Agnosticism

Agnosticism is the stance that the existence of God, the divine, the supernatural, or any other untestable claim is either unknowable in principle or unknown in fact.[1][2][3] It can also mean an apathy towards such religious belief and refer to personal limitations rather than a worldview.[2][4][5] Another definition is the view that "human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist."[6]

The English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley claimed that he originally coined the word agnostic in 1869 "to denote people who, like [himself], confess themselves to be hopelessly ignorant concerning a variety of matters [including the matter of God's existence], about which metaphysicians and theologians, both orthodox and heterodox, dogmatise with the utmost confidence."[5] In this sense, agnosticism reflects a stance of withholding belief on any claim that cannot be tested or verified. Although Huxley coined the term in 1869, the agnostic viewpoint itself had been expressed by earlier thinkers, such as Sanjaya Belatthiputta, a 5th-century BCE Indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife;[7][8][9] and Protagoras, a 5th-century BCE Greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of "the gods".[10][11][12]

## Contents

* 1 Defining agnosticism
* 1.1 Etymology
* 1.2 Qualifying agnosticism
* 1.3 Types
* 1.3.1 Strong agnosticism
* 1.3.2 Weak agnosticism
* 1.3.3 Apathetic agnosticism
* 2 History
* 2.1 Hindu philosophy
* 2.2 Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard
* 2.3 United Kingdom
* 2.3.1 Charles Darwin
* 2.3.2 Thomas Henry Huxley
* 2.3.3 William Stewart Ross
* 2.3.4 Bertrand Russell
* 2.3.5 Leslie Weatherhead
* 2.4 United States
* 2.4.1 Robert G. Ingersoll
* 2.4.2 Bernard Iddings Bell
* 3 Demographics
* 4 Criticism
* 4.1 Theistic
* 4.1.1 Christian
* 4.2 Atheistic
* 5 Ignosticism
* 6 See also
* 7 References
* 8 Further reading
* 9 External links

## Defining agnosticism

> [The agnostic] principle may be stated in various ways, but they all amount to this: that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty.[13]

— Thomas Henry Huxley

> Agnosticism, in fact, is not a creed, but a method, the essence of which lies in the rigorous application of a single principle ... Positively the principle may be expressed: In matters of the intellect, follow your reason as far as it will take you, without regard to any other consideration. And negatively: In matters of the intellect do not pretend that conclusions are certain which are not demonstrated or demonstrable.[14][15][16]

— Thomas Henry Huxley

> Agnostics deny... that there are propositions which men ought to believe, without logically satisfactory evidence; and that reprobation ought to attach to the profession of disbelief in such inadequately supported propositions.[13]

— Thomas Henry Huxley

> Agnosticism puts aside not only the greater part of popular theology, but also the greater part of anti-theology. On the whole, the "bosh" of heterodoxy is more offensive to me than that of orthodoxy, because heterodoxy professes to be guided by reason and science, and orthodoxy does not.[17]

— Thomas Henry Huxley

Being a scientist, above all else, Huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation. A hypothesis with no supporting, objective, testable evidence is not an objective, scientific claim. As such, there would be no way to test said hypotheses, leaving the results inconclusive. His agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth, or falsehood, of the claim at hand. Karl Popper would also describe himself as an agnostic.[18] According to philosopher William L. Rowe, in this strict sense, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist.[6]

George H. Smith, while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word,[19] and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word,[20] promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic. Smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism (the view of those who do not hold a belief in the existence of any deity but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable) and agnostic theism (the view of those who believe in the existence of a deity(s) but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable).[21][22][23]

### Etymology

Agnostic (from grc ἀ- (a-) 'without', and γνῶσις (gnōsis) 'knowledge') was used by Thomas Henry Huxley in a speech at a meeting of the Metaphysical Society in 1869 to describe his philosophy, which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge.[24][25]

Early Christian church leaders used the Greek word gnosis (knowledge) to describe "spiritual knowledge". Agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of Gnosticism in particular; Huxley used the term in a broader, more abstract sense.[26] Huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical, evidence-based inquiry.[27]

The term agnostic is also cognate with the Sanskrit word ajñasi, which translates literally to "not knowable", and relates to the ancient Indian philosophical school of Ajñana, which proposes that it is impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions; and even if knowledge were possible, it is useless and disadvantageous for final salvation.

In recent years, scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean "not knowable".[28] In technical and marketing literature, "agnostic" can also mean independence from some parameters—for example, "platform agnostic" (referring to cross-platform software),[29] or "hardware-agnostic".[30]

### Qualifying agnosticism

Scottish Enlightenment philosopher David Hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt. He asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition (e.g. , tautologies such as "all bachelors are unmarried" or "all triangles have three corners").[31]

### Types

#### Strong agnosticism

Also called "hard", "closed", "strict", or "permanent agnosticism", strong agnosticism is the view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities, and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any subjective experience with anything but another subjective experience. A strong agnostic would say, "I cannot know whether a deity exists or not, and neither can you."[32][33][34]

#### Weak agnosticism

Also called "soft", "open", "empirical", "hopeful", or "temporal agnosticism", weak agnosticism is the view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable; therefore, one will withhold judgement until evidence, if any, becomes available. A weak agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deities exist or not, but maybe one day, if there is evidence, we can find something out."[32][33][34]

#### Apathetic agnosticism

The view that no amount of debate can prove or disprove the existence of one or more deities, and if one or more deities exist, they do not appear to be concerned about the fate of humans. Therefore, some may feel their existence has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little interest. An apathetic agnostic would say, "I don't know whether any deity exists or not, and I don't care if any deity exists or not."[35][36][37]

## History

Template:Over-quote

### Hindu philosophy

Throughout the history of Hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism.[38][39]

The Rig Veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created. Nasadiya Sukta (Creation Hymn) in the tenth chapter of the Rig Veda says:[38][40][41]

> But, after all, who knows, and who can say
>  Whence it all came, and how creation happened?
>  The gods themselves are later than creation,
>  so who knows truly whence it has arisen?

>  Whence all creation had its origin,
>  He, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,
>  He, who surveys it all from highest heaven,
>  He knows – or maybe even he does not know.

### Hume, Kant, and Kierkegaard

Aristotle,[42] Anselm,[43][44] Aquinas,[45][46] Descartes,[47] and Gödel presented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of God. The skeptical empiricism of David Hume, the antinomies of Immanuel Kant, and the existential philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts, regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or non-existence of God.[48]

In his 1844 book Philosophical Fragments, Kierkegaard writes:[49]

> Let us call this unknown something: God. It is nothing more than a name we assign to it. The idea of demonstrating that this unknown something (God) exists, could scarcely suggest itself to Reason. For if God does not exist it would of course be impossible to prove it; and if he does exist it would be folly to attempt it. For at the very outset, in beginning my proof, I would have presupposed it, not as doubtful but as certain (a presupposition is never doubtful, for the very reason that it is a presupposition), since otherwise I would not begin, readily understanding that the whole would be impossible if he did not exist. But if when I speak of proving God's existence I mean that I propose to prove that the Unknown, which exists, is God, then I express myself unfortunately. For in that case I do not prove anything, least of all an existence, but merely develop the content of a conception.

