Mango

A mango is an edible stone fruit produced by the tropical tree Mangifera indica. It originated in the northeastern part of the Indian subcontinent, in what is now Bangladesh, northeastern India and Myanmar. M. indica has been cultivated in South and Southeast Asia since ancient times, resulting in two modern mango cultivar lineages: the "Indian" and the "Southeast Asian" types.[1] Other species in the genus Mangifera also produce edible fruits called "mangoes," most of which are found in the Malesian ecoregion.[2]

There are several hundred cultivars of mango worldwide. Depending on the cultivar, mango fruit varies in size, shape, sweetness, skin colour, and flesh colour, which may be pale yellow, gold, green, or orange. Mango is the national fruit of India, Pakistan, and the Philippines, while the mango tree is the national tree of Bangladesh.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Description
* 3 Taxonomy
* 3.1 Cultivars
* 4 Distribution and habitat
* 5 Cultivation
* 5.1 Diseases
* 6 Production
* 7 Culinary uses
* 8 Phytochemistry
* 8.1 Flavor
* 8.2 Toxicity
* 9 Nutrition
* 10 Culture
* 11 References
* 12 Further reading
* 13 External links

## Etymology

The English word mango (plural mangoes or mangos) originated in the 16th century from the Portuguese word manga, from the Malayalam manga, and ultimately from the Tamil mā (மா, 'mango tree') + kāy (ங்காய், 'unripe fruit/vegetable').[3][4][5][6] The scientific name, Mangifera indica, can be translated as "a plant bearing mangoes in India".[5]

## Description

Mango trees grow to 30–40 metres (98–131 feet) tall, with a crown radius of 10–15 m (33–49 ft). The trees are long-lived, as some specimens still fruit after 300 years.[7]

In deep soil, the taproot descends to a depth of 6 m (20 ft), with profuse, wide-spreading feeder roots and anchor roots penetrating deeply into the soil. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15–35 centimetres (6–14 inches) long, and 6–16 cm (2 1⁄2–6 1⁄2 in) broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark, glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10–40 cm (4–15 1⁄2 in) long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5–10 millimetres (3⁄16–3⁄8 in) long, with a mild, sweet fragrance. Over 500 varieties of mangoes are known,[8] many of which ripen in summer, while some give a double crop.[9] The fruit takes four to five months from flowering to ripening.[8]

The ripe fruit varies according to cultivar in size, shape, colour, sweetness, and eating quality. Depending on the cultivar, fruits are variously yellow, orange, red, or green. The fruit has a single flat, oblong pit that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface and does not separate easily from the pulp. The fruits may be somewhat round, oval, or kidney-shaped, ranging from 5–25 centimetres (2–10 in) in length and from 140 grams (5 oz) to 2 kilograms (5 lb) in weight per individual fruit. The skin is leather-like, waxy, smooth, and fragrant, with colours ranging from green to yellow, yellow-orange, yellow-red, or blushed with various shades of red, purple, pink, or yellow when fully ripe.[8]

Ripe intact mangoes give off a distinctive resinous, sweet smell.[8] Inside the stone with its 1–2 mm (0.039–0.079 in) thick woody endocarp is a single seed, 4–7 cm (1.6–2.8 in) long. Mangoes have recalcitrant seeds which do not survive freezing and drying.[10] Mango trees grow readily from seeds, with germination success highest when seeds are obtained from mature fruits.[8]

* Tree

* Flowers and immature fruits

* Unripe mangoes

* Fruit with single seed, cut open

* Stone (endocarp, surrounding the seed)

## Taxonomy

Mangoes originated from the region between northwestern Myanmar, Bangladesh, and northeastern India.[11][1] The mango is considered an evolutionary anachronism, whereby seed dispersal was once accomplished by a now-extinct evolutionary forager, such as a megafauna mammal.[12]

From their center of origin, mangoes diverged into two genetically distinct populations: the subtropical Indian group and the tropical Southeast Asian group. The Indian group is characterized by having monoembryonic fruits, while the Southeast Asian group is characterized by polyembryonic fruits.[11][1]

It was previously believed that mangoes originated from a single domestication event in South Asia before being spread to Southeast Asia, but a 2019 study found no evidence of a center of diversity in India. Instead, it identified a higher unique genetic diversity in Southeast Asian cultivars than in Indian cultivars, indicating that mangoes may have originally been domesticated first in Southeast Asia before being introduced to South Asia. However, the authors cautioned that the diversity in Southeast Asian mangoes might be the result of other reasons (like interspecific hybridization with other Mangifera species native to the Malesian ecoregion). Nevertheless, the existence of two distinct genetic populations identified by the study indicates that the domestication of the mango is more complex than previously assumed and would at least indicate multiple domestication events in Southeast Asia and South Asia.[11][1]

