Meditation

Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking",[note 1] achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state,[1][2][3][4][web 1][web 2] while not judging the meditation process itself.[note 2]

Techniques are broadly classified into focused (or concentrative) and open monitoring methods. Focused methods involve attention to specific objects like breath or mantras, while open monitoring includes mindfulness and awareness of mental events.

Meditation is practiced in numerous religious traditions, though it is also practiced independently from any religious or spiritual influences for its health benefits. The earliest records of meditation (dhyana) are found in the Upanishads, and meditation plays a salient role in the contemplative repertoire of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism.[5] Meditation-like techniques are also known in Judaism, Christianity and Islam, in the context of remembrance of and prayer and devotion to God.

Asian meditative techniques have spread to other cultures where they have found application in non-spiritual contexts, such as business and health. Meditation may significantly reduce stress, fear, anxiety, depression, and pain,[6] and enhance peace, perception,[7] self-concept, and well-being.[8][9][10] Research is ongoing to better understand the effects of meditation on health (psychological, neurological, and cardiovascular) and other areas.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Definitions
* 2.1 Difficulties in defining meditation
* 2.1.1 No universally accepted definition for meditation
* 2.1.2 Separation of technique from tradition
* 2.2 Dictionary definitions
* 2.3 Scholarly definitions
* 2.4 Classifications
* 2.4.1 Focused and open methods
* 2.4.2 Other possible typologies
* 3 Technique
* 3.1 Posture
* 3.2 Frequency
* 3.3 Supporting aids
* 3.3.1 Use of prayer beads
* 3.3.2 Striking the meditator
* 3.3.3 Using a narrative
* 3.3.4 Psychedelics
* 3.3.5 Walking Meditation
* 4 Meditation traditions
* 4.1 Origins
* 4.2 Indian religions
* 4.2.1 Hinduism
* 4.2.1.1 Mantra Meditation
* 4.2.2 Jainism
* 4.2.3 Buddhism
* 4.2.3.1 Dhyana
* 4.2.3.2 Samatha and vipassana
* 4.2.4 Sikhism
* 4.3 Taoism
* 4.4 Abrahamic religions
* 4.4.1 Judaism
* 4.4.2 Christianity
* 4.4.3 Islam
* 4.4.4 Baháʼí Faith
* 4.5 Modern spirituality
* 4.5.1 Modern dissemination in the West
* 4.5.2 New Age
* 4.5.3 Guided meditation
* 5 Effects
* 6 "Challenging" and adverse effects
* 6.1 Contemplative traditions
* 6.2 Mindfulness
* 7 Secular applications
* 7.1 Psychotherapy
* 7.2 Clinical
* 7.3 In the workplace
* 7.4 In school
* 7.5 Relaxation response and biofeedback
* 8 See also
* 9 Notes
* 10 References
* 11 Sources
* 12 Further reading

## Etymology

The English term meditation is derived from Old French meditacioun, in turn from Latin meditatio from a verb meditari, meaning "to think, contemplate, devise, ponder".[11][12] In the Catholic tradition, the use of the term meditatio as part of a formal, stepwise process of meditation goes back to at least the 12th-century monk Guigo II,[12][13] before which the Greek word theoria was used for the same purpose.

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, which comes from the Sanskrit root dhyai, meaning to contemplate or meditate.[14][15][16] The Greek word theoria actually derives from the same root.[17]

The term "meditation" in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism,[18] or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm.[19]

## Definitions

### Difficulties in defining meditation

#### No universally accepted definition for meditation

Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions and cultures.[note 3] In popular usage, the word "meditation" and the phrase "meditative practice" are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures.[19][22] These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the attention of mind or to teach calmness or compassion.[23] There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient criteria for meditation that has achieved widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community.

#### Separation of technique from tradition

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been in recognizing the particularities of the many various traditions;[24] and theories and practice can differ within a tradition.[25] Taylor noted that even within a faith such as "Hindu" or "Buddhist", schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation.[26] Ornstein noted that "Most techniques of meditation do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief."[27] For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage in codified rules with specific outcomes, living together in monasteries with specific cultural settings that include local rights and rituals as part of a unified set of practices.

### Dictionary definitions

Dictionaries give both the original Latin meaning of "think[ing] deeply about (something)", as well as the popular usages of "focusing one's mind for a period of time",[web 2] "the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed",[web 3] and "to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one's breathing or repetition of a mantra) for the purpose of reaching a heightened level of spiritual awareness."[web 1]

### Scholarly definitions

In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in various ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention[19][28][29][30] and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking,"[note 1] not judging the meditation-process itself ("logical relaxation"),[note 2] to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.

Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining a practice as meditation "for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation", using "a 5-round Delphi study with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research" who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical) forms of meditation[note 4]:

> three main criteria ... as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation,[note 2] and a self-induced state/mode.

> Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence.[21]

> ... It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' ... or by the related 'prototype' model of concepts."[32]

Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:[note 5]

* Walsh & Shapiro (2006): "Meditation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness in order to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration"[1]
* Cahn & Polich (2006): "Meditation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set.... regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods"[2]
* Jevning et al. (1992): "We define meditation... as a stylized mental technique... repetitively practiced for the purpose of attaining a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful"[3]
* Goleman (1988): "the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in... every meditation system"[4]

### Classifications

#### Focused and open methods

In the West, meditation techniques have often been classified in two broad categories, which in actual practice are often combined: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring (or mindfulness) meditation:[35]

> Direction of mental attention... A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.[36]

Focused methods include paying attention to the breath, to an idea or feeling (such as mettā – loving-kindness), to a kōan, or to a mantra (such as in transcendental meditation), and single point meditation.[37][38] Open monitoring methods include mindfulness, shikantaza and other awareness states.[39]

#### Other possible typologies

Another typology divides meditation approaches into concentrative, generative, receptive and reflective practices:[40][41]

* concentrative: focused attention, including breath meditation, TM, and visualizations;
* generative: developing qualities like loving kindness and compassion;
* receptive: open monitoring;
* reflective: systematic investigation, contemplation.