Hume was Huxley's favourite philosopher, calling him "the Prince of Agnostics".[50] Diderot wrote to his mistress, telling of a visit by Hume to the Baron D'Holbach, and describing how a word for the position that Huxley would later describe as agnosticism did not seem to exist, or at least was not common knowledge, at the time.

> The first time that M. Hume found himself at the table of the Baron, he was seated beside him. I don't know for what purpose the English philosopher took it into his head to remark to the Baron that he did not believe in atheists, that he had never seen any. The Baron said to him: "Count how many we are here." We are eighteen. The Baron added: "It isn't too bad a showing to be able to point out to you fifteen at once: the three others haven't made up their minds."[51]

— Denis Diderot

### United Kingdom

#### Charles Darwin

Charles Darwin in 1854

Raised in a religious environment, Charles Darwin (1809–1882) studied to be an Anglican clergyman. While eventually doubting parts of his faith, Darwin continued to help in church affairs, even while avoiding church attendance. Darwin stated that it would be "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist".[52][53] Although reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind."[52][54]

#### Thomas Henry Huxley

Thomas Henry Huxley in the 1860s. He was the first to decisively coin the term agnosticism.

Agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism, but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by Huxley (1825–1895) to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the "unconditioned" (William Hamilton) and the "unknowable" (Herbert Spencer). Though Huxley began to use the term agnostic in 1869, his opinions had taken shape some time before that date. In a letter of September 23, 1860, to Charles Kingsley, Huxley discussed his views extensively:[55][56]

> I neither affirm nor deny the immortality of man. I see no reason for believing it, but, on the other hand, I have no means of disproving it. I have no a priori objections to the doctrine. No man who has to deal daily and hourly with nature can trouble himself about a priori difficulties. Give me such evidence as would justify me in believing in anything else, and I will believe that. Why should I not? It is not half so wonderful as the conservation of force or the indestructibility of matter ...

> It is no use to talk to me of analogies and probabilities. I know what I mean when I say I believe in the law of the inverse squares, and I will not rest my life and my hopes upon weaker convictions ...

> That my personality is the surest thing I know may be true. But the attempt to conceive what it is leads me into mere verbal subtleties. I have champed up all that chaff about the ego and the non-ego, noumena and phenomena, and all the rest of it, too often not to know that in attempting even to think of these questions, the human intellect flounders at once out of its depth.

And again, to the same correspondent, May 6, 1863:[57]

> I have never had the least sympathy with the a priori reasons against orthodoxy, and I have by nature and disposition the greatest possible antipathy to all the atheistic and infidel school. Nevertheless I know that I am, in spite of myself, exactly what the Christian would call, and, so far as I can see, is justified in calling, atheist and infidel. I cannot see one shadow or tittle of evidence that the great unknown underlying the phenomenon of the universe stands to us in the relation of a Father [who] loves us and cares for us as Christianity asserts. So with regard to the other great Christian dogmas, immortality of soul and future state of rewards and punishments, what possible objection can I—who am compelled perforce to believe in the immortality of what we call Matter and Force, and in a very unmistakable present state of rewards and punishments for our deeds—have to these doctrines? Give me a scintilla of evidence, and I am ready to jump at them.

Of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude, Huxley gave the following account:[58]

> When I reached intellectual maturity and began to ask myself whether I was an atheist, a theist, or a pantheist; a materialist or an idealist; Christian or a freethinker; I found that the more I learned and reflected, the less ready was the answer; until, at last, I came to the conclusion that I had neither art nor part with any of these denominations, except the last. The one thing in which most of these good people were agreed was the one thing in which I differed from them. They were quite sure they had attained a certain "gnosis"—had, more or less successfully, solved the problem of existence; while I was quite sure I had not, and had a pretty strong conviction that the problem was insoluble. And, with Hume and Kant on my side, I could not think myself presumptuous in holding fast by that opinion ... So I took thought, and invented what I conceived to be the appropriate title of "agnostic". It came into my head as suggestively antithetic to the "gnostic" of Church history, who professed to know so much about the very things of which I was ignorant. ... To my great satisfaction the term took.

#### William Stewart Ross

William Stewart Ross (1844–1906) wrote under the name of Saladin. He was associated with Victorian Freethinkers and the organization the British Secular Union. He edited the Secular Review from 1882; it was renamed Agnostic Journal and Eclectic Review and closed in 1907. Ross championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of Charles Bradlaugh as an open-ended spiritual exploration.[59]

In Why I am an Agnostic (c. 1889) he claims that agnosticism is "the very reverse of atheism".[60]

#### Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Russell

Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) declared Why I Am Not a Christian in 1927, a classic statement of agnosticism.[61][62] He calls upon his readers to "stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence".[62]

In 1939, Russell gave a lecture on The existence and nature of God, in which he characterized himself as an atheist. He said:[63]

> The existence and nature of God is a subject of which I can discuss only half. If one arrives at a negative conclusion concerning the first part of the question, the second part of the question does not arise; and my position, as you may have gathered, is a negative one on this matter.

However, later in the same lecture, discussing modern non-anthropomorphic concepts of God, Russell states:[64]

> That sort of God is, I think, not one that can actually be disproved, as I think the omnipotent and benevolent creator can.

In Russell's 1947 pamphlet, Am I An Atheist or an Agnostic? (subtitled A Plea For Tolerance in the Face of New Dogmas), he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself:[65]

> As a philosopher, if I were speaking to a purely philosophic audience I should say that I ought to describe myself as an Agnostic, because I do not think that there is a conclusive argument by which one can prove that there is not a God. On the other hand, if I am to convey the right impression to the ordinary man in the street I think I ought to say that I am an Atheist, because when I say that I cannot prove that there is not a God, I ought to add equally that I cannot prove that there are not the Homeric gods.

In his 1953 essay, What Is An Agnostic? Russell states:[66]

> An agnostic thinks it impossible to know the truth in matters such as God and the future life with which Christianity and other religions are concerned. Or, if not impossible, at least impossible at the present time.

> Are Agnostics Atheists?

> No. An atheist, like a Christian, holds that we can know whether or not there is a God. The Christian holds that we can know there is a God; the atheist, that we can know there is not. The Agnostic suspends judgment, saying that there are not sufficient grounds either for affirmation or for denial.

Later in the essay, Russell adds:[67]

> I think that if I heard a voice from the sky predicting all that was going to happen to me during the next twenty-four hours, including events that would have seemed highly improbable, and if all these events then produced to happen, I might perhaps be convinced at least of the existence of some superhuman intelligence.