### Cultivars

Main article: Biology:List of mango cultivars

There are hundreds of named mango cultivars. In mango orchards, several cultivars are often grown to improve pollination. Many desired cultivars are monoembryonic and must be propagated by grafting, or they do not breed true. A common monoembryonic cultivar is 'Alphonso', an important export product, considered "the king of mangoes".[13]

Cultivars that excel in one climate may fail elsewhere. For example, Indian cultivars such as 'Julie,' a prolific cultivar in Jamaica, require annual fungicide treatments to escape the lethal fungal disease anthracnose in Florida. Asian mangoes are resistant to anthracnose.[14]

The current western market is dominated by the cultivar 'Tommy Atkins', a seedling of 'Haden' that first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida and was initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers.[15] Growers and importers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its excellent productivity and disease resistance, shelf life, transportability, size, and appealing colour.[16] Although the Tommy Atkins cultivar is commercially successful, other cultivars may be preferred by consumers for eating pleasure, such as Alphonso.[13][16]

* 'Carabao', a typical "Southeast Asian type" polyembryonic cultivar

* 'Langra', a typical "Indian type" monoembryonic cultivar

* Many varieties from India

## Distribution and habitat

From tropical Asia, mangoes were introduced to East Africa by Arab and Persian traders in the ninth to tenth centuries. The 14th-century Moroccan traveler Ibn Battuta reported it at Mogadishu.[17] It was spread further into other areas around the world during the Colonial Era. The Portuguese Empire spread the mango from their colony in Goa to East and West Africa. From West Africa, they introduced it to Brazil from the 16th to the 17th centuries. From Brazil, it spread northwards to the Caribbean and eastern Mexico by the mid to late 18th century. The Spanish Empire also introduced mangoes directly from the Philippines to western Mexico via the Manila galleons from at least the 16th century. Mangoes were only introduced to Florida by 1833.[1][18]

## Cultivation

The mango is cultivated in most frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates. It is cultivated extensively in South Asia, Southeast Asia, East and West Africa, the tropical and subtropical Americas, and the Caribbean.[19] Mangoes are also grown in Andalusia, Spain (mainly in Málaga province), as its coastal subtropical climate is one of the few places in mainland Europe that permits the growth of tropical plants and fruit trees. The Canary Islands are another notable Spanish producer of the fruit. Other minor cultivators include North America (in South Florida and the California Coachella Valley), Hawai'i, and Australia.[20]

Many commercial cultivars grown in Europe are grafted onto the cold-hardy rootstock of the Gomera-1 mango cultivar, originally from Cuba. Its root system is well adapted to a coastal Mediterranean climate.[21]

A breakthrough in mango cultivation was the use of potassium nitrate and ethrel to induce flowering in mangoes. The discovery was made by Filipino horticulturist Ramon Barba in 1974 and was developed from the unique traditional method of inducing mango flowering using smoke in the Philippines. It allowed mango plantations to induce regular flowering and fruiting year-round. Previously, mangoes were seasonal because they only flowered every 16 to 18 months. The method is now used in most mango-producing countries.[22][23]

### Diseases

Mango trees are subject to many diseases, including alternaria rot, anthracnose, bacterial black spot, and powdery mildew.[24][25] Spongy tissue is a ripening disorder correlated with calcium deficiency and characterized by spongy, brown-black flesh beginning near the seeds.[26] It was estimated in 1989 to affect approximately 30% of Alphonso mangoes.[27] Among the pests of the fruit's cultivation is the mango mealybug; it sucks sap from inflorescences, causing reduced fruit set and seriously harming crop production.[28]

* bacterial black spot of mango

* Anthracnose in fruit

* Anthracnose in inflorescence

* Powdery mildew causing leaf blight

Mango* production
2023, millions of tonnes
India | 26.2

|

Indonesia | 4.1
China | 3.9
Mexico | 2.7
Pakistan | 2.6
Brazil | 2.3
Malawi | 2.1
World | 61.1
*Includes mangosteens and guavas; Source: FAOSTAT
of the United Nations[29]

## Production

In 2023, world production of mangoes, mangosteens and guavas was 61 million tonnes, led by India with 43% of the total, and Indonesia and China as secondary producers.[29]

## Culinary uses

Mangoes are generally sweet, although the taste and texture of the flesh vary across cultivars; some, such as Alphonso, have a soft, pulpy, juicy texture similar to an overripe plum, while others, such as Tommy Atkins, are firmer with a fibrous texture.[30]

Mangoes are used in many cuisines. Sour, unripe mangoes are used in side dishes in Indian cuisine such as mango chutney[31] and pickles such as avakaya.[32]

A summer drink called aam panna is made with mangoes.[33] Mango lassi is consumed throughout South Asia, prepared by mixing ripe mangoes or mango pulp with buttermilk and sugar.[34][35]