The Buddhist tradition often divides meditative practice into samatha, or calm abiding,[42][43] and vipassana, insight. Mindfulness of breathing, a form of focused attention, calms down the mind; this calmed mind can then investigate the nature of reality,[44][45][46] by monitoring the fleeting and ever-changing constituents of experience, by reflective investigation, or by turning back the radiance, focusing awareness on awareness itself and discerning the true nature of mind as awareness itself. A similar distinction can be found in the Inchagiri Sampradaya, where mantra-recitation is used to joke the mind, followed by self-inquiry, investigating what the source is of the "I" that is aware.[note 6]

Matko and Sedlmeier (2019) "call into question the common division into 'focused attention' and 'open-monitoring' practices." They argue for "two orthogonal dimensions along which meditation techniques could be classified," namely "activation" and "amount of body orientation," proposing seven clusters of techniques: "mindful observation, body-centered meditation, visual concentration, contemplation, affect-centered meditation, mantra meditation, and meditation with movement."[47]

Jonathan Shear argues that transcendental meditation is an "automatic self-transcending" technique, different from focused attention and open monitoring. In this kind of practice, "there is no attempt to sustain any particular condition at all. Practices of this kind, once started, are reported to automatically 'transcend' their own activity and disappear, to be started up again later if appropriate."[note 7] Yet, Shear also states that "automatic self-transcending" also applies to the way other techniques such as from Zen and Qigong are practiced by experienced meditators "once they had become effortless and automatic through years of practice."[48]

## Technique

### Posture

Young children practicing meditation in a Peruvian school

Main article: Unsolved:Meditative postures

Asanas or body postures such as padmasana (full-lotus, half-lotus), cross-legged sitting, seiza, and kneeling positions are popular meditative postures in Hinduism, Buddhism, Taoism and Jainism,[49] although other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known as kinhin, while doing a simple task mindfully, known as samu, or while lying down, known as shavasana.[50][51]

A 2018 pilot study scientifically compared the stability offered by three common meditation supports—a zafu cushion, a meditation bench, and a chair. The study found that the zafu provided the most stability against side-to-side body sway, while also concluding that chairs and benches are suitable alternatives for beginners, with chairs being specifically recommended for people with back pain or difficulty getting up from a low seated position.[52]

### Frequency

The Transcendental Meditation technique recommends practice of 20 minutes twice per day.[53] Some techniques suggest less time,[44] especially when starting meditation,[citation needed] and Richard Davidson has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day.[54] Research shows improvement in meditation time with simple oral and video training.[55] Some meditators practice for much longer,[56][57] particularly when on a course or retreat.[58] Some meditators find practice best in the hours before dawn.[59]

### Supporting aids

#### Use of prayer beads

Some religions have traditions of using prayer beads as tools in devotional meditation.[60][61][62] Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread.[60][61] The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. Eastern and Oriental Orthodox have traditions of using prayer ropes called Comboschini or Meqetaria as an aid to prayerful meditation. The Hindu japa mala has 108 beads. The figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance as the energy of the sounds equivalates to Om,[5][63] as well as those used in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Hare Krishna tradition, and Jainism.[64][65]

Buddhist prayer beads also have 108 beads, but hold a different meaning. In Buddhism, there are 108 human passions that impede enlightenment.[66] Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantra until the person has gone all the way around the mala.[65] The Muslim misbaha has 99 beads. There is also quite a variance when it comes to materials used for beads. Beads made from seeds of rudraksha trees are considered sacred by devotees of Shiva, while followers of Vishnu revere the wood that comes from the Tulsi plant, also known as Holy Basil.[67]

#### Striking the meditator

The Buddhist literature has many stories of Enlightenment being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. T. Griffith Foulk recounts how the encouragement stick was an integral part of the Zen practice when he trained:

> In the Rinzai monastery where I trained in the mid-1970s, according to an unspoken etiquette, monks who were sitting earnestly and well were shown respect by being hit vigorously and often; those known as laggards were ignored by the hall monitor or given little taps if they requested to be hit. Nobody asked about the 'meaning' of the stick, nobody explained, and nobody ever complained about its use.[68]

#### Using a narrative

Neuroscientist and long-time meditator Richard Davidson has expressed the view that having a narrative can help the maintenance of daily practice. For instance, he himself prostrates to the teachings, and meditates "not primarily for my benefit, but for the benefit of others".[54]

#### Psychedelics

Studies suggest the potential of psychedelics, such as psilocybin and DMT, to enhance meditative training.[69][70][71]

#### Walking Meditation

Walking meditation is a fundamental technique in Theravāda and Zen traditions. It involves walking slowly and mindfully in a straight path or circle, focusing attention on each step, the movement of the feet, the breath, and bodily sensations. It is often used in alternation with sitting meditation during retreats and daily practice to integrate mindfulness into bodily movement.[72]

## Meditation traditions

Man meditating in a garden setting (19th century)

### Origins

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced.[73] Rossano suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many methods of meditation, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution.[74] Some of the earliest references to meditation, as well as proto-Samkhya, are found in the Upanishads of India.[75][76] According to Wynne, the earliest clear references to meditation are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita).[77][78] According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is describing meditation when it states that "Having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (Ātman) within oneself" (BU 4.4.23).[79]

### Indian religions

#### Hinduism

See also: Philosophy:Yoga

A statue of Patañjali practicing dhyana in the Padma-asana at Patanjali Yogpeeth

There are many schools and styles of meditation within Hinduism.[79] In pre-modern and traditional Hinduism, Yoga and Dhyana are practised to recognize 'pure awareness', or 'pure consciousness', undisturbed by the workings of the mind, as one's eternal self. In Advaita Vedanta jivatman, individual self, is recognized as illusory, and in Reality identical with the omnipresent and non-dual Ātman-Brahman. In the dualistic Yoga school and Samkhya, the Self is called Purusha, a pure consciousness undisturbed by Prakriti, 'nature'. Depending on the tradition, the liberative event is named moksha, vimukti or kaivalya.[80]

One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is Patañjali's Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya and influenced by Buddhism,[note 8] which outlines eight limbs leading to kaivalya ("aloneness") or inner awareness. The first four, known as the "outer limbs," include ethical discipline (yamas), rules (niyamas), physical postures (āsanas), and breath control (prāṇāyama). The fifth, withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra), transitions into the "inner limbs" that are one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finally samādhi.[83]

Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of Hatha Yoga (forceful yoga) compendiums like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the development of Bhakti yoga as a major form of meditation, and Tantra. Another important Hindu yoga text is the Yoga Yajnavalkya, which makes use of Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy.[84]

##### Mantra Meditation

The Bhagavata Purana emphasizes that mantra meditation is a key practice for achieving liberation; practitioners can achieve a direct vision of the divine. The text integrates both Vedic and tantric elements, where mantras are not only seen as sacred sounds but as embodiment of the deity. This approach reflects a shift from the impersonal meditation on the sound-form of Brahman (Om) in the Upanishads to a personal, devotional focus on Krishna in the Bhagavata Purana.[85]

#### Jainism

Lord Mahavir attaining omniscience in shukla dhyana, the highest level of meditation

Jainism has three elements called the Ratnatraya ("Three Jewels"): right perception and faith, right knowledge and right conduct.[86] Meditation in Jainism aims to reach and to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (gyata-drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized into Dharma dhyana and Shukla dhyana. Dharma dhyana is discriminating knowledge (bheda-vijñāna) of the tattvas (truths or fundamental principles), while shukla dhyana is meditation proper.

