowing or genetic inheritance.

The Xincan languages were formerly regarded as one language isolate. However, the most recent studies suggest they were indeed a language family.[5]

### Languages

There were at least four Xincan languages, each of which is now extinct.[3] Yupiltepeque was spoken in Jutiapa Department, while the rest were spoken in Santa Rosa Department. Campbell also suggests that the Alagüilac language of San Cristóbal Acasaguastlán may have in fact been a Xincan language.

* Yupiltepeque: extinct by 1920. Once also spoken in Jutiapa.
* Jumaytepeque: discovered in the early 1970s by Lyle Campbell, spoken near the top of Volcán Jumaytepeque. This is the most divergent variety, and is not mutually intelligible with that of Chiquimulilla. All fluent native speakers of the language have died, but it may have some semi-speakers remaining.
* Chiquimulilla: extinct
* Guazacapán: extinct, some semi-speakers remain.

To these, Glottolog adds

* Sinacantán[6]

Sachse (2010) considers all Xincan speakers today to be semi-speakers, with the completely fluent speakers having already died.

## History

Xincan languages have many loanwords from Mayan languages especially in agricultural terms, suggesting extensive contact with Mayan peoples.[7] These come from both the Chʼolan and Quichean branches.[8] According to Campbell, Xinca also has a "vast number of Mixe-Zoquean loanwords", suggesting contact with now extinct Mixe-Zoque varieties of the Guatemalan Pacific coast.[9]

In the 16th century the territory of the Xinca extended from the Pacific coast to the mountains of Jalapa. In 1524 the population was conquered by the Spanish Empire. Many of the people were forced into slavery and compelled to participate in the conquest of modern-day El Salvador. It is from this that the names for the town, river, and bridge "Los Esclavos" (The Slaves) are derived in the area of Cuilapa, Santa Rosa.

After 1575, the process of Xinca cultural extinction accelerated, mainly due to their exportation to other regions. This also contributed to a decrease in the number of Xinca-language speakers. One of the oldest references concerning this language was presented by the archbishop Pedro Cortés y Larraz during a visit to the diocese of Taxisco in 1769.

### Contemporary situation

Xinca was most recently spoken in seven municipalities and a village in the departments of Santa Rosa and Jutiapa. In 1991, it was reported that the language had only 25 speakers; the 2006 edition of the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics reported fewer than ten.[10] Nonetheless, of the 16,214 Xinca who responded to the 2002 census,[11] 1,283 reported being Xinka speakers, most probably semi-speakers or people who knew a few words and phrases of the languages.[12] However by 2010, all completely fluent speakers have died, leaving only semi-speakers who know the languages.

## Distribution

Xincan languages were once more widespread, which is evident in various toponyms with Xincan origins (Campbell 1997:166). These toponyms are marked by such locative prefixes as ay\- "place of" (e.g. Ayampuc, Ayarza), al\- "place of" (Alzatate), san\- "in" (e.g. Sansare, Sansur), or with the locative suffixes -(a)gua or -hua "town, dwelling" (e.g. Pasasagua, Jagua, Anchagua, Xagua, Eraxagua).

Kaufman (1970:66) lists the following towns as once being Xinca-speaking.[13]

* Yupiltepeque
* Jumaytepeque (Nueva Santa Rosa)
* San Juan Tecuaco
* Chiquimulilla
* Taxisco
* Santa María Ixhuatán
* Guazacapán

Sachse (2010), citing colonial-era sources, lists the following villages in Santa Rosa Department and Jutiapa Department as having Xinca speakers during the Spanish colonial era.

* Guanagazapa (Guanagazapan), in Escuintla Department
* Guaymango
* Itiquipaque (also known as Atiquipaque or Nextiquipaque)
* Tepeaco
* Tacuilula
* Taxisco
* Guazacapán
* Chiquimulilla
* Sinacantán
* Nancinta
* Tecuaco
* Ixhuatán (Izguatlán)

* Jumaytepéque
* Jalpatagua
* Jutiapa
* Comapa
* Yupiltepeque
* Atescatempa
* La Zacualpa
* Contepeque
* Achuapa
* Valle Tierra Blanca (parish of Tacuilula)
* Santa Ana (parish of Xinacantán)
* San Juan Mixtán (a trilingual village where Spanish, Nahuatl, and Xinca were spoken)

|

## Phonology

The phonological system of Xincan languages had some variance, as evidenced by the variations in recorded phonology exhibited among semi-speakers of the two remaining languages.[14][15]