In Indonesian cuisine, unripe mango is processed into asinan, rujak and sambal pencit/mangga muda,[36] or eaten with edible salt.[37]

Raw green mangoes can be sliced and eaten like a salad.[38] In most parts of Southeast Asia, they are commonly eaten with fish sauce, vinegar, soy sauce, or with a dash of salt (plain or spicy) - a combination usually known as "mango salad" in English.[39] In the Philippines, green mangoes are eaten with savory condiments such as bagoong (salty fish or shrimp paste), soy sauce, vinegar, or chilis.[40][41] Mango float and mango cake, which use slices of ripe mangoes, are eaten in the Philippines.[42]

* The "hedgehog" style of preparation on Carabao mangoes

* Alphonso mango chunks

* Sliced Ataulfo mangoes

* A glass of mango juice

* Mango chutney

* Sour unripe mangoes eaten with shrimp paste, salt, chili, vinegar or soy sauce in the Philippines

## Phytochemistry

Major flavour chemicals of the 'Alphonso' mango from India

Numerous phytochemicals are present in mango peel and pulp, such as the triterpene lupeol.[43] Mango peel pigments under study include carotenoids, such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, lutein and alpha-carotene,[44][45] and polyphenols, such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins and tannins.[46][47] Mango contains a unique xanthonoid called mangiferin.[48]

Phytochemical and nutrient content appears to vary across mango cultivars.[49] Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest of which was beta-carotene, which accounts for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango cultivars.[50] Mango leaves also have significant polyphenol content, including xanthonoids, mangiferin and gallic acid.[51]

### Flavor

The flavor of mango fruits is conferred by several volatile organic chemicals, mainly terpenes, furanones, lactones, and esters. Different varieties or cultivars of mangoes can have flavours made up of different volatile chemicals or the same volatile chemicals in different quantities.[52] In general, New World mango cultivars are characterized by the dominance of δ-3-carene, a monoterpene flavorant; whereas, high concentration of other monoterpenes such as (Z)-ocimene and myrcene, as well as the presence of lactones and furanones, is the unique feature of Old World cultivars.[53][54] In India, 'Alphonso' is one of the most popular cultivars. In 'Alphonso' mango, the lactones, and furanones are synthesized during ripening, whereas terpenes and the other flavorants are present in both the developing (immature) and ripening fruits.[55][56][57] Ethylene, a ripening-related hormone well known to be involved in ripening of mango fruits, causes changes in the flavor composition of mango fruits upon exogenous application, as well.[58][59] In contrast to the huge amount of information available on the chemical composition of mango flavour, the biosynthesis of these chemicals has not been studied in depth; only a handful of genes encoding the enzymes of flavour biosynthetic pathways have been characterized to date.[60][61][62][63]

MangoNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)

Energy| 250 kJ (60 kcal)

Carbohydrates

15 g

Sugars| 13.7
Dietary fiber| 1.6 g

Fat

0.38 g

Saturated| 0.092 g
Monounsaturated| 0.14 g
Polyunsaturated

omega‑3

omega‑6

| 0.071 g

0.051 g

0.019 g

Protein

0.82 g

Vitamins| Quantity %DV†
Vitamin A equiv.

beta-Carotene

lutein zeaxanthin

54 μg

640 μg

23 μg

Thiamine (B1)|

0.028 mg
Riboflavin (B2)|

0.038 mg
Niacin (B3)|

0.669 mg
Pantothenic acid (B5)|

0.197 mg
Vitamin B6|

0.119 mg
Folate (B9)|

11%

43 μg
Choline|

7.6 mg
Vitamin C|

44%

36.4 mg
Vitamin E|

0.9 mg
Vitamin K|

4.2 μg
Minerals| Quantity %DV†
Calcium|

11 mg
Copper|

0.111 mg
Iron|

0.16 mg
Magnesium|

10 mg
Manganese|

0.063 mg
Phosphorus|

14 mg
Potassium|

168 mg
Selenium|

0.6 μg
Sodium|

1 mg
Zinc|

0.09 mg
Other constituents| Quantity
Water| 83.5 g

* * *

Link to USDA Database entry

* Units
* μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams
* IU = International units

†Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

### Toxicity

Contact with oils in mango leaves, stems, sap, and skin can cause dermatitis and anaphylaxis in susceptible individuals.[8][64][65] Those with a history of contact dermatitis induced by urushiol (an allergen found in poison ivy, poison oak, or poison sumac) may be most at risk for mango contact dermatitis.[66] Other mango compounds potentially responsible for dermatitis or allergic reactions include mangiferin.[8] Cross-reactions may occur between mango allergens and urushiol.[67] Sensitized individuals may not be able to eat peeled mangoes or drink mango juice safely.[8]