Jainism uses meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna. In padāstha dhyāna, one focuses on a mantra,[87] a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. Jain followers practice mantra regularly by chanting loudly or silently in mind.[87]

The meditation technique of contemplation includes agnya vichāya, in which one contemplates on seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage and removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates on the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.[87]

#### Buddhism

Bodhidharma practicing zazen

Main article: Religion:Buddhist meditation

Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward awakening and nirvana.[note 9] The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā ("development"), and the core practices of body contemplations (repulsiveness and cemetery contemplations) and anapanasati (mindfulness of in-and-out breathing)[note 10] culminating in jhāna/dhyāna or samādhi.[note 11]

While most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific,[note 12] the root meditative practices of various body recollections and breath meditation have been preserved and transmitted in almost all Buddhist traditions, through Buddhist texts like the Satipatthana Sutta and the Dhyana sutras, and through oral teacher-student transmissions. These ancient practices are supplemented with various distinct interpretations of, and developments in, these practices.

The Theravāda tradition stresses the development of samatha and vipassana, postulating over fifty methods for developing mindfulness based on the Satipatthana Sutta,[note 13] and forty for developing concentration based on the Visuddhimagga.

The Tibetan tradition incorporated Sarvastivada and Tantric practices, wedded with Madhyamaka philosophy, and developed thousands of visualization meditations.[note 14]

The Zen tradition incorporated mindfulness and breath-meditation via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition. Sitting meditation, known as zazen, is a central part of Zen practice. Downplaying the "petty complexities" of satipatthana and the body-recollections[89][90] (but maintaining the awareness of immanent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of wu nian ("no thought, no fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge")[91][92] and fēi sīliàng (非思量, Japanese: hishiryō, "nonthinking");[93] and kanxin ("observing the mind")[94] and shou-i pu i (守一不移, "maintaining the one without wavering,"[95] turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature.[96]

The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced Buddhist meditation to other Asian countries, reaching China in the 2nd century CE,[97] and Japan in the 6th century CE.[98] In the modern era, Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, due to the influence of Buddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism, and western lay interest in Zen and the Vipassana movement, with many non-Buddhists taking-up meditative practices. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term sati) and related meditative practices have in turn led to mindfulness based therapies.[99]

##### Dhyana

Dhyana, while often presented as a form of focused attention or concentration, as in Buddhagosa's Theravada classic the Visuddhimagga ("Path of purification", 5th c. CE), according to a number of contemporary scholars and scholar-practitioners, it is actually a description of the development of perfected equanimity and mindfulness, apparently induced by satipatthana, an open monitoring of the breath, without trying to regulate it. The same description, in a different formula, can be found in the bojjhanga, the "seven factors of awakening," and may therefore refer to the core program of early Buddhist bhavana.[100] According to Vetter, dhyana seems to be a natural development from the sense-restraint and moral constrictions prescribed by the Buddhist tradition.[101][102]

##### Samatha and vipassana

The Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice or bhavana, namely samatha ("calm," "serenity" "tranquility") and vipassana (insight). As the developing tradition started to emphasize the value of liberating insight, and dhyana came to be understood as concentration,[103][104] samatha and vipassana were understood as two distinct meditative techniques. In this understanding, samatha steadies, composes, unifies and concentrates the mind, while vipassana enables one to see, explore and discern "formations" (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).[note 15]

According to this understanding, which is central to Theravada orthodoxy but also plays a role in Tibetan Buddhism, through the meditative development of serenity, one is able to weaken the obscuring hindrances and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (samadhi). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom (Prajñā) which is the quality of mind that can "clearly see" (vi-passana) the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as impermanent, suffering, not-self and empty. When this happens, one develops dispassion (viraga) for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances and lets them go. It is through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight that one gains liberation.[105]

#### Sikhism

In Sikhism, simran (meditation) and good deeds are both necessary to achieve the devotee's spiritual goals;[106] without good deeds meditation is futile. When Sikhs meditate, they aim to feel God's presence and emerge in the divine light.[107] It is only God's divine will or order that allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate.[108] Nām japnā involves focusing one's attention on the names or great attributes of God.[109]

### Taoism

Main article: Philosophy:Taoist meditation

Centering the Mind 中心圖, 1615 Xingming guizhi "Gathering the Light", Taoist meditation from The Secret of the Golden Flower

Livia Kohn distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: "concentrative", "insight", and "visualization".[110] Ding 定 (literally means "decide; settle; stabilize") refers to "deep concentration", "intent contemplation", or "perfect absorption". Guan 觀 (lit. watch; observe; view) meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. It was developed by Tang dynasty (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the Tiantai Buddhist practice of Vipassanā "insight" or "wisdom" meditation. Cun 存 (lit. exist; be present; survive) has a sense of "to cause to exist; to make present" in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist Shangqing and Lingbao Schools. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even xian 仙/仚/僊, "immortality". The Guanzi essay (late 4th century BCE) Neiye "Inward training" is the oldest received writing on the subject of qi cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques.[111] For instance, "When you enlarge your mind and let go of it, when you relax your vital breath and expand it, when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. ... This is called "revolving the vital breath": Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly."[112]

The Taoist Zhuangzi (c. 3rd century BCE) records zuowang or "sitting forgetting" meditation. Confucius asked his disciple Yan Hui to explain what "sit and forget" means: "I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare."[113]

Taoist meditation practices are central to Chinese martial arts (and some Japanese martial arts), especially the qi-related neijia "internal martial arts". Some well-known examples are daoyin ("guiding and pulling"), qigong ("life-energy exercises"), neigong ("internal exercises"), neidan ("internal alchemy"), and tai chi ("great ultimate boxing"), which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts "movement in stillness" referring to energetic visualization of qi circulation in qigong and zuochan ("seated meditation"),[46] versus "stillness in movement" referring to a state of meditative calm in tai chi forms. Also the unification or middle road forms such as Wuxingheqidao that seeks the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms. `

### Abrahamic religions

#### Judaism

Main article: Unsolved:Jewish meditation

Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.[114][115] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "לשוח" (lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63).[116] Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that the prophets meditated.[117] In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה), to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה), to muse, or rehearse in one's mind.[118]

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of kavanah or intention. The first layer of rabbinic law, the Mishnah, describes ancient sages "waiting" for an hour before their prayers, "in order to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One" (Mishnah Berakhot 5:1). Other early rabbinic texts include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. Talmud Sanhedrin 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath (Genesis Rabba 14:9).[119]

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning "chariot" (of God).[118] Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in Kabbalah, and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study.[120][121][122] Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. Aryeh Kaplan has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.[118]