### Vowels

It is generally agreed upon that the Xincan languages have 6 vowels.[14][15]

| Front  | Central  | Back

|
|
|

Close  | i iː | ɨ ɨː | u uː
Close-mid  | e eː |  | o oː
Open  |  | a aː |

### Consonants

These charts show the consonants of two languages, used by the final semi-speakers of the language.[14][15]

Jumaytepeque consonants  | Labial  | Alveolar  | Post-
alveolar  | Retroflex  | Velar  | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|

plain | sibilant
Stop/
Affricate  | plain | p | t |  | t͡ʃ |  | k | ʔ
ejective | pʼ | tʼ | t͡sʼ | t͡ʃʼ |  | kʼ |
voiced | b | d |  |  |  | (ɡ)  |
Fricative  |  | ɬ | s |  | ʂ |  | h
Nasal  | plain | m | n |  |  |  |  |
glottalized | mʼ | nʼ |  |  |  |  |
Approximant  | plain |  | l |  | j |  | w |
glottalized |  | lʼ |  | jʼ |  | wʼ |
Trill  | plain |  | r |  |  |  |  |
glottalized |  | rʼ |  |  |  |  |
Yupiltepeque consonants  | Labial  | Alveolar  | Post-
alveolar  | Velar  | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|

plain | sibilant
Stop  | p | t |  |  | k |
Affricate  | plain |  |  |  | t͡ʃ |  |
ejective |  |  | t͡sʼ |  |  |
Fricative  |  | ɬ | s | ʃ |  | h
Nasal  | plain | m | n |  |  |  |
glottalized |  | nʼ |  |  |  |
Approximant  |  | l |  | j | w |
Trill  |  | r |  |  |  |

Many younger semi-speakers also used the phonemes /b, d, g, f, ŋ/ due to greater influence from Spanish.[14]

## See also

* Alagüilac language
* Macro-Chibchan languages
* Classification of Indigenous languages of the Americas

## References

1. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Xincan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/xinc1237.
2. ↑ Solano y Perez Lila, Francisco de. Areas lingüísticas y población de habla indígena de Guatemala en 1772. Spain, Departamento de Historia de América de la Universidad de Madrid, 1969.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Lyle Campbell, 1997. American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America
4. ↑ Müller, André, Viveka Velupillai, Søren Wichmann, Cecil H. Brown, Eric W. Holman, Sebastian Sauppe, Pamela Brown, Harald Hammarström, Oleg Belyaev, Johann-Mattis List, Dik Bakker, Dmitri Egorov, Matthias Urban, Robert Mailhammer, Matthew S. Dryer, Evgenia Korovina, David Beck, Helen Geyer, Pattie Epps, Anthony Grant, and Pilar Valenzuela. 2013. ASJP World Language Trees of Lexical Similarity: Version 4 (October 2013).
5. ↑ Campbell, Lyle (2024-06-25). "North American Indian Languages North of Mexico" (in en). The Indigenous Languages of the Americas (1 ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 28–145. doi:10.1093/oso/9780197673461.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-767346-1. https://academic.oup.com/book/57386/chapter/464713514. Retrieved 2025-04-27.
6. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds (2017). "Sinacantan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/xinc1245.
7. ↑ Mayan Loan Words in Xinca
8. ↑ Campbell, Lyle (1977). Quichean linguistic prehistory. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 112. ISBN 9780520095311.
9. ↑ Campbell, Lyle (1988). The linguistics of Southeast Chiapas, Mexico. New World Archaeological Foundation, Brigham Young University. p. 309.
10. ↑ Xinca (2005). Keith Brown. ed. Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2 ed.). Elsevier. ISBN 0-08-044299-4.
11. ↑ "XI Censo Nacional de Población y VI de Habitación (Censo 2002) – Pertenencia de grupo étnico". Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2002. http://www.ine.gob.gt/Nesstar/Censo2002/survey0/dataSet/dataFiles/dataFile1/var26.html.
12. ↑ "XI Censo Nacional de Población y VI de Habitación (Censo 2002) – Idioma o lengua en que aprendió a hablar". Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2002. http://www.ine.gob.gt/Nesstar/Censo2002/survey0/dataSet/dataFiles/dataFile1/var27.html.
13. ↑ Kaufman, Terrence. 1970. Proyecto de alfabetos y ortografías para escribir las lenguas mayances. Antigua: Editorial José de Pineda Ibarra.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 Frauke, Sachse; Letteren, Faculteit der. "Reconstructive description of eighteenth-century Xinka grammar" (in en). https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/handle/1887/15691.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Rogers, Christopher (2010). A comparative grammar of Xinkan. University of Utah.

* Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-509427-1.
* Sachse, Frauke (2010). Reconstructive description of eighteenth-century Xinka grammar. Utrecht: Netherlands Graduate School of Linguistics. ISBN 9789460930294.
* Rogers, Chris Rogers. (2016) The Use and Development of the Xinkan Languages. University of Texas Press

## External links

* https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PbXae2y6hNU

* v
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Language families of Mesoamerica

Demonstrated families|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Purépecha
* (Alagüilac?)

Proposed macrofamilies|

* Hokan
* Macro-Mayan
* Macro-Chibchan
* Penutian
* Tolatecan
* Totozoquean

Linguistic areas|

* Mesoamerican language area

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Primary language families

Africa|

* Afroasiatic
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| Isolates|

* Bangime
* Hadza
* Jalaa
* Sandawe
* Laal?
* Shabo?

|

Europe
and Asia|

* Afroasiatic
* Ainu
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
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| Isolates|

* Basque
* Burushaski
* Elamite
* Hattic
* Kusunda
* Nihali
* Sumerian

|

New Guinea
and the Pacific|

* Arai–Samaia
* Austronesian
* Binanderean–Goilalan
* Border
* Bulaka River
* Central Solomons
* Chimbu–Wahgi
* Doso–Turumsa
* East Geelvink Bay
* East New Britain
* East Strickland
* Eleman
* Engan
* Fas
* Kaure–Kosare
* Kiwaian
* Kutubuan
* Kwomtari
* Lakes Plain
* Lower Mamberamo
* Lower Sepik
* Madang
* Mairasi
* North Bougainville
* Pauwasi
* Ramu
* Senagi
* Sentani
* Sepik
* Skou
* South Bougainville
* Teberan
* Tor–Kwerba–Nimboran
* Torricelli
* Trans-Fly
* Trans–New Guinea
* Turama–Kikorian
* Upper Yuat
* West Papuan
* Yam
* Yawa
* Yuat
* Northwest Papuan?
* Papuan Gulf?

| Isolates|

* Abinomn
* Abun
* Anêm?
* Ata?
* Kol
* Kuot
* Maybrat
* Mpur
* Porome
* Taiap?
* Pawaia
* Porome
* Sulka?
* Tambora
* Wiru

|

Australia|

* Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan?
* Bunuban
* Darwin Region?
* Eastern Daly
* Eastern Tasmanian
* Garawan
* Iwaidjan
* Jarrakan
* Marrku–Wurrugu?
* Mirndi
* Northern Tasmanian
* Northeastern Tasmanian
* Nyulnyulan
* Pama–Nyungan
* Southern Daly?
* Tangkic
* Wagaydyic
* Western Daly
* Western Tasmanian
* Worrorran
* Yangmanic (incl. Wagiman)?

| Isolates|

* Giimbiyu
* Malak-Malak (Northern Daly?)
* Tiwi

|

North
America|

* Algic
* Alsea
* Caddoan
* Chimakuan
* Chinookan
* Chumashan
* Comecrudan
* Coosan
* Eskimo–Aleut
* Iroquoian
* Kalapuyan
* Keresan
* Maiduan
* Muskogean
* Na-Dene
* Palaihnihan
* Plateau Penutian
* Pomoan
* Salishan
* Shastan
* Siouan
* Tanoan
* Tsimshianic
* Utian
* Uto-Aztecan
* Wakashan
* Wintuan
* Yukian
* Yuman–Cochimí

| Isolates|

* Chimariko
* Esselen
* Haida
* Karuk
* Kutenai
* Seri
* Siuslaw
* Takelma
* Timucua
* Waikuri
* Washo
* Yana
* Yokuts
* Yuchi
* Zuni

|

Mesoamerica|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totonacan
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan

| Isolates|

* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Tarascan/Purépecha

|

South
America|

* Andoque–Urequena
* Arauan
* Araucanian
* Arawakan
* Arutani–Sape
* Aymaran
* Barbacoan
* Boran
* Cahuapanan
* Cariban
* Catacaoan
* Chapacuran
* Charruan
* Chibchan
* Choco
* Chonan
* Guaicuruan
* Guajiboan
* Harákmbut–Katukinan
* Jirajaran
* Jivaroan
* Katembri–Taruma
* Mascoian
* Matacoan
* Nadahup
* Nambikwaran
* Otomákoan
* Pano-Tacanan
* Peba–Yaguan
* Quechuan
* Piaroa–Saliban
* Ticuna–Yuri
* Timotean
* Tiniguan
* Tucanoan
* Tupian
* Uru–Chipaya
* Witotoan
* Yanomaman
* Zamucoan
* Zaparoan
* Bora–Witoto languages?
* Chimuan?
* Esmeralda–Yaruro?
* Hibito–Cholón?
* Lule–Vilela?
* Macro-Jê?
* Tequiraca–Canichana?