When mango trees are flowering in spring, local people with allergies may experience breathing difficulty, itching of the eyes, or facial swelling, even before flower pollen becomes airborne. In this case, the irritant is likely to be the vaporized essential oil from flowers. During the primary ripening season of mangoes, contact with mango plant parts – primarily sap, leaves, and fruit skin[8] – is the most common cause of plant dermatitis in Hawaii.[68]

## Nutrition

A raw mango is 84% water, 15% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and has negligible fat (table). In a reference amount of 100 g (3.5 oz), raw mango supplies 60 calories and is a rich source of vitamin C (40% of the Daily Value, DV) with moderate amounts of folate (11% DV) and copper (12% DV), while other micronutrients are low in content (table).

## Culture

The mango is the national fruit of India,[69][70] Pakistan,[71] and the Philippines.[72]It is the national tree of Bangladesh.[73] In India, the harvesting and sale of mangoes is during March–May and this is annually covered by news agencies.[13] In Tamil Nadu, the mango is one of the three royal fruits, along with banana and jackfruit, for their sweetness and flavour.[74]

The mango has a traditional context in the culture of South Asia. In his edicts, the Mauryan emperor Ashoka references the planting of fruit- and shade-bearing trees along imperial roads in his Major Pillar Edict No.5:[75]

> "On the roads banyan-trees were caused to be planted by me, (in order that) they might afford shade to cattle and men, (and) mango-groves were caused to be planted."

In medieval India, the Indo-Persian poet Amir Khusrau termed the mango "Naghza Tarin Mewa Hindustan" – "the fairest fruit of Hindustan".[76] The Mughal Empire was especially fond of the fruits: the emperor Babur praises the mango in his Baburnama.[77] Mughal emperor Akbar (1556–1605) is said to have planted a mango orchard of 100,000 trees near Darbhanga, Bihar.[78] Mango flowers and leaves are used in the worship of the Hindu goddess Saraswati at the spring festival of Vasant Panchami.[79] The leaves are used as decorations in celebrations of Ganesh Chaturthi for the elephant-headed god Ganesha.[80] The Jain goddess Ambika is traditionally represented as sitting under a mango tree.[81] The classical Sanskrit poet Kalidasa sang the praises of mangoes.[82]

Paisley patterns, with a teardrop-shaped motif or boteh on shawls and saris, are named for the unripe mango in languages across the Indian subcontinent, such as kalka in Bengali,[83][84] ambi in Punjabi,[85] and kairi in Hindi.[84] E. M. Forster's 1924 novel A Passage to India has the character Dr. Aziz suggest to the English character Cyril Fielding "For you I shall arrange a lady with breasts like mangoes".[86] Mangoes were the subject of the mango cult in China during the Cultural Revolution as symbols of chairman Mao Zedong's love for the people.[87]

* Image of Ambika under a mango tree in Cave 34 of the Ellora Caves

* Paisley patterns are named for the mango in languages of the Indian subcontinent.