#### Leslie Weatherhead

See also: Philosophy:Christian agnosticism

In 1965, Christian theologian Leslie Weatherhead (1893–1976) published The Christian Agnostic, in which he argues:[68]

> ... many professing agnostics are nearer belief in the true God than are many conventional church-goers who believe in a body that does not exist whom they miscall God.

Although radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians, Weatherhead's agnosticism falls far short of Huxley's, and short even of weak agnosticism:[68]

> Of course, the human soul will always have the power to reject God, for choice is essential to its nature, but I cannot believe that anyone will finally do this.

### United States

#### Robert G. Ingersoll

Robert G. Ingersoll

Robert G. Ingersoll (1833–1899), an Illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a well-known and sought-after orator in 19th-century America, has been referred to as the "Great Agnostic".[69]

In an 1896 lecture titled Why I Am An Agnostic, Ingersoll stated this: [70]

> Is there a supernatural power—an arbitrary mind—an enthroned God—a supreme will that sways the tides and currents of the world—to which all causes bow? I do not deny. I do not know—but I do not believe. I believe that the natural is supreme—that from the infinite chain no link can be lost or broken—that there is no supernatural power that can answer prayer—no power that worship can persuade or change—no power that cares for man.

> I believe that with infinite arms Nature embraces the all—that there is no interference—no chance—that behind every event are the necessary and countless causes, and that beyond every event will be and must be the necessary and countless effects.

> Is there a God? I do not know. Is man immortal? I do not know. One thing I do know, and that is, that neither hope, nor fear, belief, nor denial, can change the fact. It is as it is, and it will be as it must be.

In the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as:[70]

> We can be as honest as we are ignorant. If we are, when asked what is beyond the horizon of the known, we must say that we do not know.

In 1885, Ingersoll explained his comparative view of agnosticism and atheism as follows:[71]

> The Agnostic is an Atheist. The Atheist is an Agnostic. The Agnostic says, 'I do not know, but I do not believe there is any God.' The Atheist says the same.

See also: Physical determinism

#### Bernard Iddings Bell

Canon Bernard Iddings Bell (1886–1958), a popular cultural commentator, Episcopal priest, and author, lauded the necessity of agnosticism in Beyond Agnosticism: A Book for Tired Mechanists, calling it the foundation of "all intelligent Christianity".[72] Agnosticism was a temporary mindset in which one rigorously questioned the truths of the age, including the way in which one believed God.[73] His view of Robert Ingersoll and Thomas Paine was that they were not denouncing true Christianity but rather "a gross perversion of it".[72] Part of the misunderstanding stemmed from ignorance of the concepts of God and religion.[74] Historically, a god was any real, perceivable force that ruled the lives of humans and inspired admiration, love, fear, and homage; religion was the practice of it. Ancient peoples worshiped gods with real counterparts, such as Mammon (money and material things), Nabu (rationality), or Ba'al (violent weather); Bell argued that modern peoples were still paying homage—with their lives and their children's lives—to these old gods of wealth, physical appetites, and self-deification.[75] Thus, if one attempted to be agnostic passively, he or she would incidentally join the worship of the world's gods.

In Unfashionable Convictions (1931), he criticized the Enlightenment's complete faith in human sensory perception, augmented by scientific instruments, as a means of accurately grasping Reality. Firstly, it was fairly new, an innovation of the Western World, which Aristotle invented and Thomas Aquinas revived among the scientific community. Secondly, the divorce of "pure" science from human experience, as manifested in American Industrialization, had completely altered the environment, often disfiguring it, so as to suggest its insufficiency to human needs. Thirdly, because scientists were constantly producing more data—to the point where no single human could grasp it all at once—it followed that human intelligence was incapable of attaining a complete understanding of universe; therefore, to admit the mysteries of the unobserved universe was to be actually scientific.

Bell believed that there were two other ways that humans could perceive and interact with the world. Artistic experience was how one expressed meaning through speaking, writing, painting, gesturing—any sort of communication which shared insight into a human's inner reality. Mystical experience was how one could "read" people and harmonize with them, being what we commonly call love.[76] In summary, man was a scientist, artist, and lover. Without exercising all three, a person became "lopsided".

Bell considered a humanist to be a person who cannot rightly ignore the other ways of knowing. However, humanism, like agnosticism, was also temporal, and would eventually lead to either scientific materialism or theism. He lays out the following thesis:

1. Truth cannot be discovered by reasoning on the evidence of scientific data alone. Modern peoples' dissatisfaction with life is the result of depending on such incomplete data. Our ability to reason is not a way to discover Truth but rather a way to organize our knowledge and experiences somewhat sensibly. Without a full, human perception of the world, one's reason tends to lead them in the wrong direction.
2. Beyond what can be measured with scientific tools, there are other types of perception, such as one's ability know another human through loving. One's loves cannot be dissected and logged in a scientific journal, but we know them far better than we know the surface of the sun. They show us an indefinable reality that is nevertheless intimate and personal, and they reveal qualities lovelier and truer than detached facts can provide.
3. To be religious, in the Christian sense, is to live for the Whole of Reality (God) rather than for a small part (gods). Only by treating this Whole of Reality as a person—good and true and perfect—rather than an impersonal force, can we come closer to the Truth. An ultimate Person can be loved, but a cosmic force cannot. A scientist can only discover peripheral truths, but a lover is able to get at the Truth.
4. There are many reasons to believe in God but they are not sufficient for an agnostic to become a theist. It is not enough to believe in an ancient holy book, even though when it is accurately analyzed without bias, it proves to be more trustworthy and admirable than what we are taught in school. Neither is it enough to realize how probable it is that a personal God would have to show human beings how to live, considering they have so much trouble on their own. Nor is it enough to believe for the reason that, throughout history, millions of people have arrived at this Wholeness of Reality only through religious experience. The aforementioned reasons may warm one toward religion, but they fall short of convincing. However, if one presupposes that God is in fact a knowable, loving person, as an experiment, and then lives according to that religion, he or she will suddenly come face to face with experiences previously unknown. One's life becomes full, meaningful, and fearless in the face of death. It does not defy reason but exceeds it.
5. Because God has been experienced through love, the orders of prayer, fellowship, and devotion now matter. They create order within one's life, continually renewing the "missing piece" that had previously felt lost. They empower one to be compassionate and humble, not small-minded or arrogant.
6. No truth should be denied outright, but all should be questioned. Science reveals an ever-growing vision of our universe that should not be discounted due to bias toward older understandings. Reason is to be trusted and cultivated. To believe in God is not to forego reason or to deny scientific facts, but to step into the unknown and discover the fullness of life.[77]

## Demographics

Nonreligious population by country, 2010[78] Percentage of people in various European countries who said: "I don't believe there is any sort of spirit, God or life force." (2005)[79]

Demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of non-religious respondents, so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other non-religious people.[80]

