American political conspiracy theories

American political conspiracy theories are usually defined by the same theme: a small, powerful group strives to hide secretive, destructive information, harm another rival group, or undermine society in general. Theories play off of actual conspiracies, which include a similar concept: a few individuals work together in secret to unravel a larger system.[1][2][3] Often, the struggle between a real conspiracy theory and a misconception of one is what leads to conflict, creating polarization in elections, dispersing distrust in government, as well as racial and political divisions.[1][4] Many political conspiracies begin and spread due to politically charged circumstances, individual's partisan affiliations, and online platforms that form echo-chambers with like-minded individuals.[1][5] Belief in American political conspiracies applies to all parties, ideologies, races and ethnicities, socioeconomic levels, and genders.[6][7][8]

## Contents

* 1 Contributions
* 1.1 Circumstantial fear
* 1.1.1 Class structures and a lack of trust in government
* 1.2 Partisan affiliations
* 1.3 Intuitionists vs rationalists
* 1.3.1 Polarization
* 1.4 Political ignorance
* 1.5 Echoes and spread
* 1.6 Nationalism and multiculturalism
* 2 Impacts
* 2.1 Elections
* 2.1.1 2016
* 2.1.2 2020
* 3 List
* 4 References

## Contributions

### Circumstantial fear

Conspiracy theories quite often arise during new political or social circumstances, in which one group of people feels threatened by another set of actors that are either politically, religiously, ethnically, racially, or economically different.[1][8][9][4] Theories have begun as early as when Europeans began to colonize the United States, and deemed the Natives as threatening actors.[10] As a result, many colonizers, including Cotton Mather, speculated that Native Americans were controlled by the devil.[1] Some even believed in the "myth of the super-chief," where every Indigenous attack was orchestrated by one Native American chief that controlled thousands of Indian soldiers, striving to wipe out the white.[1]

Theories also arose in response to the counter-culture, feminist, and anti-war era in the 1960s.[1] Many conservatives felt threatened and began to believe that these movements were formed with communistic motivations to undermine the current government.[1] During the 1990s, many right-wing conspiracy theorists also feared that the Clintons were involved in drug cartels and assassinations.[1] Some currently theorize that the government is planting drugs in predominately African-American neighborhoods, breeding a greater rate of incarceration and crime in the community.[1][9][7][2] In the year 2020, conspiracy theories spread out of increased anxiety, more staying at home, and a greater focus on the Internet and social media outlets.[11][12] One such conspiracy that has proliferated from the 2020 Presidential election is QAnon.[13][14][11]

Conspiracy theories exist not only because of the fear of the "other," or a frustration with one's own disenfranchisement.[9][8] Rather, they also come from an increase in change, whether that be social, political, or economical—and the theories are a response to rationalize anxiety about these events, and bring them into context with the country's ideals and laws.[2][1] To elaborate, Frank Donner, a 1980s civil liberties lawyer, claimed,

> Especially in times of stress, exaggerated febrile explanations of unwelcome reality come to the surface of American life and attract support. [The increase of conspiratorial movements] illuminate a striking contrast between our claims to superiority, indeed our mission as a redeemer nation to bring a new world order, and the extraordinary fragility of our confidence in our institutions. [That] has led some observers to conclude that we are, subconsciously, quite insecure about the value and permanence of our society.[1]

Conspiracy theories arise among all races and parties because of the fear of a society and a country destabilizing, and how that would affect one's own life.[1][6][9] Conspiracy theories, according to Benedictine University Professor of Psychology, James Davis, come about because of three reasons related to this:

> A recent review proposes three categories of motivations underlying belief in conspiracy theories...The motivation people have to seek causal explanations to reduce uncertainty ... and to feel in control and safe in their lives ... A third motivation for conspiracy theory endorsement is the desire for individuals to see themselves and their group in a more positive light.[2]

#### Class structures and a lack of trust in government

Class structure is also likely to predict one's belief in a political conspiracy theory. If one has a low income, a lack of higher education, a lack of secure employment, they are more likely to believe in a conspiracy due to a general feeling of helplessness.[8][15] This lack of control is correlated with class: individuals from higher classes have been proven to feel more in control with their lives, employment, education, and living standards.[8][15] Low socioeconomic circumstances can generate political and economical anxiety and a desire to explain the dire circumstances. This helplessness would lead several to find a psychologically soothing explanation: the idea that a group of government actors are plotting against the poor.[8]

This is not to say that those with higher education or a higher IQ level will not believe in conspiracy theories. To understand the theory, many conspiracies require substantial mental effort.[6] Believers are defined by more than just their class: they also engage in a psychological phenomenon called "confirmation bias" where they only accept information validating their belief, and reject information that is inconsistent with the conspiracy.[6][16]

Many individuals also live in positions where specific government policies may cause economic distress. For example, many Americans believe that the government is forcing health industries to hide the cure for or cause of cancer;[1][17] they also have been intaking drugs that are not FDA-approved because they do not trust the American Medical industry.[1] This likely may stem from a fear of, and frustration with current US policies on public health; several ill Americans that cannot afford healthcare may look to sources that blame the Medical industry, including conspiracies.[8][1] It may also originate from a history of fear about the government's lack of transparency or truth in terms of medication: US doctors in the past have approved of mercury, radioactive material, and cigarettes, deeming them healthy when they are in fact the opposite.[1][18][19]

### Partisan affiliations

The blue donkey and red elephant: the two symbols for America's main political parties