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Warschefsky, Emily J.; Wettberg, Eric J. B. (June 2019). "Population genomic analysis of mango (Mangifera indica) suggests a complex history of domestication". New Phytologist 222 (4): 2023–2037. doi:10.1111/nph.15731. PMID 30730057. Bibcode: 2019NewPh.222.2023W.
2. ↑ Sherman, Amir; Rubinstein, Mor; Eshed, Ravit; Benita, Miri; Ish-Shalom, Mazal; Sharabi-Schwager, Michal; Rozen, Ada; Saada, David et al. (December 2015). "Mango (Mangifera indica L.) germplasm diversity based on single nucleotide polymorphisms derived from the transcriptome". BMC Plant Biology 15 (1): 277. doi:10.1186/s12870-015-0663-6. PMID 26573148. Bibcode: 2015BMCPB..15..277S.
3. ↑ "Mango". Online Etymology Dictionary. 2024. https://www.etymonline.com/word/mango.
4. ↑ Fabricius, J. P. (1972). "J. P. Fabricius's Tamil and English dictionary. 4th ed., rev.and enl". https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/fabricius_query.py?page=230.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Prakash, Om (2005) (in en). A Tryst with Mango: Retrospect, Aspects, Prospects. APH Publishing. pp. xiv. ISBN 978-81-7648-912-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=UAc_Pp6ahK8C&dq=mango+tamil+manga&pg=PR14.
6. ↑ "mango n. (1)". OED Online. Oxford University Press. June 2021. https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/113430.
7. ↑ "Mango". California Rare Fruit Growers. http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/mango.html.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 Morton, Julia Frances (1987). Mango. In: Fruits of Warm Climates. NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University. pp. 221–239. ISBN 978-0-9610184-1-2. https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/mango_ars.html.
9. ↑ "Mango (Mangifera indica) varieties". http://toptropicals.com/html/toptropicals/articles/fruit/varieties_mango.htm.
10. ↑ Marcos-Filho, Julio. "Physiology of Recalcitrant Seeds". Ohio State University. http://seedbiology.osu.edu/HCS631_files/12B Recalcitrant Seeds.pdf.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 Kuhn, David N.; Bally, Ian S. E.; Dillon, Natalie L.; Innes, David; Groh, Amy M.; Rahaman, Jordon; Ophir, Ron; Cohen, Yuval et al. (20 April 2017). "Genetic Map of Mango: A Tool for Mango Breeding". Frontiers in Plant Science 8. doi:10.3389/fpls.2017.00577. PMID 28473837. Bibcode: 2017FrPS....8..577K.
12. ↑ Spengler, Robert N. (April 2020). "Anthropogenic Seed Dispersal: Rethinking the Origins of Plant Domestication". Trends in Plant Science 25 (4): 340–348. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2020.01.005. PMID 32191870. Bibcode: 2020TPS....25..340S.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Allen, Jonathan (10 May 2006). "Mango Mania in India". The New York Times. http://travel.nytimes.com/2006/05/10/travel/10mumbailetter.html?pagewanted=1&_r=0.
14. ↑ Hunsberger, Adrian; Balerdi, Carlos (February 2012). "DOORYARD DISEASE CONTROL FOR MANGOS IN FLORIDA". University of Florida/IFAS Miami-Dade County Extension. https://sfyl.ifas.ufl.edu/media/sfylifasufledu/miami-dade/documents/insect-pests-amp-diseases/Mango-Disease-Cntrl-HomeownersF.S..pdf. "Mango varieties that are susceptible to anthracnose are: 'Cogshall', 'Graham', 'Haden', 'Irwin', 'Julie', 'Kent', 'Mallika', 'Valencia Pride', 'Zill', and others. Those that are susceptible to powdery mildew are: 'Alphonso', 'Carrie', 'Glenn', 'Haden', 'Keitt', 'Kent', 'Nam Doc Mai', 'Zill' and a few others. These will most likely need to be sprayed with fungicides each year."
15. ↑ Susser, Allen (2001). The Great Mango Book. New York: Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-204-4.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Mintz, C. (24 May 2008). "Sweet news: Ataulfos are in season". Toronto Star. https://www.thestar.com/life/2008/05/24/sweet_news_ataulfos_are_in_season.html.
17. ↑ Watson, Andrew J. (1983). Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques, 700–1100. Cambridge University Press. pp. 72–3. ISBN 978-0-521-24711-5.
18. ↑ Gepts, P.. "PLB143: Crop of the Day: Mango, Mangifera indica". The Evolution of Crop Plants. Dept. of Plant Sciences, Sect. of Crop & Ecosystem Sciences, University of California, Davis. http://www.plantsciences.ucdavis.edu/gepts/pb143/crop/mango/mango.htm.
19. ↑ Altendorf, S. (2019). Major Tropical Fruits: Market Review 2018. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/3/ca5692en/ca5692en.pdf.
20. ↑ Litz, Richard E. (2009). The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses. Wallingford, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 606–627. ISBN 978-1-84593-489-7.
21. ↑ "actahort.org". actahort.org. http://www.actahort.org/members/showpdf?booknrarnr=820_2.