A 2010 survey published in Encyclopædia Britannica found that the non-religious people or the agnostics made up about 9.6% of the world's population.[81] A November–December 2006 poll published in the Financial Times gives rates for the United States and five European countries. The rates of agnosticism in the United States were at 14%, while the rates of agnosticism in the European countries surveyed were considerably higher: Italy (20%), Spain (30%), Great Britain (35%), Germany (25%), and France (32%).[82]

A study conducted by the Pew Research Center found that about 16% of the world's people, the third largest group after Christianity and Islam, have no religious affiliation.[83] According to a 2012 report by the Pew Research Center, agnostics made up 3.3% of the US adult population.[84] In the 2024 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey, conducted by the Pew Research Center, 54% of agnostic respondents stated that they do not believe in God,[85] whereas 41% stated that they thought that they felt a tension "being non-religious in a society where most people are religious".[86]

According to the 2021 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 38.9% of Australians have "no religion", a category that includes agnostics.[87] Between 64% and 65% of Japanese,[88] and up to 81% of Vietnamese,[89] are atheists, agnostics, or do not believe in a god. An official European Union survey reported that 3% of the EU population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit.[90]

## Criticism

Agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints. Some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism; this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label.[25]

### Theistic

Theistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice, since a person can live only either as if God did not exist (etsi deus non-daretur), or as if God did exist (etsi deus daretur).[91][92]: 87–89

#### Christian

According to Pope Benedict XVI, strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth.[93][94] He blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters.[93]: 158–159 [95] "Agnosticism", said Benedict, "is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man ... The knowledge of God has always existed".[92]: 96, 98 He asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort, pride, dominion, and utility over truth, and is opposed by the following attitudes: the keenest self-criticism, humble listening to the whole of existence, the persistent patience and self-correction of the scientific method, a readiness to be purified by the truth.[93]

The Catholic Church sees merit in examining what it calls "partial agnosticism", specifically those systems that "do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable, but at excluding special kinds of truth, notably religious, from the domain of knowledge".[96] However, the Church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know God. The Council of the Vatican declares, "God, the beginning and end of all, can, by the natural light of human reason, be known with certainty from the works of creation".[96]

Blaise Pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for God, agnostics should consider what is now known as Pascal's Wager: the infinite expected value of acknowledging God is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence, and thus it is a safer "bet" to choose God.[97]

### Atheistic

According to Richard Dawkins, a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given god-like entity. About himself, Dawkins continues, "I am agnostic only to the extent that I am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden."[98] Dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics; "Temporary Agnostics in Practice" (TAPs), and "Permanent Agnostics in Principle" (PAPs). He states that "agnosticism about the existence of God belongs firmly in the temporary or TAP category. Either he exists or he doesn't. It is a scientific question; one day we may know the answer, and meanwhile we can say something pretty strong about the probability", and considers PAP a "deeply inescapable kind of fence-sitting".[99]

## Ignosticism

A related concept is ignosticism, the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed. If the chosen definition is not coherent, the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable.[100] A. J. Ayer, Theodore Drange, and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept the statement "a deity exists" as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against.[101][102]

## See also

* Acatalepsy
* Agnostic atheism
* Agnostic theism
* Apatheism
* Apophatic theology
* Asimov's Guide to the Bible
* Avidyā (Buddhism)
* Christian agnosticism
* Existentialism
* Ietsism
* Ignoramus et ignorabimus
* Instrumentalism
* List of agnostics
* Objectivism
* Possibilianism
* Rationalism
* Relativism
* Religiosity
* Religious skepticism
* Russell's teapot
* Scientism
* Secularism
* Solipsism
* Spirituality
* Spiritual but not religious
* Subjectivism
* Unknown God