Partisan affiliations sometimes determine a belief in conspiracy theories, but belief usually depends on the theory.[3] There is a correlation between political parties and beliefs in the "birther" conspiracy, the JFK assassination conspiracy, the "truther" conspiracy, the "levee branch" theory, and the "death panel" conspiracy. Partisanship loyalty affects beliefs in some theories, while "conspiratorial thinking" (a general paranoia about the government[20]) determines others. Conspiracies directly affiliated with the Obama Administration (such as the "birthers" and "death panel" conspiracies) leaned politically to the right,[21] while Democrats were more unlikely to believe in theories that lobbied against President Obama and his policies.[3] As for the "levee branch," "truther," and Kennedy assassination, both political parties had a similar number of people who believed in the theories.[3] The individuals that believed in those specific theories also had a previous affinity for conspiratorial thinking, or questioning the credibility of governmental actors.[20] However, it has also been studied that conspiratorial thinkers may be more focused on an anti-governmental mindset—due to their lack of trust for higher authority—rather than a specific theory or party.[20]

Each partisan group is partial to believe in conspiracies that target the opposite party, doing so because of their disbelief in the other party's ideologies and policies.[3][22][21] Therefore, conspiracies can come from both political affiliations.[6][3] In fact, University of Miami political scientist Joseph Uscinski stated that "both sides are equally conspiratorial in their thinking ... No one has a monopoly."[6]

### Intuitionists vs rationalists

Political parties are not just what determine the cause of conspiratorial thinking. Rather, intuitionism and rationalism are two psychological patterns of thought that can determine specific conspiracies, and perhaps even catalyze partisan divisions.[16] Intuitionism is when individuals rely on their emotional responses to current events, and then use heuristics to create an explanation for why the events are happening. Rationalists instead determine the causes and effects of events based on quantitative evidence.[16] While both intuitionists and rationalists believe in conspiracies, intuitionists more commonly associate themselves with conspiracies due to their association with more qualitative, emotional data stemming from anxiety about society.[16]

#### Polarization

Current polarization occurs because of increasingly far right and left thinking, and may also come from the conflict between intuitionists and rationalists.[16] Because both have different ways of thinking, if an intuitionist conservative argues with a rational liberal—or vice versa—disagreement will arise.[16] Over the course of history, the right wing has become increasingly intuitionist, often using Biblical or Christian reasoning for justification behind political beliefs[23] or trust in conspiracies.[16] The left wing has been commonly associated with basing belief on quantitative thought rather than religious affiliation;[24] conspiratorial belief may increase because of misinterpretation of numerical data.[16]

Often, political parties engage in the "us vs. them" mentality when understanding theories, believing that the opposite party has cooked up the conspiracy to literally conspire against them.[4] By defining specific theories to one's political affiliation, many party members become polarized.[4] In fact, Steven Smallpage, Adam Enders, and Joseph Uscinski, all political research writers of Research and Politics, explained,

> Although conspiracy theories are often attributed to cognitive hiccups, psychological traits, or psychopathologies, they actually follow the contours of more familiar partisan battles in the age of polarization ... Many conspiracy theories function more like associative partisan attitudes than markers of an alienated psychology.[4]

Conspiracy theories do not arise just because of one's psychology; rather, they usually exist because of divisions in society. Once conspiracies increase, political divisions only grow with them.[4][5][11][25]

### Political ignorance

A lack of awareness about political issues also may perpetuate belief in conspiracy theories.[22] Often, because individuals engage in the mindset that they only hold "just one vote" and may believe that they have little impact, there is little motivation to look at politics objectively, or discover credible information about current events.[22] Because individuals may have apathy towards politics, some may rather remain ignorant about issues. As constituents latch onto ignorance and apathy, some may have little care as to whether political information is biased or sometimes even true.[22] When there is a lack of knowledge about how political systems function, or even a lack of information about a political candidate, they are much more likely to believe in extreme or false claims, such as conspiracy theories.[22]

### Echoes and spread

Conspiracy theories have evolved with the media's always increasing developments. Google, YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Pinterest, and other social media sites use algorithms that bring up posts, videos, and news that correlate with past searches and interests; conservative users commonly receive conservative information, liberal users usually receive liberal news, and every opinion in between likely receives likewise.[5][26] Social media is a key element in creating echo chambers for conspiracy theorists to express their opinions.

Alex Jones, the creator of InfoWars.

One example of theorists using echo chambers is Alex Jones, the talkshow host of InfoWars. A far-right-leaning host who discusses and analyzes political issues, Jones frequently brought up information that was deemed extreme and sometimes even false, several times having little evidence to back up his claims.[5][27] Because of the abilities of YouTube, Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and other social media sites to contact individuals that think and believe similarly,[26] InfoWars and its community grew quickly, where several like-minded individuals were given extreme information that they were more likely to believe due to their political affiliations.[5]

### Nationalism and multiculturalism

The fear of a divided nation, or the definition of what it means to be "American," is also another cause to several conspiracies. Often, whenever a nationality, ethnicity, sexual orientation, or gender differs from specific identities one already affiliates with, fear of national overthrow, of oppression by a separate group, or of attack on one's own way of life, form a distinct "us vs. them" mentality.[1] As these fears and mentalities proliferate within like-minded groups, conspiracy theories form about the opposing party to justify the group's existence and beliefs.[5][22][28][9][3]