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called "hitbodedut" (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as "hisbodedus"), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word "boded" (בודד), meaning the state of being alone.[123] Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of "hisbonenus", related to the Sephirah of "Binah", Hebrew for understanding.[124] This practice is the analytical reflective process of making oneself understand a mystical concept well, that follows and internalises its study in Hasidic writings. The Musar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth-century, emphasized meditative practices of introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character.[125] Conservative rabbi Alan Lew has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of teshuvah (repentance).[126][127] Jewish Buddhists have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.[128]

#### Christianity

Saint Pio of Pietrelcina stated: "Through the study of books one seeks God; by meditation one finds Him."[129]

Main article: Unsolved:Christian meditation

Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God.[130] In the Roman Empire, by 20 BCE Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of "spiritual exercises" involving attention (prosoche) and concentration[131] and by the 3rd century Plotinus had developed meditative techniques. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditatum, which means to "concentrate" or "to ponder". Monk Guigo II introduced this terminology for the first time in the 12th century AD. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g. a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God.[132] Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first level vocal prayer, but is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.[133]

Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves the repetition of the Jesus prayer.[134] Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this is unproven.[135]

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e. divine reading. Its four formal steps as a "ladder" were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditatio, oratio, and contemplatio (i.e. read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.[136][137][138][139]

On 28 April 2021, Pope Francis, in an address to the General Audience, said that meditation is a need for everyone.[140][141] He stated that the term "meditation" has had many meanings throughout history, and that "the ancients used to say that the organ of prayer is the heart."[140]

In Catholic Christianity, the Rosary is a devotion for the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary.[142][143] "The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means to moving into deeper meditation. It gives us an opportunity to open ourselves to God's word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God.[144] Similarly, the chotki of the Eastern Orthodox denomination, the Wreath of Christ of the Lutheran faith, and the Anglican prayer beads of the Episcopalian tradition are used for Christian prayer and meditation.[145][146]

According to Edmund P. Clowney, Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings.[147] Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of mantras, and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion.[148][149] In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation.[150] In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age the Vatican announced that the "Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age".[151][152][153]

#### Islam

Whirling dervishes

Main article: Unsolved:Muraqabah

See also: Religion:Sufism, Sama (Religion:Sufism), and Dhikr § Sufi view

Dhikr (zikr) is a type of meditation within Islam, meaning remembering and mentioning God, which involves the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century.[154][155] It is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism.[154][155] This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking) which leads to knowledge.[156] By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.[157]

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist concentration, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, muraqabah takes the form of tamarkoz, "concentration" in Persian.[158]

Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e. from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one's submission to God.[159]

Dervishes of certain Sufi orders practice whirling, a form of physically active meditation.[160]

#### Baháʼí Faith

In the teachings of the Baháʼí Faith, which derives from an Islamic context but is universalist in orientation, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development,[161] involving reflection on the words of God.[162] While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation happens generally in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God,[163] and meditation is seen as a communion with one's self where one focuses on the divine.[162]

In Baháʼí teachings the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one's understanding of the words of God, and to make one's soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,[162] more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.[164]

Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the religion, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form.[161] However, he did state that Baháʼís should read a passage of the Baháʼí writings twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on one's actions and worth at the end of each day.[162] During the Nineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which Baháʼís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.[165]

### Modern spirituality

Meditation. Alexej von Jawlensky, 1918

#### Modern dissemination in the West

Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived,[166] and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.[167]

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun "seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity",[168] and such ideas "came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s."[168] The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:

> The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda [...] [founded] various Vedanta ashrams [...] Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha [...] [toured] the US teaching the principles of Bahai [sic], and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen.[169]

Meditating in Madison Square Park, New York City

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees.[170] In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation and self-improvement.[171][172]

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey of 34,525 subjects found that 8% of US adults used meditation,[173] with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1% respectively.[174] Meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002).[175]

#### New Age

Template:Esotericism

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, yoga, Hinduism and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth of the day rebelled against traditional western religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance.[176] New Age meditation as practised by the early hippies is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from religious, politically and socially patterned thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra, or focusing on an object.[177] New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance, stress management and to access to other realms of consciousness, involving the concentration of energy in group or individual meditation to the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.[178]

#### Guided meditation

Guided meditation is a form of meditation which uses a number of different techniques to achieve or enhance the meditative state. It may simply be meditation done under the guidance of a trained practitioner or teacher, or it may be through the use of imagery, music, and other techniques.[179] The session can be either in person, via media[180] comprising music or verbal instruction, or a combination of both.[181][182] The most common form is a combination of meditation music and receptive music therapy, guided imagery, relaxation, mindfulness, and journaling.[183][184][185]

Because of the different combinations used under the one term, it can be difficult to attribute positive or negative outcomes to any of the various techniques. Furthermore, the term is frequently used interchangeably with "guided imagery" and sometimes with "creative visualization" in popular psychology and self-help literature. It is less commonly used in scholarly and scientific publications. Consequently, guided meditation cannot be understood as a single technique but rather multiple techniques that are integral to its practice.[183][186][187][188]

Guided meditation as an aggregate or synthesis of techniques includes meditation music, receptive music therapy, guided imagery, relaxation, meditative praxis, and self-reflective journaling, all of which have been shown to have therapeutic benefits when employed as an adjunct to primary strategies. Benefits include lower levels of stress,[189] reducing asthmatic episodes,[190] physical pain,[191] insomnia,[192] episodic anger,[193] negative or irrational thinking,[194] and anxiety, as well as improving coping skills,[195] focus,[196] and a general feeling of well-being.[197][198]

## Effects

Main article: Social:Effects of meditation

Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of neurological research.[9] Modern scientific techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalography, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation.[199] Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research,[9][200][201] including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.[202]

Meditation lowers heart rate, oxygen consumption, breathing frequency, stress hormones, lactate levels, and sympathetic nervous system activity (associated with the fight-or-flight response), along with a modest decline in blood pressure.[203][204] However, those who have meditated for two or three years were found to already have low blood pressure. During meditation, the oxygen consumption decrease averages 10 to 20 percent over the first three minutes. During sleep for example, oxygen consumption decreases around 8 percent over four or five hours.[205] For meditators who have practiced for years, breath rate can drop to three or four breaths per minute and "brain waves slow from the usual beta (seen in waking activity) or alpha (seen in normal relaxation) to much slower delta and theta waves".[206]

Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect to reduce pain.[9] There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.[9]

Luberto er all (2017), in a systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviors, found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can "improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors".[207][unreliable medical source?] However, a meta-review published on Scientific Reports showed that the evidence is very weak and "that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation".[208]

Meditation has also been found to support the development of psychological resilience. Regular practice can help individuals manage chronic stress, trauma, and emotional challenges by fostering greater emotional regulation, reducing rumination, and enhancing adaptive coping strategies.[209]