| Isolates
(extant in 2000)|

* Aikanã?
* Alacalufan
* Camsá
* Candoshi
* Chimane
* Chiquitano
* Cofán?
* Fulniô
* Guató
* Hodï/Joti
* Irantxe?
* Itonama
* Kunza
* Leco
* Maku-Auari of Roraima
* Movima
* Mura-Pirahã
* Nukak?
* Puinave
* Huaorani/Waorani
* Trumai
* Urarina
* Warao
* Yamana
* Yuracaré

|

Sign languages|

* Arab
* BANZSL
* Chinese
* Francosign
* Germanosign
* Indo-Pakistani
* Japanese
* Original Thai
* Swedish
* Tanzanian?

| Isolates|

* See list of sign languages

|

See also|

* Language isolates
* Unclassified languages
* Creoles
* Pidgins
* Mixed languages
* Artificial languages

* Families in italics have no living members.
* Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.

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Languages of Guatemala

Official language|

* Spanish

Note: This topic belongs to "Guatemala" portal

Indigenous
languages|

| Mamean|

* Awaketek
* Ixil
* Mam
* Tektitek

|

Qʼanjobalan|

* Akatek
* Chuj
* Jakaltek
* Qʼanjobʼal

Quichean|

* Achi
* Kʼicheʼ
* Kaqchikel
* Poqomam
* Poqomchiʼ
* Qʼeqchiʼ
* Sakapultek
* Sipakapense
* Tzʼutujil
* Uspantek

Yucatecan|

* Itzaʼ
* Mopan
* Yucatec Maya

Other|

* Chʼorti
* Garifuna
* Xinca

Sign languages|

* Guatemalan Sign Language
* Mayan Sign Language

Template:Languages of El Salvador

* v
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* e

Indigenous language families and isolates of North America

Language families
and isolates|

* Eskimo–Aleut
* Haida
* Yuki–Wappo
* Chumashan
* Adai
* Beothuk
* Cayuse
* Kutenai
* Timucua
* Waikuri
* Pericú

| Na-Dene|

* Tlingit
* Eyak
* Athabaskan

|

Algic|

* Wiyot
* Yurok
* Algonquian

Mosan ?|

* Salishan
* Wakashan
* Chimakuan

Macro-Siouan ?|

* Siouan
* Caddoan
* Iroquoian
* Yuchi

Penutian ?|

* Chinookan
* Wintuan
* Maiduan
* Yok-Utian
* Yokuts
* Utian
* Tsimshianic

| Plateau ?|

* Klamath
* Molala
* Sahaptian

|

Coast Oregon ?|

* Alsean
* Coosan
* Siuslaw

Takelma–Kalapuyan ?|

* Takelma
* Kalapuyan

Hokan ?|

* Shastan
* Palaihnihan
* Pomoan
* Yuman
* Tequistlatecan
* Chimariko
* Esselen
* Jicaquean
* Karuk
* Salinan
* Seri
* Washo
* Yana

Pueblo
linguistic area|

* Tanoan
* Keres
* Zuni

Coahuiltecan
linguistic area|

* Aranama
* Karankawa
* Maratino
* Naolan
* Quinigua
* Solano
* Tonkawa

| Pakawan ?|

* Coahuilteco
* Cotoname
* Comecrudo
* Garza
* Mamulique

|

Gulf ?|

* Muskogean
* Natchez
* Tunica
* Atakapa
* Chitimacha

Mesoamerican
linguistic area|

* Chibchan
* Jicaquean
* Lencan
* Mayan
* Misumalpan
* Oto-Manguean
* Tequistlatecan
* Totozoquean
* Totonacan
* Mixe–Zoque
* Uto-Aztecan
* Xincan
* Cuitlatec
* Huave
* Purépecha
* Alagüilac ?

Caribbean
linguistic area|

* Arawakan
* Cariban

| Pre-Arawakan|

* Guanahatabey
* Macorix
* Ciguayo

|

Proposed groupings|

* Amerind
* Algonquian–Wakashan
* Aztec–Tanoan
* Macro-Mayan
* Macro-Chibchan
* Tolatecan
* Waroid

Lists|

* Classification
* Extinct languages
* Unclassified languages
* Linguistic areas

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