For example, conspiracies have been perpetuated in the African-American community that the federal government have instigated AIDS or cocaine into the population; this follows the fear of one group oppressing another (specifically, whites against Black individuals).[9][2][1][29][30] Conspiracies have also been created concerning Native Americans, either arguing against Native Americans or advocating for them.[10]

Robert A. Goldberg, a University of Utah professor on history, also states as to why stigmatized and more privileged groups both struggle with conspiracy theories about the other,

> "Recall a uniquely American word – Un-American. There are no unFrench, or UnSwedish, or UnIsraeli counterparts. Americans harbor this suspicion, the danger of betrayal from within..."[31]

Americans are afraid of having their identity as "Americans," comprised by the "other" group that is different from them culturally, ethnically, racially, or religiously.[31] Thus, several conspiracies have affected the social life of the Indigenous, the Black, and the white.[1][7][10]

## Impacts

### Elections

Several conspiracies have been generated out of elections; one election-specific conspiracy is the belief in election fraud. The fear that ballots may have been faked, or cast incorrectly, spans political parties, genders, and races.[25] Partisan affiliations and conspiratorial thinking are both to blame.[3] Commonly, before the election, a belief in widespread voter fraud influencing the election outcomes are likely to come from conspiratorial thinking and a distrust in higher authority.[25] After the election, a belief in fraud is likely to come from partisan affiliations (usually originating from the losing party).[32] Democrats and Republicans, while both believing in election fraud, generally accept differing methods of fraud: Republicans often fear that Democrats will cast illegal ballots (such as if they are not a legal citizen of the US), and Democrats worry that members of their party will be prevented from voting by voter suppression.[25] Conspiracy theories, and the fear of an opposite party and their influence as a result, can also drive citizens to vote, and influence the outcomes of an election.[4]

#### 2016

During the 2016 presidential election between Hillary Clinton and Donald Trump, many conspiracy theories developed and spread on social media about the opposite candidate—particularly theories against Clinton or Trump's other opponents.[33] As a result, social media, especially Facebook, came under fire for fanning the flames of fake news.[34] Because 44% of Americans receive their news from Facebook, some claim that if Facebook does not filter disinformation in extreme posts, the conspiracies could potentially be dangerous.[34] Many also argue about the potential conflicts censorship has with the First Amendment.[35]

#### 2020

QAnon's symbol

In response to the 2020 presidential election—and the fears generated out of whether Donald Trump or Joe Biden would win—several conspiracies have spread around social media, particularly Facebook and Twitter.[36] The QAnon conspiracy theory (which originated in the U.S.) alleges that Trump is fighting against a deep state cabal of child sex-abusing and Satan-worshipping Democrats.[36][37][38][39][40][41] QAnon is one such conspiracy with a massive following; it has generated over 100 million comments and likes on Facebook in the year 2020 alone.[11]

The number of QAnon adherents is unclear,[37][38][42] but the group maintains a large online following.[37][38] Many have expressed the fear that, because of QAnon's influence and beliefs in Donald Trump as the current Savior of the world, it supports Trump's threats to prevent a peaceful transfer of power.[11] Since the Associated Press declared Joe Biden the winner of the 2020 Presidential election,[43] however, QAnon followers have experienced either a crisis of faith, or have been in denial, believing that President Trump is working behind the scenes to defeat "shadowy forces" that determined Biden's win.[44]

Facebook has banned over 790 QAnon groups, 100 pages, and 1,500 ads tied to the theory in an attempt to dispel the following.[45] Instagram has also taken action, restricting over 10.000 accounts where QAnon could have an effect on the populace and the election.[11][45] To avoid the creation of echo-chambers and further polarization, Facebook prevents QAnon groups from forming, but allows individuals to occasionally post their support. Facebook has also prevented followers from organizing fundraisers and selling merchandise to raise money for the organization.[45] After Trump lost the election to Joe Biden, updates from Q declined dramatically, with the last post by Q made in December 2020.[46] QAnon beliefs became a part of attempts to overturn the election, culminating in Trump supporters attacking the United States Capitol, leading to a further crackdown on QAnon-related content on social media.[36][47][48][49][50]

