Termial

In mathematics, the termial of a positive integer n, denoted by n?, is the sum of all positive integers less than or equal to n. For example,

5?=5+4+3+2+1=15.

The value of 0? is 0, according to the convention for an empty sum.

The termial was coined by Donald E. Knuth in his The Art of Computer Programming. It is the additive analog of the factorial function, which is the product of integers from 1 to n. He used it to illustrate the extension of the domain from positive integers to the real numbers.[1]

The termial of positive integers is also known as the triangular numbers.[2] The first few (sequence A000217 in the OEIS) are

0, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, 21, 28, 36, 45, 55, 66, 78, 91, 105, 120, 136, 153, 171, 190, 210, 231, 253, 276, 300, 325, 351, 378, 406, 435, 465, 496, 528, 561, 595, 630, 666...

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Definition
* 2.1 Termial of zero
* 2.2 Termial of a non-integer
* 3 Applications
* 4 Termial-like sum and functions
* 4.1 Double termial
* 4.2 Primial
* 4.3 Reciprocal termial
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## History

Since the 18th century, Leonhard Euler and some other mathematicians had been trying to extend the domain of the factorial function to real numbers or even complex numbers, and eventually put forward the Gamma function.[3] In 1997, Donald E. Knuth introduced the termial function n? in his The Art of Computer Programming, as an analog of factorial in addition, so as to illustrate the meaning of domain extension.[1]

## Definition

The termial function is defined by the sum

n?=1+2+3+⋯+(n−2)+(n−1)+n,

initially for integer n ≥ 1. This may be written in the Sigma sum notation as

n?=∑i=1ni.

From these formulas, one may derive the recurrence relation

n?=n+(n−1)?.

For example, one has

5?=5+4?6?=6+5?50?=50+49?

and so on.

The termial function can be calculated using the summation formula for arithmetic sequence:

n?=n(n+1)2.

For example, 100?=100×1012=5050.

### Termial of zero

In order for the recurrence relation to be extended to n = 0, it is necessary to define

0?=0

so that

1?=1+0?=1.

### Termial of a non-integer

The termial function can also be defined for non-integer values using the formula n?=n(n+1)2.

For example, (12)?=38.

## Applications

Termial is less frequently used in mathematics, but still it has some uses in fields such as combinatorics.

* For a set of n distinct elements, the number of 2-combination (i.e., number of ways to choose 2 of them) equals (n − 1)?. This is to say

(n2)=(n−1)?.

* In playing four fours, termial can be a useful tool to find the expression required, especially when the rules do not allow the use of decimal point and square root (which is because the numbers 0 and 2 are used invisibly). For example,

13=4?+4−4÷4
18=4!+4?−4×4

## Termial-like sum and functions

### Double termial

Similar to double factorial[4], The sum of all the odd integers up to some odd positive integer n is called the double termial  of n, and denoted by n??. That is,

(2k−1)??=∑i=1k(2i−1)=1+3+5+⋯+(2k−3)+(2k−1).

For example, 9??=1+3+5+7+9=25.

The sequence of double termial for n = 1, 3, 5, 7,... is the square number sequence.[5] It starts as

1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, ... (sequence A000290 in the OEIS)

### Primial

Primial can be introduced as an analog of primorial, and denoted by n§. It is defined as the sum of prime numbers less than or equal to n[6], i.e.

n§=pπ(n)§=∑i=1π(n)pi,

where π(n) is the prime-counting function.

For example, 11§=p5§=2+3+5+7+11=28.

The first few results are

0, 2, 5, 10, 17, 28, 41, ... (sequence A007504 in the OEIS)

### Reciprocal termial

Main article: Harmonic number

Reciprocal termial is defined as the sum of reciprocal of first n positive integers. It is equal to the n-th harmonic number.[7]

∑i=1n1i=1+12+13+⋯+1n=Hn.

For example, ∑i=131i=1+12+13=116.

## See also

* Triangular number
* Summation
* Factorial
* Exponential factorial

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Donald E. Knuth (1997). The Art of Computer Programming: Volume 1: Fundamental Algorithms. 3rd Ed. Addison Wesley Longman, U.S.A. p. 48.
2. ↑ Weisstein, Eric W.. "Triangular Number". MathWorld-A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/TriangularNumber.html. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
3. ↑ Davis, P. J. (1959). "Leonhard Euler's Integral: A Historical Profile of the Gamma Function". American Mathematical Monthly 66 (10). doi:10.2307/2309786. http://mathdl.maa.org/mathDL/22/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=3104. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
4. ↑ Weisstein, Eric W.. "Double Factorial". MathWorld-A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/DoubleFactorial.html. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
5. ↑ Goodman, Len; Weisstein, Eric W.. "Square Number". MathWorld-A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/SquareNumber.html. Retrieved 30 December 2018.
6. ↑ Hardy, G. H. and Wright, E. M. (1979). An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, 5th ed. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, pp. 1–4, 17, 22, and 251.
7. ↑ Graham, R. L.; Knuth, D. E.; and Patashnik, O. (1994). Concrete Mathematics: A Foundation for Computer Science, 2nd ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. pp. 272–282.

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