## "Challenging" and adverse effects

### Contemplative traditions

Throughout East Asia the detrimental and undesirable effects of incorrect meditation and mindfulness practice are well documented due to the long varied history of cultivation in these fields. Many traditional herbal, intentional and manual treatments have been prescribed from the past to present day for what is diagnosed as zouhuorumo (Chinese: 走火入魔).[210][211]

Meditation may induce "challenging"[web 5][212][213] and "unwanted"[213] experiences, and adverse effects to physical and mental health.[211] Some of these experiences and effects are documented in the contemplative traditions,[212] but can be quite perplexing and burdensome when the outcomes of meditation are expected to result in more advantageous and beneficial health outcomes than detrimental ones. By extension this problem is compounded with little or no accessible support or explanatory framework for novice or laity practitioners to know when it is appropriate to self manage or when it is advisable to seek professional advice on practice or the management or intervention on adverse symptomatology that may arise in this field of self-cultivation .[212][web 5][web 6][web 7]

According to Farias et al. (2020), the most common adverse effects are in people with a history of anxiety and depression.[214] Other adverse psychological symptoms may include narcissistic, sociopathic behaviour and depersonalization[214] or altered sense of self or the world,[213] distorted emotions or thoughts, a mild form of psychosis including auditory and visual hallucinations. In extreme cases in patients with underlying undiagnosed or historical emotional conditions there have been instances of self-harm.[214][215][216]

According to Schlosser et al. (2019), "preliminary findings suggest that their occurrence is highly dependent on a complex interaction of contextual factors."[213] For instance, meditation-related psychosis has been linked to sleep deprivation,[217] preceding mental dispositions,[217][215] and meditation without sufficient social support or any explanatory framework. However, according to Farias et al. (2020), "minor adverse effects have been observed in individuals with no previous history of mental health problems"[214])[214][215] Farias et al. (2020) further note that "it is also possible that participants predisposed to heightened levels of anxiety and depression are more likely to begin or maintain a meditation practice to manage their symptoms."[218]

According to Farias et al. (2020) there is a prevalence of 8.3% adverse effects, "similar to those reported for psychotherapy practice in general."[214] Schlosser et al. (2019) reported that of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice.[213] Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking, forced breathing causing hypoxia[219] and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation (vipassana/insight meditation) were more likely to report unpleasant side effects.[213]

The appraisal of the experiences may be determined by the framework used to interpret these experiences.[218][213] Schlosser et al. "found strong evidence that religious participants have lower odds of having particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences," and "found weak evidence that female participants were less likely to have unpleasant meditation-related experiences,"[213] and note the importance of "understanding when these experiences are constitutive elements of meditative practice rather than merely negative effects."[213]

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources, and some may be considered to be an expected part of the process.[220][221] According to Salguero,

> Problematic experiences such as strange sensations, unexplained pains, psychological instability, undesired hallucinations, sexual anomalies, uncontrollable behaviors, demonic possession, suicidality, and so forth seem to be quite well-known and well-documented across traditions.[221]

The Visuddhimagga mentions various unpleasant stages, and possible "unwholesome or frightening visions" are mentioned in Practical Insight Meditation: Basic and Progressive Stages, a practical manual on vipassanā meditation by Mahāsi Sayādaw.[220] Classical sources mention makyō, Zen sickness (Chinese and Japanese: 禪病; pinyin: Chánbìng; rōmaji: Zenbyō)[web 5] and related difficulties, such as zouhuorumo (走火入魔; 'fire possession'), and mojing (魔境; 'demonic states').[221] Traditional sources also precribe cures against these experiences,[222] for example Hakuin Ekaku's treatment of Zen-sickness.

### Mindfulness

Both the soundness of the scientific foundations of mindfulness, and the desirability of its social effects, have been questioned.[223][224][225][226] Hafenbrack et al. (2022), in a study on mindfulness with 1400 participants, found that focused-breathing meditation can dampen the relationship between transgressions and the desire to engage in reparative prosocial behaviors.[227] Poullin et al. (2021) found that mindfulness can increase the trait of selfishness. The study, consisting of two interrelated parts and totaling 691 participants, found that a mindfulness induction, compared to a control condition, led to decreased prosocial behavior. This effect was moderated by self-construals such that people with relatively independent self-construals became less prosocial while people with relatively interdependent self-construals became more so. In the western world where independent self-construals generally predominate (self centric orientated) meditation may thus have potentially detrimental effects.[228] These new findings about meditations socially problematic effects imply that it can be contraindicated to use meditation as a tool to handle acute personal conflicts or relational difficulties; in the words of Andrew Hafenbrack, one of the authors of the study, "If we 'artificially' reduce our guilt by meditating it away, we may end up with worse relationships, or even fewer relationships".[229]

## Secular applications

### Psychotherapy

Carl Jung (1875–1961) was an early western explorer of eastern religious practices.[230][231] He clearly advocated ways to increase the conscious awareness of an individual. Yet he expressed some caution concerning a westerner's direct immersion in eastern practices without some prior appreciation of the differing spiritual and cultural contexts.[232][233] Erich Fromm (1900–1980) later explored spiritual practices of the east.[234]

### Clinical

Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions.[235] Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as affecting the endocrine system therefore reducing depression, and helping to alleviate stress, and anxiety.[9][236][237][238] Mindfulness is also used as a form of interventional therapy in the treatment of addiction including drug addiction, although the quantity and quality of evidence based research has been poor.[201][239]

The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that "Meditation and mindfulness practices may have a variety of health benefits and may help people improve the quality of their lives. Recent studies have investigated if meditation or mindfulness helps people manage anxiety, stress, depression, pain, or symptoms related to withdrawal from nicotine, alcohol, or opioids." However, the NCCIC goes on to caution that, "results from the studies have been difficult to analyze and may have been interpreted too optimistically."[240]

A 2014 review found that practice of mindfulness meditation for two to six months by people undergoing long-term psychiatric or medical therapy could produce moderate improvements in pain management, anxiety, depression.[241] In 2017, the American Heart Association issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable adjunct practice and intervention to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality clinical research of these disorders.[242] Recent findings have also found evidence of meditation affecting migraines in adults. Mindfulness meditation may allow for a decrease in migraine episodes, and a drop in migraine medication usage.[243]

Early low-quality and low- quantity evidence indicates that the mechanism of meditation may help with irritable bowel syndrome,[244][10] insomnia,[244] cognitive decline in the elderly,[245] and post-traumatic stress disorder.[246][247] Sitting in silence, body scan meditation and concentrating on breathing was shown in a 2016 review to moderately decrease symptoms of PTSD and depression in war veterans and creating resilience to stresses in active service.[248][249] Researchers have found that participating in mindfulness meditation can aid insomnia patients by improving sleep quality and total wake time.[250] Mindfulness meditation is a supportive therapy that aides in the treatment for patients diagnosed with insomnia.[250]