## References

1. ↑ Hepburn, Ronald W. (2005). "Agnosticism". in Donald M. Borchert. The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1 (2nd ed.). MacMillan Reference USA (Gale). p. 92. ISBN 0-02-865780-2. "In the most general use of the term, agnosticism is the view that we do not know whether there is a God or not.". (page 56 in 1967 edition)
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 . Oxford University Press. September 2012. "agnostic. : A. n[oun]. :# A person who believes that nothing is known or can be known of immaterial things, especially of the existence or nature of God. :# In extended use: a person who is not persuaded by or committed to a particular point of view; a sceptic. Also: person of indeterminate ideology or conviction; an equivocator. : B. adj[ective]. :# Of or relating to the belief that the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena is unknown and (as far as can be judged) unknowable. Also: holding this belief. :# a. In extended use: not committed to or persuaded by a particular point of view; sceptical. Also: politically or ideologically unaligned; non-partisan, equivocal. (Original "God" was the tribal to earer caste through the ancient stories of passed down through the ages). agnosticism n. The doctrine or tenets of agnostics with regard to the existence of anything beyond and behind material phenomena or to knowledge of a First Cause or God.".
3. ↑ Draper, Paul (2022), Zalta, Edward N., ed., Atheism and Agnosticism (Summer 2022 ed.), Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University, https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2022/entries/atheism-agnosticism/#DefiAgno, retrieved 2024-05-30 "When used in this epistemological sense, the term “agnosticism” can very naturally be extended beyond the issue of what is or can be known to cover a large family of positions, depending on what sort of “positive epistemic status” is at issue. For example, it might be identified with any of the following positions: that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is justified, that neither theistic belief nor atheistic belief is rationally required, that neither belief is rationally permissible, that neither has warrant, that neither is reasonable, or that neither is probable."
4. ↑ Poidevin, Robin (2010). Agnosticism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957526-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=lFesDAAAQBAJ&dq=agnosticism&pg=PR11. "It stands, it seems, for lack of belief or commitment, for indecision, for non-engagement."
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Draper, Paul (August 2, 2017). "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy". https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/?ref=whcolony.com#DefiAgno. "The terms “agnostic” and “agnosticism” were famously coined in the late nineteenth century by the English biologist, T.H. Huxley. He said that he originally invented the word “Agnostic” to denote people who, like [himself], confess themselves to be hopelessly ignorant concerning a variety of matters [including of course the matter of God’s existence], about which metaphysicians and theologians, both orthodox and heterodox, dogmatise with the utmost confidence. (1884)"
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Rowe, William L. (1998). "Agnosticism". in Edward Craig. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=VQ-GhVWTH84C&q=agnosticism+routledge&pg=PA122. "In the popular sense, an agnostic is someone who neither believes nor disbelieves in God, whereas an atheist disbelieves in God. In the strict sense, however, agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that God exists or the belief that God does not exist. In so far as one holds that our beliefs are rational only if they are sufficiently supported by the human reason, the person who accepts the philosophical position of agnosticism will hold that neither the belief that God exists nor the belief that God does not exist is rational.".
7. ↑ "Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life". Digha Nikaya. 1997. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html. "If you ask me if there exists another world (after death), ... I don't think so. I don't think in that way. I don't think otherwise. I don't think not. I don't think not not."
8. ↑ Bhaskar (1972).
9. ↑ Lloyd Ridgeon (March 13, 2003). Major World Religions: From Their Origins To The Present. Taylor & Francis. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-0-203-42313-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=AubFD0B-a7AC&pg=PA63.
10. ↑ "The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Protagoras (c. 490 – c. 420 BCE)". The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy – Protagoras (c. 490 – c. 420 BCE). http://www.iep.utm.edu/protagor/. Retrieved July 22, 2013. "While the pious might wish to look to the gods to provide absolute moral guidance in the relativistic universe of the Sophistic Enlightenment, that certainty also was cast into doubt by philosophic and sophistic thinkers, who pointed out the absurdity and immorality of the conventional epic accounts of the gods. Protagoras' prose treatise about the gods began "Concerning the gods, I have no means of knowing whether they exist or not or of what sort they may be. Many things prevent knowledge including the obscurity of the subject and the brevity of human life."".
11. ↑ Patri, Umesh and Prativa Devi (February 1990). "Progress of Atheism in India: A Historical Perspective". Atheist Centre 1940–1990 Golden Jubilee. http://www.positiveatheism.org/india/s1990a22.htm.
12. ↑ Trevor Treharne (2012). How to Prove God Does Not Exist: The Complete Guide to Validating Atheism. Universal-Publishers. pp. 34 ff. ISBN 978-1-61233-118-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=JtOzmf_5zLcC&pg=PA34.
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Thomas Huxley, "Agnosticism and Christianity", Collected Essays V, 1899
14. ↑ Thomas Huxley, "Agnosticism", Collected Essays V, 1889
15. ↑ Huxley, Thomas Henry (April 1889). "Agnosticism". The Popular Science Monthly (New York: D. Appleton & Company) 34 (46): 768. Wikisource has the full text of the article here.
16. ↑ Richard Dawkins (January 16, 2008). The God Delusion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 72–. ISBN 978-0-547-34866-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PA72.
17. ↑ Thomas Huxley "Agnosticism: A Symposium", The Agnostic Annual. 1884
18. ↑ Edward Zerin: Karl Popper On God: The Lost Interview. Skeptic 6:2 (1998)
19. ↑ George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 9
20. ↑ George H. Smith, Atheism: The Case Against God, pg. 12
21. ↑ Smith, George H (1979). Atheism: The Case Against God. Prometheus Books. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-0-87975-124-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=FI7ZAAAAMAAJ&q=agnostic+theist. "Properly considered, agnosticism is not a third alternative to theism and atheism because it is concerned with a different aspect of religious belief. Theism and atheism refer to the presence or absence of belief in a god; agnosticism refers to the impossibility of knowledge with regard to a god or supernatural being. The term agnostic does not, in itself, indicate whether or not one believes in a god. Agnosticism can be either theistic or atheistic."
22. ↑ Harrison, Alexander James (1894). The Ascent of Faith: or, the Grounds of Certainty in Science and Religion. London: Hodder and Stroughton. p. 21. OCLC 7234849. https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA21. "Let Agnostic Theism stand for that kind of Agnosticism which admits a Divine existence; Agnostic Atheism for that kind of Agnosticism which thinks it does not."
23. ↑ Barker, Dan (2008). Godless: How an Evangelical Preacher Became One of America's Leading Atheists. New York: Ulysses Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-1-56975-677-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=fAjPWYgIfCoC&pg=PA96. "People are invariably surprised to hear me say I am both an atheist and an agnostic, as if this somehow weakens my certainty. I usually reply with a question like, "Well, are you a Republican or an American?" The two words serve different concepts and are not mutually exclusive. Agnosticism addresses knowledge; atheism addresses belief. The agnostic says, "I don't have a knowledge that God exists." The atheist says, "I don't have a belief that God exists." You can say both things at the same time. Some agnostics are atheistic and some are theistic."
24. ↑ Dixon, Thomas (2008). Science and Religion: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-19-929551-7.
25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 Antony, Flew. "Agnosticism". Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9356/agnosticism. Retrieved December 15, 2011.
26. ↑ "ag·nos·tic". Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 2011. http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=agnostic&submit.x=20&submit.y=28.
27. ↑ Huxley, Henrietta A. (2004). Aphorisms and Reflections (reprint ed.). Kessinger Publishing. pp. 41–42. ISBN 978-1-4191-0730-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=97DaE6BzKTsC&pg=PA41.
28. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, Additions Series, 1993
29. ↑ Woodrooffe, Sophie; Levy, Dan (September 9, 2012). "What Does Platform Agnostic Mean?". http://sparksheet.com/what-does-platform-agnostic-mean/.
30. ↑ Sverdlik, Yevgeniy (July 31, 2013). "EMC and NetApp – a software-defined storage battle". http://www.datacenterdynamics.com/focus/archive/2013/07/emc-and-netapp-–-software-defined-storage-battle.
31. ↑ Hume, David, "An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding" (1748)
32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Oppy, Graham (September 4, 2006). Arguing about Gods. Cambridge University Press. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-1-139-45889-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=DlVtfUxPD14C&pg=PA15.
33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Michael H. Barnes (2003). In The Presence of Mystery: An Introduction To The Story Of Human Religiousness. Twenty-Third Publications. pp. 3–. ISBN 978-1-58595-259-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=bhtb2_NYnpoC&pg=PA3.
34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Robin Le Poidevin (October 28, 2010). Agnosticism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 32–. ISBN 978-0-19-161454-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=8DKg5MeJtmIC&pg=PT32.
35. ↑ John Tyrrell (1996). "Commentary on the Articles of Faith". http://www.apatheticagnostic.com/ourchurch/faith.html. "To believe in the existence of a god is an act of faith. To believe in the nonexistence of a god is likewise an act of faith. There is no verifiable evidence that there is a Supreme Being nor is there verifiable evidence there is not a Supreme Being. Faith is not knowledge. We can only state with assurance that we do not know."