## List

* AIDS and the African American community: Statements promoting that the AIDS epidemic was actually started by the US government to disenfranchise and weaken the African American community.[2] These ideas have been promoted through mainstream Black media and celebrities, furthering conspiratorial beliefs. Some of these theories stretch as far as to believe that there is already a cure for the disease and pharmaceutical companies are withholding it from the general public.[2] Some attribute the popularity of this conspiracy theory to the historically consistent mistreatment of the African American community and that such mistreatment has led to a mass anxiety and distrust of American governmental systems.[9][29][30]
* Vaccine hesitancy is the hesitancy and often refusal to vaccinate oneself or one's children. The reasoning behind such thought comes from fear of rare vaccination complications and, often, encouragement of conspiracy theories. One of the beliefs is that there is a link between vaccines and autism. This claim has been widely disproven though false information continues to be circulated, founding these claims on conspiracy.[51] Antivaccination was named one of the top ten threats to public health in 2019 by the World Health Organization and its popularity is increasing.[51]
* Area 51—also known as Dreamland and Paradise Ranch—is a United States Air Force base located within the Nevada Test and Training Range, about 120 miles northwest of Las Vegas. Originally created for the purposes of surveillance development, Area 51 has become a hotbed of conspiracy. Many believe it to be a center for testing crashed alien spacecraft and a meeting center for extraterrestrials.[52] Though these theories have been disproved and explained by the US Military, its real purpose is still unclear as it remains a domain shrouded in secrecy.[52]
* Barack Obama citizenship conspiracy theories: The term "Birther" refers to someone who subscribes to the conspiracy theory that former President Barack Obama was not born in the United States. The false allegation was initially made in 2004 by Andy Martin, claiming that Obama was a hidden Muslim rather than a Protestant Christian as he is publicly stated.[21] The theory was then amplified by Donald Trump in 2012, amid speculation about a presidential run, when he claimed that there was something wrong with Obama's birth certificate.[28] The former US president has since publicly released his birth certificate showing that he was, in fact, born in Honolulu, Hawaii. Though the evidence shows that this conspiracy theory is just that—a conspiracy theory —many still doubt Barack Obama's birthplace and continue to make similar claims regarding other People of Color in power.[21][53][28][54]
* The Biden–Ukraine conspiracy theory stems from an April 2015 email to Hunter Biden from Vadym Pozharskyi—an adviser to Ukrainian privately owned energy company Burisma—thanking Hunter Biden for inviting him to meet his father, Joe Biden who was serving as Vice President of the United States at the time. The former vice president has been accused of participating in corrupt activities involving Ukraine as well as influence-peddling to serve his son's career.[55] Donald Trump and other conservative supporters have pointed to this conspiracy theory in hopes of de-railing Biden's 2020 presidential campaign.[55]
* COVID-19 misinformation: Following the COVID-19 pandemic in early 2020, false information regarding the virus's place of origin, treatment, diagnosis, etc. has been widely spread through social media, news outlets, and political biases; causing an "infodemic" as dubbed by the World Health Organization.[56] The numerous false claims regarding the treatment of the virus have caused harm on various fronts in the fight to subdue it.[12][56]
* Deep state: The term "deep state" refers to US intelligence agencies such as the CIA and FBI, and these conspiracy theories rely on the belief that these agencies control US policy, instead of the nation's elected officials.
* Death panel: First coined by former Republican Governor of Alaska and 2008 Vice Presidential candidate Sarah Palin, "death panel" refers to the politically charged theory that government healthcare will lead to too much control; ultimately resulting in panels of politicians and doctors to decide the fates of America's elderly, disabled, and physically vulnerable.[57] Though no change or implementation of policy then or since has factually proved any such claims to be true, this theory continues to fuel conservative opposition to universal healthcare in America.[57]
* False flags: The term "false flag" originated with pirate ships flying literal false flags with the colors of recognized nations to convince merchant ships into thinking that they were safe in interacting with them.[58] Since then, the term has been adopted to describe an operation that is carried out by one nation or people and then attributed to another to deflect or hide blame. Documented false flag operations have been carried out by numerous nations through different eras of war. While many of these instances have been proven real, some believe certain occurrences are actually the work of the U.S. government under the guise of a false flag operation; example: 9/11 conspiracy theories.[58]

The Moon landing is one of the most commonly known conspiracy theories, where many theorize that the government staged the landing.