### In the workplace

A 2010 review of the literature on spirituality and performance in organizations found an increase in corporate meditation programs.[251]

As of 2016 around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives.[252][253] The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. Google also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, "Search Inside Yourself", having been implemented since 2007.[253] General Mills offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course which uses a combination of mindfulness meditation, yoga and dialogue with the intention of developing the mind's capacity to pay attention.[253]

Many military organizations around the world have found meditation and mindfulness practice can support a range of benefits related to combat, including support for mental health, mental clarity, focus and stress control.[254]

### In school

A review of 15 peer-reviewed studies of youth meditation in schools indicated transcendental meditation a moderate effect on wellbeing and a small effect on social competence. Insufficient research has been done on the effect of meditation on academic achievement.[255] Evidence has also shown possible improvement to stress, cognitive performance in school taught meditation.[256]

Positive effects on emotion regulation, stress and anxiety can also be seen in students in university and nursing.[257][258]

### Relaxation response and biofeedback

Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation.[259] Also in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM).[260] In Norway, another sound-based method called Acem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.[261]

Biofeedback has been used by many researchers since the 1950s in an effort to enter deeper states of mind.[262][263]

## See also

* Altered state of consciousness
* Autogenic training
* Ego death
* Flow
* Four foundations of mindfulness
* Hypnosis
* Immanence
* Mechanisms of mindfulness meditation
* Mindfulness
* Mushin (mental state)
* Narrative identity
* Psychology of religion
* Sensory deprivation
* Tukdam

## Notes

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 An influential definition by (Shapiro 1982) states that "meditation refers to a family of techniques which have in common a conscious attempt to focus attention in a nonanalytical way and an attempt not to dwell on discursive, ruminating thought" (p. 6, italics in original). The term "discursive thought" has long been used in Western philosophy, and is often viewed as a synonym to logical thought.[31]
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 (Bond Ospina) report that 7 expert scholars who had studied different traditions of meditation agreed that an "essential" component of meditation "Involves logic relaxation: not 'to intend' to analyze the possible psychophysical effects, not 'to intend' to judge the possible results, not 'to intend' to create any type of expectation regarding the process" (p. 134, Table 4). In their final consideration, all 7 experts regarded this feature as an "essential" component of meditation; none of them regarded it as merely "important but not essential" (p. 234, Table 4). (This same result is presented in Table B1 in Ospina et al. 2007, p. 281). This does not mean that all meditation seeks to take a person beyond all thought processes, only those processes that are sometimes referred to as "discursive" or "logical" (see Shapiro 1982/1984; Bond et al. 2009; Appendix B, pp. 279–82 in (Ospina Bond)).
3. ↑ In 1971, Claudio Naranjo noted that "The word 'meditation' has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble defining what meditation is."[20] A 2009 study noted a "persistent lack of consensus in the literature" and a "seeming intractability of defining meditation".[21]
4. ↑ "members were chosen on the basis of their publication record of research on the therapeutic use of meditation, their knowledge of and training in traditional or clinically developed meditation techniques, and their affiliation with universities and research centers. Each member had specific expertise and training in at least one of the following meditation practices: kundalini yoga, Transcendental Meditation, relaxation response, mindfulness-based stress reduction, and vipassana meditation" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131); their views were combined using "the Delphi technique ... a method of eliciting and refining group judgments to address complex problems with a high level of uncertainty" (Bond et al. 2009, p. 131).
5. ↑ Regarding influential reviews encompassing multiple methods of meditation: (Walsh Shapiro), (Cahn Polich), and (Jevning Wallace), are cited >80 times in PsycINFO. Number of citations in PsycINFO: 254 for Walsh & Shapiro, 2006 (26 August 2018); 561 for Cahn & Polich, 2006 (26 August 2018); 83 for Jevning et al. (1992) (26 August 2018). Goleman's book has 33 editions listed in WorldCat: 17 editions as The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience[33] and 16 editions as The varieties of meditative experience.[34] Citation and edition counts are as of August 2018 and September 2018 respectively.
6. ↑ With the Bird's Way, first one's mind must be made subtle. This is generally done with some initial meditation on a mantra or phrase which helps the aspirant to step beyond the mental/conceptual body, using a concept to go beyond conceptualization.[web 4]
7. ↑ According to Shear, "Focused Attention, Open Monitoring and Automatic Self-Transcending were likely to be associated with (γ and β)13, θ, and α1 EEG bands, respectively."[48]
8. ↑ According to Larson 2008, pp. 43–45, from Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of nirodhasamadhi the Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which avoids stating whether self and soul exist, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, believing that each individual has a self and soul.[81] Karel Werner writes, "Patanjali's system is unthinkable without Buddhism. As far as its terminology goes there is much in the Yoga Sutras that reminds us of Buddhist formulations from the Pāli Canon and even more so from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma and from Sautrāntika."[82] See also D. Wujastyk (2018), Some Problematic Yoga Sutras and their Buddhist Background, in: P. Maas et al., Yoga in Transformation. Historical and Contemporary Perspectives on a Global Phenomenon, Vienna University Press; and Pradeep P. Gokhale (2020), The Yogasūtra of Patañjali: A New Introduction to the Buddhist Roots of the Yoga System, Routledge.
9. ↑ For instance, (Kamalashila 2003), states that Buddhist meditation "includes any method of meditation that has Enlightenment as its ultimate aim." Likewise, (Bodhi 1999) writes: "To arrive at the experiential realization of the truths it is necessary to take up the practice of meditation.... At the climax of such contemplation the mental eye ... shifts its focus to the unconditioned state, Nibbana...." A similar although in some ways slightly broader definition is provided by:[88] "Meditation – general term for a multitude of religious practices, often quite different in method, but all having the same goal: to bring the consciousness of the practitioner to a state in which he can come to an experience of 'awakening,' 'liberation,' 'enlightenment.'" (Kamalashila 2003) further allows that some Buddhist meditations are "of a more preparatory nature" (p. 4).
10. ↑ The Pāli and Sanskrit word bhāvanā literally means "development" as in "mental development." For the association of this term with "meditation," see (Epstein 1995); and (Fischer-Schreiber Ehrhard). As an example from a well-known discourse of the Pali Canon, in "The Greater Exhortation to Rahula" (Maha-Rahulovada Sutta, MN 62), Ven. Sariputta tells Ven. Rahula (in Pali, based on VRI, n.d.): ānāpānassatiṃ, rāhula, bhāvanaṃ bhāvehi. Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (2006). "Maha-Rahulovada Sutta: The Greater Exhortation to Rahula (MN 62)". http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.062.than.html. translates this as: "Rahula, develop the meditation [bhāvana] of mindfulness of in-&-out breathing." (Square-bracketed Pali word included based on Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu, 2006, end note
11. ↑ See, for example, Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (1997). "One Tool Among Many: The Place of Vipassana in Buddhist Practice". http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/thanissaro/onetool.html. ; as well as (Kapleau 1989) for the derivation of the word "zen" from Sanskrit "dhyāna". Pāli Text Society Secretary Rupert Gethin, in describing the activities of wandering ascetics contemporaneous with the Buddha, wrote:

There is the cultivation of meditative and contemplative techniques aimed at producing what might, for the lack of a suitable technical term in English, be referred to as "altered states of consciousness". In the technical vocabulary of Indian religious texts such states come to be termed "meditations" ([Skt.:] dhyāna / [Pali:] jhāna) or "concentrations" (samādhi); the attainment of such states of consciousness was generally regarded as bringing the practitioner to deeper knowledge and experience of the nature of the world. (Gethin 1998, p. 10)
12. ↑ Examples of contemporary school-specific classics include:
* from the Theravada tradition, (Thera 1996).
* from the Zen tradition, (Kapleau 1989).
13. ↑ (Goldstein 2003) writes that, in regard to the Satipatthana Sutta, "there are more than fifty different practices outlined in this Sutta. The meditations that derive from these foundations of mindfulness are called vipassana..., and in one form or another – and by whatever name – are found in all the major Buddhist traditions" (p. 92).
14. ↑ Regarding Tibetan visualizations, (Kamalashila 2003), writes: "The Tara meditation ... is one example out of thousands of subjects for visualization meditation, each one arising out of some meditator's visionary experience of enlightened qualities, seen in the form of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas" (p. 227).
15. ↑ These definitions of samatha and vipassana are based on the "Four Kinds of Persons Sutta" (AN 4.94). This article's text is primarily based on (Bodhi 2005). See also Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu (1998d). "Samadhi Sutta: Concentration (Tranquillity and Insight) (AN 4.94)". http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an04/an04.094.than.html. .