36. ↑ Rahim, Abdur (31 January 2017) (in en). Thinking Outside the Box: The Most Realistic Way of Thinking, Adopting, and Leading Life. Xlibris Corporation. p. 89. ISBN 978-1-5245-7387-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=f-NPDgAAQBAJ.
37. ↑ Rauch, Jonathan, Let It Be: Three Cheers for Apatheism, The Atlantic Monthly, May 2003
38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Kenneth Kramer (January 1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. pp. 34–. ISBN 978-0-8091-2781-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=RzUAu-43W5oC&pg=PA34.
39. ↑ Subodh Varma (May 6, 2011). "The gods came afterwards". The Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/life-style/spirituality/vintage-wisdom/The-gods-came-afterwards/articleshow/6014217.cms?referral=PM.
40. ↑ Christian, David (September 1, 2011). Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History. University of California Press. pp. 18–. ISBN 978-0-520-95067-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=7RdVmDjwTtQC&pg=PA18.
41. ↑ Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 206–. ISBN 978-81-317-1120-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA206.
42. ↑ "Aristotle on the existence of God". Logicmuseum.com. http://www.logicmuseum.com/ontological/aristotleontological.htm.
43. ↑ "Anselm on God's Existence". Internet History Sourcebooks Project. Fordham.edu. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/anselm.asp.
44. ↑ Williams, Thomas (2013). "Saint Anselm". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 ed.). http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2013/entries/anselm/. Retrieved June 29, 2014.
45. ↑ "Internet History Sourcebooks Project". Fordham.edu. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aquinas3.asp.
46. ↑ Owens, Joseph (1980). Saint Thomas Aquinas on the Existence of God: The Collected Papers of Joseph Owens. SUNY Press. ISBN 978-0-87395-401-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=8tLl5gnW5TMC.
47. ↑ "Descartes' Proof for the Existence of God". Oregonstate.edu. http://oregonstate.edu/instruction/phl302/philosophers/descartes-god.html.
48. ↑ Rowe, William L. (1998). "Agnosticism". in Edward Craig. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-07310-3. http://www.texttribe.com/routledge/A/Agnosticism.html. Retrieved April 17, 2012.
49. ↑ Kierkegaard, Søren. Philosophical Fragments. Ch. 3
50. ↑ Metz, Rudolf (1938). A Hundred Years of British Philosophy. G. Allen & Unwin Limited. p. 111. ISBN 9780598425171.
51. ↑ Ernest Campbell Mossner, The Life of David Hume, 2014, p. 483
52. ↑ 52.0 52.1 Letter 12041 – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, May 7, 1879. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014.
53. ↑ Darwin's Complex loss of Faith The Guardian September 17, 2009. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014
54. ↑ "Darwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay". http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/.
55. ↑ Thomas Henry Huxley (1997). The Major Prose of Thomas Henry Huxley. University of Georgia Press. pp. 357–. ISBN 978-0-8203-1864-6. https://archive.org/details/majorproseofthom00huxl.
56. ↑ Leonard Huxley (February 7, 2012). Thomas Henry Huxley A Character Sketch. tredition. pp. 41–. ISBN 978-3-8472-0297-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=YKNj1u0R4JcC&pg=PT41.
57. ↑ Leonard Huxley; Thomas Henry Huxley (December 22, 2011). Life and Letters of Thomas Henry Huxley. Cambridge University Press. pp. 347–. ISBN 978-1-108-04045-7. https://books.google.com/books?id=-azeZXAf6MMC&pg=PA347.
58. ↑ Huxley, Thomas (2001). Collected Essays, Vol. V: Science and Christian Tradition. Macmillan and Co 1893. pp. 237–239. ISBN 1-85506-922-9.
59. ↑ Alastair Bonnett 'The Agnostic Saladin' History Today, 2013, 63,2, pp. 47–52
60. ↑ William Stewart Ross; Joseph Taylor (1889). Why I Am an Agnostic: Being a Manual of Agnosticism. W. Stewart & Company. https://books.google.com/books?id=nGNEmgEACAAJ.
61. ↑ "Why I Am Not A Christian, by Bertrand Russell". Users.drew.edu. March 6, 1927. http://users.drew.edu/~jlenz/whynot.html.
62. ↑ 62.0 62.1 Bertrand Russell (1992). Why I Am Not a Christian: And Other Essays on Religion and Related Subjects. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-07918-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=_f6LMwEACAAJ.
63. ↑ Russell, Bertrand. Collected Papers, Vol 10. p. 255.
64. ↑ Collected Papers, Vol. 10, p. 258
65. ↑ Bertrand Russell (1997). Last Philosophical Testament: 1943–68. Psychology Press. pp. 91–. ISBN 978-0-415-09409-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=r1jBN5iehKsC&pg=PA91.
66. ↑ Bertrand Russell (March 2, 2009). The Basic Writings of Bertrand Russell. Routledge. pp. 557–. ISBN 978-1-134-02867-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=Lm58AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA557.
67. ↑ "'What Is an agnostic?' by Bertrand Russell". Scepsis.net. http://scepsis.net/eng/articles/id_5.php.
68. ↑ 68.0 68.1 Weatherhead, Leslie D. (September 1990). The Christian Agnostic. Abingdon Press. ISBN 978-0-687-06980-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=-ZODJwAACAAJ.
69. ↑ Brandt, Eric T.; Larsen, Timothy (2011). "The Old Atheism Revisited: Robert G. Ingersoll and the Bible". Journal of the Historical Society 11 (2): 211–238. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5923.2011.00330.x.
70. ↑ 70.0 70.1 Ingersoll, Robert Green (1896). "Why I Am Agnostic". Internet Infidels. http://infidels.org/library/historical/robert_ingersoll/why_i_am_agnostic.html.
71. ↑ Jacoby, Susan (2013). The Great Agnostic. Yale University Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-300-13725-5.
72. ↑ 72.0 72.1 "The Good News, by Bernard Iddings Bell (1921)". http://anglicanhistory.org/usa/bibell/goodnews/02.html.
73. ↑ Brauer, Kristen D. (2007). The religious roots of postmodernism in American culture: an analysis of the postmodern theory of Bernard Iddings Bell and its continued relevance to contemporary postmodern theory and literary criticism.. Glasgow, Scotland: University of Glasgow. pp. 32.
74. ↑ Bell, Bernard Iddings (1931). Unfashionable Convictions. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. pp. 20.
75. ↑ Bell, Bernard Iddings (1929). Beyond Agnosticism. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. pp. 12–19.
76. ↑ Bell, Bernard Iddings (1931). Unfashionable Convictions. New York and London: Harper & Brothers. pp. 4–5.
77. ↑ Bell, Bernard Iddings (1931). Unfashionable Convictions. New York and London: Harper & Brothers Publishing. pp. 25–28.
78. ↑ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010–2050" (in en-US). 2015-04-02. https://www.pewforum.org/2015/04/02/religious-projection-table/.
79. ↑ "Social values, Science and Technology". http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf.
80. ↑ "Major Religions Ranked by Size". Adherents.com. http://adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html.
81. ↑ "Religion: Year in Review 2010: Worldwide Adherents of All Religions". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc.. https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1731588/Religion-Year-In-Review-2010/298437/Worldwide-Adherents-of-All-Religions. Retrieved November 21, 2013.
82. ↑ "Religious Views and Beliefs Vary Greatly by Country, According to the Latest Financial Times/Harris Poll". Financial Times/Harris Interactive. December 20, 2006. http://www.harrisinteractive.com/news/allnewsbydate.asp?NewsID=1131.
83. ↑ Goodstein, Laurie (December 18, 2012). "Study Finds One in 6 Follows No Religion". The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/world/pew-study-finds-one-in-6-follows-no-religion.html.
84. ↑ Cary Funk, Greg Smith. ""Nones" on the Rise: One-in-Five Adults Have No Religious Affiliation". Pew Research Center. pp. 9, 42. http://www.pewforum.org/files/2012/10/NonesOnTheRise-full.pdf.
85. ↑ "Religious Landscape Study (RLS)". 2025-02-26. https://www.pewresearch.org/religious-landscape-study/religious-family/agnostic/?dialogId=dialog_belief-in-god-universal-spirit&activeChartId=7d1ff12426df606f24d518d7f596f2c7.
86. ↑ "Summary of Key Findings". Pew Research Center. 2011. http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-key-findings.pdf. "Interestingly, a substantial number of adults who are not affiliated with a religion also sense that there is a conflict between religion and modern society – except for them the conflict involves being non-religious in a society where most people are religious. For instance, more than four-inten atheists and agnostics (44% and 41%, respectively) believe that such a tension exists."
87. ↑ "Snapshot of Australia". Australian Bureau of Statistics. 2021. https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/snapshot-australia/2021#religious-affiliation.
88. ↑ Zuckerman, Phil (2007). Martin, Michael T. ed. The Cambridge Companion to Atheism. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-521-60367-6. https://books.google.com/books?id=tAeFipOVx4MC&pg=PA56. Retrieved April 9, 2011.
89. ↑ "Average intelligence predicts atheism rates across 137 nations". January 3, 2008. http://davesource.com/Fringe/Fringe/Religion/Average-intelligence-predicts-atheism-rates-across-137-nations-Lynn-et-al.pdf.
90. ↑ Social values, Science and Technology. Directorate General Research, European Union. 2005. pp. 7–11. http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_225_report_en.pdf. Retrieved April 9, 2011.
91. ↑ Sandro Magister (2007). "Habermas writes to Ratzinger and Ruini responds". http://chiesa.espresso.repubblica.it/articolo/125081?eng=y.
92. ↑ 92.0 92.1 Ratzinger, Joseph (2006). Christianity and the Crisis of Cultures. Ignatius Press. ISBN 978-1-58617-142-1.
93. ↑ 93.0 93.1 93.2 Ratzinger, Joseph (2005). The Yes of Jesus Christ: Spiritual Exercises in Faith, Hope, and Love. Cross Roads Publishing.
94. ↑ Ratzinger, Joseph (2004). Truth and Tolerance: Christian Belief And World Religions. Ignatius Press.
95. ↑ Benedict XVI (September 12, 2006). "Papal Address at University of Regensburg". ZENIT - The World Seen From Rome. zenit.org. http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/papal-address-at-university-of-regensburg.
96. ↑ 96.0 96.1 "Agnosticism". Agnosticism. Catholic Encyclopedia. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01215c.htm.
97. ↑ "Argument from Pascal's Wager". 2007. http://www.peterkreeft.com/topics/pascals-wager.htm.
98. ↑ The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, p. 51
99. ↑ The God Delusion (2006), Bantam Press, pp 47–48
100. ↑ "The Argument From Non-Cognitivism". http://www.strongatheism.net/library/atheology/argument_from_noncognitivism/.
101. ↑ Ayer, Language, 115: "There can be no way of proving that the existence of a God ... is even probable. ... For if the existence of such a god were probable, then the proposition that he existed would be an empirical hypothesis. And in that case it would be possible to deduce from it, and other empirical hypotheses, certain experimental propositions which were not deducible from those other hypotheses alone. But in fact this is not possible."
102. ↑ Drange, Atheism