22. ↑ "The Scientist, the Patent and the Mangoes – Tripling the Mango Yield in the Philippines". https://www.wipo.int/ipadvantage/en/details.jsp?id=2516.
23. ↑ Nagao, Mike A.; Nishina, Melvin S. (1993). "Use of Potassium Nitrate on Mango Flowering". in Chia, C.L.; Evans, D.O.. Proceedings, Conference on Mango in Hawaii; March 9-11, 1993. University of Hawaii. pp. 61–66. https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/16493.
24. ↑ Prakash, Om (2004). "Diseases and Disorders of Mango and their Management". Diseases of Fruits and Vegetables Volume I. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 511–619. doi:10.1007/1-4020-2606-4_13. ISBN 978-1-4020-1822-0. https://link.springer.com/10.1007/1-4020-2606-4_13. Retrieved 2026-03-06.
25. ↑ Ploetz, R. C. (2003). "Diseases of mango.". Diseases of tropical fruit crops. UK: CABI Publishing. p. 327–363. doi:10.1079/9780851993904.0327. ISBN 978-0-85199-390-4. http://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/9780851993904.0327. Retrieved 2026-03-06.
26. ↑ Ma, Xiaowei; Liu, Bin; Zhang, Yuehua; Su, Muqing; Zheng, Bin; Wang, Songbiao; Wu, Hongxia (2023). "Unraveling correlations between calcium deficiency and spongy tissue in mango fruit flesh". Scientia Horticulturae 309. doi:10.1016/j.scienta.2022.111694. Bibcode: 2023ScHor.30911694M.
27. ↑ Katrodia, J.S. (August 1989). "Spongy Tissue in Mango – causes and control measures". Acta Horticulturae (231): 814–826. doi:10.17660/actahortic.1989.231.49. http://dx.doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.1989.231.49.
28. ↑ Karar, Haider; Sayyed, Ali H.; Arif, M. Jalal; Ashfaq, M.; Aslam, M. (2010). "Integration of cultural and mechanical practices for management of the mango mealybug Drosicha mangiferae". Phytoparasitica 38 (3): 223–229. doi:10.1007/s12600-010-0094-8.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 "Production of mangoes, mangosteens, and guavas in 2023, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2025. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL.
30. ↑ Clark, Melissa (1 April 2011). "For everything there is a season, even mangoes". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2011/04/06/dining/06appe.html.
31. ↑ "Recipe: Raw mango chutney". The Times Of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/food/recipes/Recipe-Raw-mango-chutney/articleshow/13034557.cms.
32. ↑ Ranjan, Hriday (18 March 2019). "Ode to the humble garlic pickle". The New Indian Express. https://www.newindianexpress.com/cities/bengaluru/2019/mar/18/ode-to-the-humble-garlic-pickle-1952450.html.
33. ↑ "Aam Panna Recipe". NDTV Food. https://food.ndtv.com/recipe-aam-panna-13.
34. ↑ Kurlansky, Mark (2018). Milk! A 10,000-Year Food Fracas. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 266. ISBN 978-1632863829. https://books.google.com/books?id=6htCDwAAQBAJ&pg=PAPA266.
35. ↑ Shah, Niraalee (2021). Indian Etiquette: A Glimpse Into India's Culture. Notion Press. pp. 289. https://books.google.com/books?id=7YdUEAAAQBAJ&pg=PAPT289.
36. ↑ Sendari, Anugerah Ayu (8 June 2023). "8 Resep Olahan Mangga Muda Menyegarkan, dari Manisan Sampai Sambal" (in Indonesian). https://www.liputan6.com/lifestyle/read/5307201/8-resep-olahan-mangga-muda-menyegarkan-dari-manisan-sampai-sambal?page=9.
37. ↑ "7 Khasiat Tidak Terduga Rutin Mengonsumsi Mangga Muda Campur Garam" (in Indonesian). https://m.jpnn.com/news/7-khasiat-tidak-terduga-rutin-mengonsumsi-mangga-muda-campur-garam.
38. ↑ (in en-US) The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. 2009. pp. 66. ISBN 978-1-60239-692-0. OCLC 277203364.
39. ↑ Valente, Anabela (2 April 2020). "Oh, the Fruits in Southeast Asia!". Diaries of Travel Inspirations. https://www.diariesofmagazine.com/fruits-southeast-asia/.
40. ↑ Pedrosa, Kannalyn Joy (25 February 2020). "Green Mangoes and Shrimp Paste (The mouth-watering food tandem)". https://thevascollections.co/2020/02/25/green-mangoes-and-shrimp-paste-the-most-salivating-food-tandem/.
41. ↑ "Green Mango & Bagoong". 5 October 2008. http://www.marketmanila.com/archives/green-mango-bagoong.
42. ↑ Tan, Joanne Catherine (5 June 2015). "Top 12 Cakes To Try In The Philippines". https://www.wheninmanila.com/top-12-cakes-to-try-in-the-philippines/6/.
43. ↑ Chaturvedi, P.K.; Bhui, K.; Shukla, Y. (2008). "Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention". Cancer Lett 263 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2008.01.047. PMID 18359153.
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45. ↑ Gouado, I.; Schweigert, F.J.; Ejoh, R.A. (2007). "Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice)". Eur J Clin Nutr 61 (10): 1180–1188. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602841. PMID 17637601.