* FEMA camps conspiracy theory: The belief that the Federal Emergency Management Agency or FEMA is preparing concentration camps around the United States to hold its citizens once martial law is declared. These ideas first emerged in a 1982 newsletter sponsored by a politically far-right leaning group who believed that the most patriotic citizens are most at risk to be imprisoned, tortured, and even killed.[59] Conspiracy theories involving FEMA still persist in the chatrooms and social media of today's politically ultra-conservative.[59]
* Death of Jeffrey Epstein: Jeffrey Epstein was a convicted sex offender, sex-trafficker and financial broker.[60] Shortly after his New York arrest and sentencing, Epstein was taken and placed in the Metropolitan Correctional Center in Lower Manhattan. On August 10, 2019, he was found in his cell with significant neck bruising. Unconscious and in cardiac arrest, Epstein was taken to the New York Downtown Hospital where he was later pronounced dead by suicide.[60] Jeffery Epstein, being well-connected among the politically, culturally, and fiscally elite had friends and enemies in high places leading many to believe that he did not take his own life.[61] The conspiracy theories surrounding his death have been attributed to both the Clinton family and Donald Trump—supposedly motivated by information Epstein might have had that could be harmful to these powerful figures’ careers and lives.[60] Multiple investigations have been launched by the FBI and BOP into the death of Jeffrey Epstein but no definitive conclusion has been reached.[60]
* John F. Kennedy assassination conspiracy theories: On November 22, 1963, President John F. Kennedy was shot in the head while on a campaigning trip in Dallas, Texas. He died at 1:00 pm that afternoon in the Parkland Memorial Hospital. The conspiracy theories surrounding Kennedy's death ranged from the involvement of the Cuban government to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson.[62]
* Malcolm X assassination: Malcolm X, a black nationalist leader and prominent member of the Nation of Islam (NOI)—was assassinated on February 21, 1965, while giving a speech in Manhattan, New York. The killer of Malcolm X has yet to be identified, fueling the conspiracy theories surrounding his death. The most prominent of which is that X's death was sponsored by the NOI due to Malcolm's falling out with the organization. Family members of X are still actively searching for answers to his untimely death.[63][64]
* Martin Luther King Jr. assassination conspiracy theories: On April 4, 1968, civil rights activist and leader, Martin Luther King Jr. was assassinated. There have been numerous conspiracies concerning his death, some even involving the United States government.[65] The King family openly opposes the sentencing of supposed assassin James Earl Ray, believing that his death was caused by "mightier forces".[65] Coretta Scott King, MLK's wife, strongly maintained that her husband's death was wrapped in "high-level conspiracy" possibly involving the mafia and US government.[65]
* Moon landing conspiracy theories: On June 20, 1969, U.S. astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin became the first human beings to set foot on the moon. Over 530 million people watched one of the greatest human achievements occur and, in the years following, many Americans would come to believe that the entire event was a very expensive hoax created by the U.S. government. Conspiracy theories regarding the moon landing began to pop up in the mid-1970s following numerous demonstrations of governmental dishonesty i.e., the Pentagon Papers and the Watergate scandal . Many of the claims that the moon landing was faked have to do with various "errors" in the photos and video taken during the event. One theory—based on the depiction of space in his 1968 film 2001: A Space Odyssey—is that famed director, Stanley Kubrick, actually staged and filmed the moon landing. These claims have since been debunked by various experts; however, they continue to live in American cinema, pop culture, and online.[66]
* October Surprise conspiracy theory: "October surprise" was a term first coined by the Reagan-Bush administration during the tumultuous 1980 election. Minutes after the completion of Reagan's inaugural address, the Islamic Republic of Iran released the 66 Americans who they had held hostage since November 4, 1979. Due to the incredible timing of this release, many believe that the Reagan-Bush administration had worked out a deal with the Iranian government to hold off on releasing the hostages until after the inauguration. Since this episode, the term "October surprise" has been used to describe attention-grabbing information and events that occur in the final days prior to a presidential election i.e., Clinton's WikiLeaks Wall Street speeches vs. 2005 video of Trump's bragging about sexually assaulting women.[67]
* Pizzagate conspiracy theory: A month before the 2016 presidential election, far-right followers of Donald Trump—using a Reddit forum and 4chan message board—poured through John Podesta’s (Hillary Clinton’s former campaign chairman) hacked email account in search of a potential scandal. What they found was correspondence about a dinner between Podesta and his brother, with language involving pizza. The conservative devotees connected the phrase "cheese pizza" with "c.p." for child pornography—an abbreviation often-used in pedophile chatrooms.[5] The connection between Podesta and James Alefantis —the owner of Comet Ping Pong, a Washington, D.C. pizza restaurant—quickly led internet users to spin up conspiracy theories about a child sex-trafficking ring involving Hillary Clinton, Barack Obama, and other high-profile Democrats.[68] Other theories involved underground tunnels, kill rooms, satanism, and even cannibalism.[68] On December 4, 2016, a 28-year-old man named Edgar M. Welch drove from North Carolina with a military-style gun in hopes of freeing the child sex-slaves he supposed were being held captive in the Washington restaurant. He was quickly apprehended and arrested after firing a shot, injuring no one.[5] The restaurant was searched and evidence of such a sex-trafficking ring was not found, however, #Pizzagate theories still persist today via social media.[68]
* QAnon is a conspiracy theory created by far-right devotees of President Donald Trump. QAnon followers believe that the western world is being run by a group of elite "deep state" Satan-worshipping pedophiles and that it is President Trump's charge to defeat them which he will supposedly do on a day dubbed "The Storm".[13] The term "QAnon" stemmed from an anonymous 4chan user "Q" who claimed to be a government insider with high-level "Q" clearance and special information involving the Trump administration. Millions now subscribe to the QAnon theory including some politicians, celebrities, and many mothers.[14][13]
* Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories: On December 4, 2012, a man by the name of Adam Lanza shot and killed his own mother as well as twenty Sandy Hook Elementary School students, six staff members, and, directly thereafter, himself.[69] Almost immediately after this tragedy occurred, conspiracy theories started circulating about the cause of the attack. Fueled by far-right conspirators like Alex Jones, many subscribed to the conspiracy theory that the entire event was orchestrated by the U.S. government to promote enforcement and creation of stricter gun laws. Following being sued by many of the victim's parents, Jones retracted his previous statements.[69] These conspiracy theories, though disputed, continue to hurt the lives of the Sandy Hook victims.[69]
* Illuminati: The Illuminati, also known as the New World Order, is the supposed group of elites who secretly control the entire world. The term "Illuminati" was first the name of a German-founded free thought group for secularist thinkers. The group was eventually shut down by the Catholic church but many believe that it merely went into hiding and eventually evolved into today's New World Order. Supporters of these conspiracy theories believe that certain symbols often used in American imagery are secret communication used by the Illuminati, e.g., the Eye of Horus on the United States dollar . Another belief is that specific celebrities (Beyonce, Jay-Z, Eminem, etc.) have been killed and replaced with clones to brainwash society.[70] Though none of these claims are grounded in fact, the Illuminati conspiracy theory is and continues to be one of the most popular in America.[70]
* Trump-Ukraine Affiliations: The Trump-Ukraine conspiracy theory refers to Trump and associates attributing voter fraud in the 2016 U.S. presidential election to Ukraine rather than Russia—going against opinion and evidence from various historically reliable sources.[71] In conjunction with these theories are accusations of Joe Biden and his son, Hunter in affiliation with Ukraine. In August 2019, a CIA officer turned whistleblower filed a complaint that President Trump was soliciting for foreign electoral intervention in the 2020 United States presidential election.[71] A formal inquiry was then made by the House of Representatives and the president was later impeached and put on trial. No evidence of Ukraine's interference in the 2016 election has been found and Trump was not removed from office.[71]
* 9/11 conspiracy theories: On September 11, 2001, almost 3,000 Americans died in the wake of terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and The Pentagon. Four commercial planes were hijacked by Islamic extremists, crashing into the Pentagon, a Pennsylvania field, and the Twin Towers — changing New York City's skyline forever. Shortly after this tragic event, conspiracy theories formed and spread. Many believe that al-Qaeda was not entirely to blame for the attacks and that the U.S. government was irresponsible in not acting on advanced information they received regarding the attacks. One of the most popular theories is that the plane crashes were used to cover up controlled demolitions inside of the buildings.[72]