## Further reading

* Agnosticism. Forgotten Books. pp. 164–. ISBN 978-1-4400-6878-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=qd8feB0LiOcC&pg=PA164.
* Alexander, Nathan G. "An Atheist with a Tall Hat On: The Forgotten History of Agnosticism." The Humanist, February 19, 2019.
* Annan, Noel. Leslie Stephen: The Godless Victorian (U of Chicago Press, 1984)
* Cockshut, A.O.J. The Unbelievers, English Thought, 1840–1890 (1966).
* Dawkins, Richard. "The poverty of agnosticism", in The God Delusion, Black Swan, 2007 (ISBN 978-0-552-77429-1).
* Huxley, Thomas H. (February 4, 2013). Man's Place in Nature. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-486-15134-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=UJwfDYDJ-v0C&pg=PP1.
* Hume, David (1779). Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion. Penguin Books, Limited. pp. 1–. https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_E7dbAAAAQAAJ.
* Kant, Immanuel (May 28, 2013). The Critique of Pure Reason. Loki's Publishing. ISBN 978-0-615-82576-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=b826nQEACAAJ.
* Kierkegaard, Sören (1985). Philosophical Fragments. Religion-online.org. ISBN 978-0-691-02036-5. https://archive.org/details/philosophicalfra0000kier_y4a6. Retrieved February 9, 2014.
* Lightman, Bernard. The Origins of Agnosticism (1987).
* Royle, Edward. Radicals, Secularists, and Republicans: Popular Freethought in Britain, 1866–1915 (Manchester UP, 1980).
* Smith, George H. (1979). Atheism – The Case Against God. Prometheus Books. ISBN 0-87975-124-X. https://archive.org/details/atheismcaseagain00smit_0. Retrieved February 9, 2014.

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* Zalta, Edward N., ed. "Atheism and Agnosticism". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/atheism-agnosticism/.
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* Nielsen, Kai (1973). "Agnosticism". Dictionary of the History of Ideas. University of Virginia Library. http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist1.xml;chunk.id=dv1-03;toc.depth=1;toc.id=dv1-03;brand=default.

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* Rational Response Squad
* Reason Rally
* Recovering from Religion
* World Pantheist Movement
* Brazilian Association of Atheists and Agnostics

Related topics|

* Countries by irreligion
* Secularism
* Parody or mock religions

* v
* t
* e

Philosophy of religion

Concepts in religion|

* Afterlife
* Euthyphro dilemma
* Faith
* Intelligent design
* Miracle
* Problem of evil
* Religious belief
* Soul
* Spirit
* Theodicy
* Theological veto

Conceptions of God|

* Aristotelian view
* Brahman
* Demiurge
* Divine simplicity
* Egoism
* Holy Spirit
* Misotheism
* Pandeism
* Personal god
* Process theology
* Supreme Being
* Unmoved mover

God in|

* Abrahamic religions
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Hinduism
* Islam
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Mormonism
* Sikhism
* Bahá'í Faith
* Wicca

Existence of God|

| For|

* Beauty
* Christological
* Consciousness
* Cosmological
* Kalam
* Contingency
* Degree
* Desire
* Experience
* Fine-tuning of the universe
* Love
* Miracles
* Morality
* Necessary existent
* Ontological
* Pascal's wager
* Proper basis
* Reason
* Teleological
* Natural law
* Watchmaker analogy
* Transcendental

|

Against|

* 747 gambit
* Atheist's Wager
* Evil
* Free will
* Hell
* Inconsistent revelations
* Nonbelief
* Noncognitivism
* Occam's razor
* Omnipotence
* Poor design
* Russell's teapot

Theology|

* Acosmism
* Agnosticism
* Animism
* Antireligion
* Atheism
* Creationism
* Dharmism
* Deism
* Demonology
* Divine command theory
* Dualism
* Esotericism
* Exclusivism
* Existentialism
* Christian
* Agnostic
* Atheistic
* Feminist theology
* Thealogy
* Womanist theology
* Fideism
* Fundamentalism
* Gnosticism
* Henotheism
* Humanism
* Religious
* Secular
* Christian
* Inclusivism
* Theories about religions
* Monism
* Monotheism
* Mysticism
* Naturalism
* Metaphysical
* Religious
* Humanistic
* New Age
* Nondualism
* Nontheism
* Pandeism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism
* Perennialism
* Polytheism
* Possibilianism
* Process theology
* Religious skepticism
* Spiritualism
* Shamanism
* Taoic
* Theism
* Transcendentalism
* more...