46. ↑ Mahattanatawee, K.; Manthey, J.A.; Luzio, G. (2006). "Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits". Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry 54 (19): 7355–63. doi:10.1021/jf060566s. PMID 16968105. Bibcode: 2006JAFC...54.7355M.
47. ↑ Singh, U.P.; Singh, D.P.; Singh, M. (2004). "Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars". International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition 55 (2): 163–169. doi:10.1080/09637480410001666441. PMID 14985189.
48. ↑ Andreu, G.L.; Delgado, R.; Velho, J.A. (2005). "Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition". Archive of Biochemistry and Biophysics 439 (2): 184–193. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2005.05.015. PMID 15979560.
49. ↑ Rocha Ribeiro, S.M.; Queiroz, J.H.; Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz, M.E. (2007). "Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Plant Foods Hum Nutr 62 (1): 13–17. doi:10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3. PMID 17243011. Bibcode: 2007PFHN...62...13R. http://www.locus.ufv.br/handle/123456789/19301.
50. ↑ Chen, J.P.; Tai, C.Y.; Chen, B.H. (2004). "Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Chromatogr A 1054 (1–2): 261–268. doi:10.1016/S0021-9673(04)01406-2. PMID 15553152.
51. ↑ Barreto, J.C.; Trevisan, M.T.; Hull, W.E. (2008). "Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Agric Food Chem 56 (14): 5599–5610. doi:10.1021/jf800738r. PMID 18558692. Bibcode: 2008JAFC...56.5599B.
52. ↑ Pandit, Sagar S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2009). "Cultivar relationships in mango based on fruit volatile profiles". Food Chemistry 114 (1): 363–372. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.09.107. Bibcode: 2009FoodC.114..363P.
53. ↑ Pandit, S.S., Chidley, H.G., Kulkarni, 2009, Cultivar relationships in mango based on fruit volatile profiles, Food Chemistry, 144, 363–372.
54. ↑ Narain, N., Bora, P.S., Narain, R. and Shaw, P.E. (1998). Mango, In: Tropical and Subtropical Fruits, Edt. by Shaw, P.E., Chan, H.T. and Nagy, S. Agscience, Auburndale, Florida, pp. 1–77.
55. ↑ Pandit, Sagar S.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Giri, Ashok P.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Köllner, Tobias G.; Degenhardt, Jörg; Gershenzon, Jonathan et al. (2009). "Changes in volatile composition during fruit development and ripening of 'Alphonso' mango". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 89 (12): 2071–2081. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3692. Bibcode: 2009JSFA...89.2071P.
56. ↑ Gholap, A. S., Bandyopadhyay, C., 1977. Characterization of green aroma of raw mango (Mangifera indica L.). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 28, 885–888
57. ↑ Kulkarni, Ram S.; Chidley, Hemangi G.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2012). "Geographic variation in the flavour volatiles of Alphonso mango". Food Chemistry 130: 58–66. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.06.053.
58. ↑ Lalel, H.J.D., Singh, Z., Tan, S., 2003, The role of ethylene in mango fruit aroma volatiles biosynthesis, Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 78, 485–496.
59. ↑ Chidley, Hemangi G.; Kulkarni, Ram S.; Pujari, Keshav H.; Giri, Ashok P.; Gupta, Vidya S. (2013). "Spatial and temporal changes in the volatile profile of Alphonso mango upon exogenous ethylene treatment". Food Chemistry 136 (2): 585–594. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.08.029. PMID 23122101.
60. ↑ Pandit, S. S.; Kulkarni, R. S.; Giri, A. P.; Köllner, T. G.; Degenhardt, J.; Gershenzon, J.; Gupta, V. S. (June 2010). "Expression profiling of various genes during the development and ripening of Alphonso mango". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 48 (6): 426–433. doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2010.02.012. PMID 20363641.
61. ↑ Singh, Rajesh K.; Sane, Vidhu A.; Misra, Aparna; Ali, Sharique A.; Nath, Pravendra (2010). "Differential expression of the mango alcohol dehydrogenase gene family during ripening". Phytochemistry 71 (13): 1485–1494. doi:10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.05.024. PMID 20598721. Bibcode: 2010PChem..71.1485S.
62. ↑ Kulkarni, Ram; Pandit, Sagar; Chidley, Hemangi; Nagel, Raimund; Schmidt, Axel et al. (2013). "Characterization of three novel isoprenyl diphosphate synthases from the terpenoid rich mango fruit". Plant Physiology and Biochemistry 71: 121–131. doi:10.1016/j.plaphy.2013.07.006. PMID 23911730. Bibcode: 2013PlPB...71..121K.
63. ↑ Kulkarni, R.S., Chidley H.G., Deshpande, A., Schmidt, A., Pujari, K.H., Giri, A.P., Gershenzon, Jonathan, Gupta, V.S., 2013, An oxidoreductase from 'Alphonso' mango catalyzing biosynthesis of furaneol and reduction of reactive carbonyls, SpringerPlus, 2, 494.
64. ↑ Sareen, Richa; Shah, Ashok (2011). "Hypersensitivity manifestations to the fruit mango". Asia Pacific Allergy 1 (1): 43–49. doi:10.5415/apallergy.2011.1.1.43. ISSN 2233-8276. PMID 22053296.