## References

1. ↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 Merlan, Anna (May 2, 2019). "Why we are addicted to conspiracy theories" (in en). http://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2019/may/02/why-we-are-addicted-to-conspiracy-theories.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Davis, James; Wetherell, Geoffrey; Henry, P. J. (2018). "Social devaluation of African Americans and race-related conspiracy theories" (in en). European Journal of Social Psychology 48 (7): 999–1010. doi:10.1002/ejsp.2531. ISSN 1099-0992. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ejsp.2531.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Uscinski, Joseph E.; Klofstad, Casey; Atkinson, Matthew D. (2016). "What Drives Conspiratorial Beliefs? The Role of Informational Cues and Predispositions" (in en). Political Research Quarterly 69 (1): 57–71. doi:10.1177/1065912915621621. ISSN 1065-9129. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1065912915621621.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Smallpage, Steven M.; Enders, Adam M.; Uscinski, Joseph E. (2017). "The partisan contours of conspiracy theory beliefs" (in en). Research & Politics 4 (4): 205316801774655. doi:10.1177/2053168017746554. ISSN 2053-1680. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2053168017746554.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Kirk, Michael. "United States of Conspiracy" (in en-US). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/united-states-of-conspiracy/.
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Healy, Melissa (2016). "It's more than the 'rigged' election: Voters across the political spectrum believe in conspiracy theories" (in en-US). https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-trump-conspiracy-theories-20161103-story.html.
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Waters, Anita M. (1997). "Conspiracy Theories as Ethnosociologies: Explanation and Intention in African American Political Culture". Journal of Black Studies 28 (1): 112–125. doi:10.1177/002193479702800107. ISSN 0021-9347. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2784897.
8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 Mao, Jia‐Yan; Yang, Shen‐Long; Guo, Yong‐Yu (August 17, 2020). "Are individuals from lower social classes more susceptible to conspiracy theories? An explanation from the compensatory control theory" (in en). Asian Journal of Social Psychology 23 (4): 372–383. doi:10.1111/ajsp.12417. ISSN 1367-2223. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/ajsp.12417.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Dolan, Eric (August 21, 2018). "Feelings of social devaluation among African Americans' linked to belief in conspiracy theories" (in en-US). https://www.psypost.org/2018/08/feelings-of-social-devaluation-among-african-americans-linked-to-belief-in-conspiracy-theories-51992.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 Woidat, Caroline M. (2006). "The Truth Is on the Reservation: American Indians and Conspiracy Culture" (in en). The Journal of American Culture 29 (4): 454–467. doi:10.1111/j.1542-734X.2006.00422.x. ISSN 1542-7331. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1542-734X.2006.00422.x.
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Spring, Marianna (October 9, 2020). "US election 2020: 'QAnon might affect how my friends vote'" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-54440973.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Lewis, Tanya. "Eight Persistent COVID-19 Myths and Why People Believe Them" (in en). https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/eight-persistent-covid-19-myths-and-why-people-believe-them/.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Jackson, Kaylah (October 9, 2020). "QAnon: The conspiracy theory embraced by Trump, several politicians, and some American moms" (in en). https://www.vox.com/2020/10/9/21504910/qanon-conspiracy-theory-facebook-ban-trump.
14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 North, Anna (September 18, 2020). "How #SaveTheChildren is pulling American moms into QAnon" (in en). https://www.vox.com/21436671/save-our-children-hashtag-qanon-pizzagate.
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Jarrett, Christian (April 5, 2017). "Why more highly educated people are less into conspiracy theories" (in en). https://digest.bps.org.uk/2017/04/05/why-more-highly-educated-people-are-less-into-conspiracy-theories/.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 16.6 16.7 Rand, Paul. "Big Brains podcast: The science of conspiracy theories and political polarization with Eric Oliver" (in en). https://news.uchicago.edu/podcasts/big-brains/science-conspiracy-theories-and-political-polarization-eric-oliver.
17. ↑ "Could somebody be hiding the cure for cancer?" (in en). https://www.worldwidecancerresearch.org/stories/2020/march/could-somebody-be-hiding-the-cure-for-cancer/.
18. ↑ Little, Becky. "When Cigarette Companies Used Doctors to Push Smoking" (in en). https://www.history.com/news/cigarette-ads-doctors-smoking-endorsement.
19. ↑ Gardner, Martha N.; Brandt, Allan M. (2006). ""The Doctors' Choice Is America's Choice"". American Journal of Public Health 96 (2): 222–232. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.066654. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 16434689.
20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Enders, Adam M. (November 12, 2019). "Conspiratorial Thinking and Political Constraint" (in en). Public Opinion Quarterly 83 (3): 510–533. doi:10.1093/poq/nfz032. ISSN 0033-362X. https://academic.oup.com/poq/article/83/3/510/5554656.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 Serwer, Adam. "Birtherism of a Nation". The Atlantic. ISSN 1072-7825. https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/05/birtherism-and-trump/610978/.