Religious language|

* Eschatological verification
* Language game
* Logical positivism
* Apophatic theology
* Verificationism

Problem of evil|

* Augustinian theodicy
* Best of all possible worlds
* Euthyphro dilemma
* Inconsistent triad
* Irenaean theodicy
* Natural evil
* Theodicy

Philosophers
of religion

(by date active)|

| Ancient and
medieval|

* Anselm of Canterbury
* Augustine of Hippo
* Avicenna
* Averroes
* Boethius
* Erasmus
* Gaunilo of Marmoutiers
* Pico della Mirandola
* Heraclitus
* King James VI and I
* Marcion of Sinope
* Thomas Aquinas
* Maimonides

|

Early modern|

* Augustin Calmet
* René Descartes
* Blaise Pascal
* Baruch Spinoza
* Nicolas Malebranche
* Gottfried W Leibniz
* William Wollaston
* Thomas Chubb
* David Hume
* Baron d'Holbach
* Immanuel Kant
* Johann G Herder

1800
1850|

* Friedrich Schleiermacher
* Karl C F Krause
* Georg W F Hegel

* William Whewell
* Ludwig Feuerbach
* Søren Kierkegaard
* Karl Marx
* Albrecht Ritschl
* Afrikan Spir

1880
1900|

* Ernst Haeckel
* W K Clifford
* Friedrich Nietzsche
* Harald Høffding
* William James

* Vladimir Solovyov
* Ernst Troeltsch
* Rudolf Otto
* Lev Shestov
* Sergei Bulgakov
* Pavel Florensky
* Ernst Cassirer
* Joseph Maréchal

1920
postwar|

* George Santayana
* Bertrand Russell
* Martin Buber
* René Guénon
* Paul Tillich
* Karl Barth
* Emil Brunner
* Rudolf Bultmann
* Gabriel Marcel
* Reinhold Niebuhr

* Charles Hartshorne
* Mircea Eliade
* Frithjof Schuon
* J L Mackie
* Walter Kaufmann
* Martin Lings
* Peter Geach
* George I Mavrodes
* William Alston
* Antony Flew

1970
1990
2010|

* William L Rowe
* Dewi Z Phillips
* Alvin Plantinga
* Anthony Kenny
* Nicholas Wolterstorff
* Richard Swinburne
* Robert Merrihew Adams

* Peter van Inwagen
* Daniel Dennett
* Loyal Rue
* Jean-Luc Marion
* William Lane Craig
* Ali Akbar Rashad

* Alexander Pruss

Related topics|

* Criticism of religion
* Ethics in religion
* Exegesis
* History of religion
* Religion
* Religious language
* Religious philosophy
* Relationship between religion and science
* Political science of religion
* Faith and rationality
* more...

* Portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Criticism of religion

By religion|

* Bahá'í Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Catholic
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Protestantism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Unification movement
* Westboro Baptist Church
* Hinduism
* Swaminarayan sect
* Islam
* Islamism
* Twelver Shia Islam
* Wahhabism
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Monotheism
* New religious movement
* Scientology
* Sikhism
* Yazdânism
* Zoroastrianism

Religious texts|

* Bible
* Quran
* Hadiths
* Mormon sacred texts
* Book of Mormon
* Talmud

Religious figures|

* Aisha
* Charles Taze Russell
* Ellen White
* Jesus
* Moses
* Muhammad
* Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
* Saul

Religious violence|

* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Mormonism
* Judaism
* Islam
* Terrorism
* Christian
* Hindu
* Islamic
* Jewish
* Persecution
* Christian thought on persecution and tolerance
* War
* In Islam
* In Judaism
* Sectarian violence
* By country
* India
* Anti-Christian violence
* In Odisha
* Nigeria
* Pakistan

Books|

* Atheist Manifesto
* Breaking the Spell
* Christianity Unveiled
* God in the Age of Science?
* God Is Not Great
* God: The Failed Hypothesis
* Letter to a Christian Nation
* The Age of Reason
* The Blind Watchmaker
* The Caged Virgin
* The End of Faith
* The God Delusion
* The Gospel of the Flying Spaghetti Monster
* The Rage Against God
* Why I Am Not a Christian
* Why I Am Not a Muslim
* Books critical of Christianity
* Books critical of Islam

Movements|

* Agnosticism
* Antitheism
* Atheism
* Criticism of atheism
* Cārvāka
* New Atheism
* Nontheistic religions
* Parody religion

* v
* t
* e

Skepticism

Types|

* Academic
* Moral
* Scientific
* Philosophical
* Religious (Jewish)
* Local
* Environmental
* Pyrrhonian
* Cartesian
* Daoist
* Pseudoskepticism
* Zététique

Skeptical hypotheses|

* Evil genius
* Brain in a vat
* Dream argument
* Omphalos hypothesis

Responses|

* Here is one hand
* Semantic externalism
* Process reliabilism
* Epistemic closure
* Contextualism
* Relativism

Lists|

* List of books about skepticism
* List of scientific skeptics
* List of skeptical conferences
* List of skeptical magazines
* List of skeptical organizations
* List of skeptical podcasts

* v
* t
* e

Western world and culture

Aspects|

* Canon
* Law
* Literature
* Media
* Music
* Painting
* Modern/Contemporary Painting
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Thought

History|

* Classical antiquity
* Late Antiquity
* Early Middle Ages
* Middle Ages
* Late Middle Ages
* Renaissance
* Reformation
* Age of Enlightenment
* Early modern period
* Great Divergence
* Modernism
* World Wars

* v
* t
* e

Belief systems

* Abrahamism
* Acosmism
* Agnosticism
* Animism
* Antireligion
* Atheism
* Deism
* Dharmism
* Dualism
* Esotericism
* Feminist theology
* Gnosticism
* Henotheism
* Immanence
* Monism
* Monolatry
* Monotheism
* Mysticism
* Neoplatonism
* New Age
* New Thought
* Nondualism
* Pandeism
* Pantheism
* Panentheism
* Polytheism
* Process theology
* Religious naturalism
* Shamanism
* Shramanism
* Taoic
* Theism
* Transcendence
* more

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