65. ↑ Miell, J.; Papouchado, M.; Marshall, A. (1988). "Anaphylactic reaction after eating a mango". British Medical Journal 297 (6664): 1639–1640. doi:10.1136/bmj.297.6664.1639. PMID 3147776.
66. ↑ Hershko, K.; Weinberg, I.; Ingber, A. (2005). "Exploring the mango – poison ivy connection: the riddle of discriminative plant dermatitis". Contact Dermatitis 52 (1): 3–5. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2005.00454.x. PMID 15701120.
67. ↑ Oka, K.; Saito, F.; Yasuhara, T.; Sugimoto, A. (2004). "A study of cross-reactions between mango contact allergens and urushiol". Contact Dermatitis 51 (5–6): 292–296. doi:10.1111/j.0105-1873.2004.00451.x. PMID 15606656.
68. ↑ McGovern, T. W.; LaWarre, S. (2001). "Botanical briefs: the mango tree—Mangifera indica L.". Cutis 67 (5): 365–366. PMID 11381849.
69. ↑ "National Fruit". Know India. Government of India. http://india.gov.in/knowindia/national_fruit.php.
70. ↑ "National Fruit". http://archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/national_symbols.php?id=13.
71. ↑ "Pakistani mango: The king of fruits". ArabNews. 13 August 2019. https://www.arabnews.com/node/1539616/world.
72. ↑ "Mangoes In The Philippines". https://croplife.org/news-views/sharing-the-story/mangoes-from-the-philippines/.
73. ↑ "Mango tree, national tree of Bangladesh". bdnews24.com. 15 November 2010. https://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/mango-tree-national-tree.
74. ↑ Subrahmanian, N.; Hikosaka, S.; Samuel, G.J. (1997). Tamil Social History. p. 88. https://books.google.com/books?id=PXXsAAAAIAAJ.
75. ↑ Hultzsch, Eugen (1925). Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch. Clarendon Press. p. 119. https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch.
76. ↑ Johar, Roshni (16 January 2025). "The mango reigns supreme". The Tribune. https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/musings/the-mango-reigns-supreme-411518/.
77. ↑ "Mangoes, Mughals, Hindu & Buddhist Traditions". Madras Courier. 13 June 2022. https://madrascourier.com/insight/mangoes-mughals-hindu-buddhist-traditions/.
78. ↑ Morgan, Curtis (22 June 1995). "The Nation Is Discovering What South Floridans Have Long Known: Mango Is the Sexiest Fruit on Earth". Miami Herald: p. 1E. ""Mango culture owes much to Akbar, emperor of India's Mogul conquerors from 1556 to 1605, who planted an orchard of 100,000 trees near Darbhanga in Eastern India.""
79. ↑ Dilipsinh, K. S. (2004). "8 The Festival of Spring". Kutch in Festival and Custom. Har-Anand Publications. p. 98. ISBN 978-81-241-0998-4.
80. ↑ Sami, Adnan (2025). "Mango: Botany, Importance, and Uses". Handbook of Research on Mango Fruit: Postharvest Science, Production, Nutrition, and Processing Technology. Apple Academic Press. pp. 59-88. ISBN 978-1779643384.
81. ↑ "Ambika In Jaina Art And Literature". https://www.exoticindia.com/book/details/ambika-in-jaina-art-and-literature-IDH453/.
82. ↑ "His highness, Mango maharaja: An endless obsession – Yahoo! Lifestyle India". Yahoo!. 29 May 2012. http://in.lifestyle.yahoo.com/his-highness--mango-maharaja--an-endless-obsession.html.
83. ↑ Niaz, Zaman (1993). The Art of Kantha Embroidery (Second Revised ed.). Dhaka, Bangladesh: The University Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-984-05-1228-7.
84. ↑ 84.0 84.1 Pathak, Anamika (2024). "Mango-Kairi-Kalka-Paisley: Design in Indian art from architecture to textiles". Asia InCH 43 (1). https://www.globalinch.org/article/mango-kairi-kalka-paisley-design-inindian-art-from-architecture-to-textiles/. "'Kairi' (unripe mango) was adopted as design ... first seen as the decorative design in architecture ... later on, it was extensively used in textiles ... Kashmiri shawls.".
85. ↑ "The Punjab Dictionary". 22 January 1895. https://dsal.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/app/singh_query.py?qs=ambi&matchtype=default.
86. ↑ Forster, E. M. (1924). "11". A Passage to India. Edward Arnold.
87. ↑ Moore, Malcolm (7 March 2013). "How China came to worship the mango during the Cultural Revolution". The Daily Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9914895/How-China-came-to-worship-the-mango-during-the-Cultural-Revolution.html.

## Further reading

* Ensminger, Audrey H. (1995). The Concise Encyclopedia of Foods & Nutrition. CRC Press. p. 651. ISBN 978-0-8493-4455-8. https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope00ensm/page/651.
* Litz, Richard E. (editor, 2009). The Mango: Botany, Production and Uses. 2nd edition. CABI. ISBN 978-1-84593-489-7
* Susser, Allen (2001). The Great Mango Book: A Guide with Recipes. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 978-1-58008-204-4

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