22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Somin, Illya (2016). "Political Ignorance, Partisan Bias, and Belief in Conspiracy Theories". Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2016/12/30/political-ignorance-partisan-bias-and-belief-in-conspiracy-theories/.
23. ↑ Dunn, Allen (2019). "Ethics, Identity, and Political Mediation in Right-Wing American Populism". Soundings: An Interdisciplinary Journal 102 (2–3): 158–169. doi:10.5325/soundings.102.2-3.0158. ISSN 0038-1861. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/soundings.102.2-3.0158.
24. ↑ Oppenheim, Felix E. (1964). "Rationalism and Liberalism" (in en). World Politics 16 (2): 341–361. doi:10.2307/2009512. ISSN 1086-3338. https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/world-politics/article/rationalism-and-liberalism/F2BF57CCA68984C49BF8E78F95B2A2BB.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 Edelson, Jack; Alduncin, Alexander; Krewson, Christopher; Sieja, James A.; Uscinski, Joseph E. (2017). "The Effect of Conspiratorial Thinking and Motivated Reasoning on Belief in Election Fraud" (in en). Political Research Quarterly 70 (4): 933–946. doi:10.1177/1065912917721061. ISSN 1065-9129. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1065912917721061.
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Orlowski, Jeff, Larissa Rhodes, Davis Coombe, Vickie Curtis. The Social Dilemma. Exposure Labs . Netflix, 2020. https://www.netflix.com/title/81254224
27. ↑ Higgins, Tucker (September 14, 2018). "Alex Jones' 5 most disturbing and ridiculous conspiracy theories" (in en). https://www.cnbc.com/2018/09/14/alex-jones-5-most-disturbing-ridiculous-conspiracy-theories.html.
28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 Gregory Krieg. "14 of Trump's most outrageous 'birther' claims – half from after 2011". https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/09/politics/donald-trump-birther/index.html.
29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Heller, Jacob (November 13, 2014). "Rumors and Realities: Making Sense of HIV/AIDS Conspiracy Narratives and Contemporary Legends". American Journal of Public Health 105 (1): e43–e50. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2014.302284. ISSN 0090-0036. PMID 25393166. PMC 4265931. https://ajph.aphapublications.org/doi/full/10.2105/AJPH.2014.302284.
30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 "African American people's AIDS conspiracy beliefs best understood in terms of social anxiety and distrust, not ignorance" (in en). https://www.aidsmap.com/news/jan-2015/african-american-peoples-aids-conspiracy-beliefs-best-understood-terms-social-anxiety.
31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Goldberg, Robert (2010). "Enemies Within: The Conspiracy Culture of Modern America". The John O'Sullivan Memorial Lecture Series: 1–22. http://www.fau.edu/artsandletters/osullivan/images/robert-a-goldberg-booklet.pdf.
32. ↑ Kim, Catherine. "Poll: 70 percent of Republicans don't think the election was free and fair" (in en). https://www.politico.com/news/2020/11/09/republicans-free-fair-elections-435488.
33. ↑ Uscinski, Joseph. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016" (in en). https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/08/conspiracy-theories-2016-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-214183.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 "Facebook's failure: did fake news and polarized politics get Trump elected?" (in en). November 10, 2016. http://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/nov/10/facebook-fake-news-election-conspiracy-theories.
35. ↑ Higgins-Dailey, Jacqui (June 4, 2020). "Intellectual Freedom and Harmful Conspiracy Theories: Where do we draw the line?" (in en-US). https://www.oif.ala.org/oif/?p=20958.
36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 Tollefson, Jeff (4 February 2021). "Tracking QAnon: how Trump turned conspiracy-theory research upside down" (PDF). Nature (Nature Research) 590: 192-193. doi:10.1038/d41586-021-00257-y. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 33542489. https://media.nature.com/original/magazine-assets/d41586-021-00257-y/d41586-021-00257-y.pdf. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 Bracewell, Lorna (21 January 2021). "Gender, Populism, and the QAnon Conspiracy Movement". Frontiers in Sociology (Frontiers Media) 5: 615727. doi:10.3389/fsoc.2020.615727. ISSN 2297-7775. PMID 33869533.
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 38.2 Crossley, James (September 2021). "The Apocalypse and Political Discourse in an Age of COVID" (PDF). Journal for the Study of the New Testament (SAGE Publications) 44 (1): 93-111. doi:10.1177/0142064X211025464. ISSN 1745-5294. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0142064X211025464. Retrieved 5 October 2021.
39. ↑ Stausberg, Michael; Engler, Steven, eds (September 2020). "The deliverance of the administrative state: Deep state conspiracism, charismatic demonology, and the post-truth politics of American Christian nationalism". Religion (Taylor & Francis) 50 (4): 696-719. doi:10.1080/0048721X.2020.1810817. ISSN 1096-1151.
40. ↑ Roose, Kevin (3 September 2021). "What Is QAnon, the Viral Pro-Trump Conspiracy Theory?". The New York Times (New York City). https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-qanon.html.
41. ↑ Bowman, Emma (4 February 2021). "Why QAnon Survives After Trump". NPR.org (Washington, D.C.). https://www.npr.org/2021/02/04/963861418/why-qanon-survives-after-trump.
42. ↑ Shanahan, James (March 5, 2021). "Support for QAnon is hard to measure – and polls may overestimate it". The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/support-for-qanon-is-hard-to-measure-and-polls-may-overestimate-it-156020.
43. ↑ "Biden defeats Trump for White House, says 'time to heal'". November 7, 2020. https://apnews.com/article/joe-biden-wins-white-house-ap-fd58df73aa677acb74fce2a69adb71f9.
44. ↑ Harwell, Drew; Timberg, Craig. "'My faith is shaken': The QAnon conspiracy theory faces a post-Trump identity crisis" (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2020/11/10/qanon-identity-crisis/.
45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 45.2 Olga, Robinson; Coleman, Alistair; Carmichael, Flora (August 20, 2020). "QAnon: Facebook takes action on conspiracy groups" (in en-GB). BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-53849295.
46. ↑ "Why are QAnon believers obsessed with 4 March?" (in en-GB). BBC News. 2021-03-04. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-56260345.
47. ↑ Kuznia, Rob; Devine, Curt; Griffin, Drew (December 16, 2020). "How QAnon's lies are hijacking the national conversation". https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/15/us/qanon-trump-twitter-invs/index.html.
48. ↑ Zadrozny, Brandy; Gains, Mosheh (January 7, 2021). "Woman killed in Capitol was Trump supporter who embraced conspiracy theories". NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/woman-killed-capitol-was-trump-supporter-who-embraced-conspiracy-theories-n1253285.
49. ↑ "Twitter blocks 70,000 QAnon accounts after US Capitol riot". January 12, 2021. https://apnews.com/article/twitter-blocks-70k-qanon-accounts-171a5c9062be1c293169d764d3d0d9c8.
50. ↑ Roose, Kevin (January 17, 2021). "A QAnon 'Digital Soldier' Marches On, Undeterred by Theory's Unraveling". https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/17/technology/qanon-meme-queen.html.
51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 "Vaccines and immunization: Myths and misconceptions" (in en). https://www.who.int/news-room/q-a-detail/vaccines-and-immunization-myths-and-misconceptions.
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Ward, Alex (September 19, 2019). "Area 51 and aliens: the myth, the meme, and the strange reality, explained" (in en). https://www.vox.com/2019/9/19/20857221/storm-area-51-aliens-ufos-meme-myth-lore-history-bob-lazar-explained.
53. ↑ Cheney, Kyle. "No, Clinton didn't start the birther thing. This guy did." (in en). https://www.politico.com/story/2016/09/birther-movement-founder-trump-clinton-228304.
54. ↑ https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/birth-certificate-long-form.pdf
55. ↑ 55.0 55.1 "Hunter Biden: What was he doing in Ukraine and China?" (in en-GB). BBC News. October 30, 2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-54553132.
56. ↑ 56.0 56.1 "Coronavirus" (in en). https://www.who.int/westernpacific/health-topics/coronavirus.
57. ↑ 57.0 57.1 "PolitiFact's Lie of the Year: 'Death panels'" (in en-US). https://www.politifact.com/article/2009/dec/18/politifact-lie-year-death-panels/.
58. ↑ 58.0 58.1 "The truth about 'False Flags' from Nazi Germany, to the Vietnam War" (in en). http://www.history.co.uk/article/the-truth-about-false-flags-from-nazi-germany-to-the-vietnam-war.
59. ↑ 59.0 59.1 "Fear of FEMA" (in en). https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/intelligence-report/2010/fear-fema.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 "Subscribe to read | Financial Times". https://www.ft.com/content/8f406516-0c9e-11ea-b2d6-9bf4d1957a67.
61. ↑ "60 Minutes investigates the death of Jeffrey Epstein" (in en). https://www.cbsnews.com/news/did-jeffrey-epstein-kill-himself-60-minutes-investigates-2020-01-05/.
62. ↑ "Assassination of John F. Kennedy – Conspiracy theories" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/event/assassination-of-John-F-Kennedy.
63. ↑ "Malcolm X | Biography, Nation of Islam, Assassination, & Facts" (in en). https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malcolm-X.
64. ↑ s. "Malcolm X assassinated" (in en). https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/malcolm-x-assassinated.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 65.2 Jackman, Tom. "Who killed Martin Luther King Jr.? His family believes James Earl Ray was framed." (in en-US). Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2018/03/30/who-killed-martin-luther-king-jr-his-family-believes-james-earl-ray-was-framed/.
66. ↑ Little, Becky. "The Wildest Moon Landing Conspiracy Theories, Debunked" (in en). https://www.history.com/news/moon-landing-fake-conspiracy-theories.
67. ↑ "The History of the October Surprise" (in en). https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/history-october-surprise-180960741/.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 68.2 Aisch, Gregor; Huang, Jon; Kang, Cecilia (December 10, 2016). "Dissecting the #PizzaGate Conspiracy Theories (Published 2016)" (in en-US). The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/10/business/media/pizzagate.html, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2016/12/10/business/media/pizzagate.html.
69. ↑ 69.0 69.1 69.2 "This Sandy Hook Father Lives In Hiding Because of Conspiracy Theories Fueled By Alex Jones" (in en-US). https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/this-sandy-hook-father-lives-in-hiding-because-of-conspiracy-theories-fueled-by-alex-jones/.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 "The Illuminati Conspiracy Theory | The Psychology of Extraordinary Beliefs". https://u.osu.edu/vanzandt/2019/02/11/the-illuminati-conspiracy-theory-2/.
71. ↑ 71.0 71.1 71.2 "Trump impeachment: How Ukraine story unfolded" (in en-GB). BBC News. December 19, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-50323605.
72. ↑ "The people who think 9/11 may have been an 'inside job'" (in en-GB). BBC News. February 1, 2018. https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-42195513.

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