## References

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Walsh & Shapiro 2006, pp. 228–229.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Cahn & Polich 2006, p. 180.
3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach 1992, p. 415.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Goleman 1988, p. 107.
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Dhavamony, Mariasusai (1982) (in en). Classical Hinduism. Università Gregoriana Editrice. p. 243. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
6. ↑ Hölzel, Britta K.; Lazar, Sara W.; Gard, Tim; Schuman-Olivier, Zev; Vago, David R.; Ott, Ulrich (November 2011). "How Does Mindfulness Meditation Work? Proposing Mechanisms of Action From a Conceptual and Neural Perspective". Perspectives on Psychological Science: A Journal of the Association for Psychological Science 6 (6): 537–559. doi:10.1177/1745691611419671. ISSN 1745-6916. PMID 26168376.
7. ↑ "The Dalai Lama explains how to practice meditation properly". 3 May 2017. https://hackspirit.com/dalai-lama-reveals-practice-meditation-properly/.
8. ↑ "Meditation: In Depth". https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/meditation/overview.htm.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 Goyal, M.; Singh, S.; Sibinga, E. M.; Gould, N. F.; Rowland-Seymour, A.; Sharma, R.; Berger, Z.; Sleicher, D. et al. (2014). "Meditation Programs for Psychological Stress and Well-being: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". JAMA Internal Medicine 174 (3): 357–368. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018. ISSN 2168-6106. PMID 24395196.
10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Shaner, Lynne; Kelly, Lisa; Rockwell, Donna; Curtis, Devorah (2016). "Calm Abiding". Journal of Humanistic Psychology 57: 98. doi:10.1177/0022167815594556.
11. ↑ An universal etymological English dictionary 1773, London, by Nathan Bailey ISBN 1-002-37787-0.
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Meditation". Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper. 2019. https://www.etymonline.com/word/meditation#etymonline_v_12520.
13. ↑ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 115
14. ↑ Sampaio, Cynthia Vieira Sanches; Lima, Manuela Garcia; Ladeia, Ana Marice (April 2017). "Meditation, Health and Scientific Investigations: Review of the Literature" (in en). Journal of Religion and Health 56 (2): 411–427. doi:10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1. ISSN 0022-4197. PMID 26915053. http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10943-016-0211-1. Retrieved 2021-11-16.
15. ↑ Feuerstein, Georg (2006). "Yoga and Meditation (Dhyana)". Moksha Journal (1). OCLC 21878732. http://www.santosha.com/moksha/meditation1.html. Retrieved 2010-06-27.
16. ↑ The verb root "dhyai" is listed as referring to "contemplate, meditate on" and "dhyāna" is listed as referring to "meditation; religious contemplation" on page 134 of Macdonell, Arthur Anthony (1971). A practical Sanskrit dictionary with transliteration, accentuation and etymological analysis throughout. London: Oxford University Press.
17. ↑ Sandilands, Olivier (August 2019). "L'espace contemplatif. Étude des homologies entre expérience esthétique et méditation". Master's Thesis. https://www.academia.edu/101688196. Retrieved 2024-12-08.
18. ↑ Mirahmadi, Sayyid Nurjan; Naqshbandi, Muhammad Nazim Adil al-Haqqani; Kabbani, Muhammad Hisham; Mirahmadi, Hedieh (2005). The healing power of sufi meditation. Fenton, MI: Naqshbandi Haqqani Sufi Order of America. ISBN 978-1-930409-26-2. https://www.loc.gov/catdir/toc/ecip057/2005001975.html. Retrieved 2018-01-29.
19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Goleman 1988.
20. ↑ Naranjo & Ornstein 1972, p. 6.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Bond et al. 2009, p. 135.
22. ↑ Carroll, Mary (October 2005). "Divine Therapy: Teaching Reflective and Meditative Practices". Teaching Theology and Religion 8 (4): 232–238. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9647.2005.00249.x.
23. ↑ Lutz, Antoine; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (2007). "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction". in Zelazo, Philip David; Moscovitch, Morris; Thompson, Evan. The Cambridge Handbook of Consciousness. pp. 499–552. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511816789.020. ISBN 978-0-511-81678-9.
24. ↑ Lutz, Dunne and Davidson, "Meditation and the Neuroscience of Consciousness: An Introduction" in The Cambridge handbook of consciousness by Philip David Zelazo, Morris Moscovitch, Evan Thompson, 2007 ISBN 0-521-85743-0 pp. 499–551 (proof copy) (NB: pagination of published was 499–551 proof was 497–550).
25. ↑ "John Dunne's speech". http://ccare.stanford.edu/node/21.
26. ↑ Taylor 1999, p. 2.
27. ↑ Naranjo & Ornstein 1972, p. 143.
28. ↑ Walsh & Shapiro 2006.
29. ↑ Cahn & Polich 2006.
30. ↑ Jevning, Wallace & Beidebach 1992.
31. ↑ Rappe, Sara (2000). Reading neoplatonism: Non-discursive thinking in the texts of plotinus, proclus, and damascius. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65158-5. https://books.google.com/books?id=t1dNkABrLWkC.
32. ↑ Bond et al. 2009, p. 135: "It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by 'family resemblances' (Wittgenstein, 1968) or by the related 'prototype' model of concepts (Rosch, 1973; Rosch & Mervin, 1975).".
33. ↑ worldcat.org: Daniel Goleman, The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience
34. ↑ worldcat.org: Daniel Goleman, The varieties of meditative experience .
35. ↑ Lutz, Antoine; Slagter, Heleen A.; Dunne, John D.; Davidson, Richard J. (April 2008). "Attention regulation and monitoring in meditation". Trends in Cognitive Sciences 12 (4): 163–69. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2008.01.005. PMID 18329323. "The term 'meditation' refers to a broad variety of practices...In order to narrow the explanandum to a more tractable scope, this article uses Buddhist contemplative techniques and their clinical secular derivatives as a paradigmatic framework (see e.g., 9,10 or 7,9 for reviews including other types of techniques, such as Yoga and Transcendental Meditation). Among the wide range of practices within the Buddhist tradition, we will further narrow this review to two common styles of meditation, FA and OM (see box 1–box 2), that are often combined, whether in a single session or over the course of practitioner's training. These styles are found with some variation in several meditation traditions, including Zen, Vipassanā and Tibetan Buddhism (e.g. 7,15,16)....The first style, FA meditation, entails voluntary focusing attention on a chosen object in a sustained fashion. The second style, OM meditation, involves non-reactively monitoring the content of experience from moment to moment, primarily as a means to recognize the nature of emotional and cognitive patterns.".
36. ↑ Bond et al. 2009, p. 130: "The differences and similarities among these techniques is often explained in the Western meditation literature in terms of the direction of mental attention (Koshikawa & Ichii, 1996; Naranjo, 1971; Orenstein, 1971): A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness (Orenstein, 1971)."
37. ↑ Easwaran, Eknath (2018). The Bhagavad Gita: (Classics of Indian Spirituality). Nilgiri Press. ISBN 978-1-58638-019-9. https://books.google.com/books?id=bcnJAAAAQBAJ&q=bhagavad+gita. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
38. ↑ lywa (2 April 2015). "Developing Single-pointed Concentration". https://www.lamayeshe.com/article/developing-single-pointed-concentration. "Single-pointed concentration (samadhi) is a meditative power that is useful in either of these two types of meditation. However, in order to develop samadhi itself we must cultivate principally concentration meditation. In terms of practice, this means that we must choose an object of concentration and then meditate single-pointedly on it every day until the power of samadhi is attained."
39. ↑ Malinowski, Peter (19 July 2013). "Advanced Tibetan Buddhist meditation practice raises body temperature – Part 2". http://meditation-research.org.uk/2013/07/advanced-tibetan-buddhist-meditation-practice-raises-body-temperature-part-2/.
40. ↑ Gangadharan & Hemamalini 2021, p. 70.
41. ↑ Aguirre 2018, p. 18-20.
42. ↑ "Deepening Calm-Abiding – The Nine Stages of Abiding". https://terebess.hu/english/oxherd27a.html.
43. ↑ Dorje, Ogyen Trinley (24 December 2011). "Calm Abiding". https://tricycle.org/magazine/calm-abiding/.
44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Mindful Breathing (Greater Good in Action)". https://ggia.berkeley.edu/practice/mindful_breathing#data-tab-how.
45. ↑ Shonin, Edo; Van Gordon, William (October 2016). "Experiencing the Universal Breath: a Guided Meditation". Mindfulness 7 (5): 1243–1245. doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0570-4.
46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Perez-De-Albeniz & Holmes 2000.
47. ↑ Matko & Sedlmeier 2019.
48. ↑ 48.0 48.1 Travis, Fred; Shear, Jonathan (December 2010). "Focused attention, open monitoring and automatic self-transcending: Categories to organize meditations from Vedic, Buddhist and Chinese traditions". Consciousness and Cognition 19 (4): 1110–1118. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2010.01.007. PMID 20167507. https://scholarscompass.vcu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=phil_pubs. Retrieved 2021-08-05.
49. ↑ Mallinson, James; Singleton, Mark (2017). Roots of Yoga. Penguin Books. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-241-25304-5. OCLC 928480104.
50. ↑ "Meditation (savasana)". 14 August 2017. https://mindworks.org/blog/meditation-positions-lying-down/.
51. ↑ Ng, Teng-Kuan (2018). "Pedestrian Dharma: Slowness and Seeing in Tsai Ming-Liang's Walker". Religions 9 (7): 200. doi:10.3390/rel9070200.
52. ↑ Rodriguez, Victor H.; Medrano, Carlos T.; Plaza, Inmaculada (2018). "Wearable Sensors for Measuring Movement in Short Sessions of Mindfulness Sitting Meditation: A Pilot Study". Journal of Healthcare Engineering 2018: 1–9. doi:10.1155/2018/7275049. PMID 29854363.
53. ↑ "The Daily Habit Of These Outrageously Successful People". Huffington Post. 5 July 2013. https://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/entry/business-meditation-executives-meditate_n_3528731.
54. ↑ 54.0 54.1 "Neuroscientist Says Dalai Lama Gave Him 'a Total Wake-Up Call'". 27 July 2016. https://abcnews.go.com/Health/neuroscientist-richie-davidson-dalai-lama-gave-total-wake/story?id=40859233.
55. ↑ Strait, Julia Englund; Strait, Gerald Gill; McClain, Maryellen Brunson; Casillas, Laurel; Streich, Kristin; Harper, Kristina; Gomez, Jocelyn (2020-01-27). "Classroom Mindfulness Education Effects on Meditation Frequency, Stress, and Self-Regulation" (in en). Teaching of Psychology 47 (2): 162–168. doi:10.1177/0098628320901386. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0098628320901386. Retrieved 2020-11-09.
56. ↑ "How Humankind Could Become Totally Useless". https://time.com/4672373/yuval-noah-harari-homo-deus-interview/.
57. ↑ Kaul, P.; Passafiume, J; Sargent, C.R.; O'Hara, B.F. (2010). "Meditation acutely improves psychomotor vigilance, and may decrease sleep need". Behavioral and Brain Functions 6. doi:10.1186/1744-9081-6-47. PMID 20670413.
58. ↑ "Questions & Answers – Dhamma Giri – Vipassana International Academy". http://www.giri.dhamma.org/qanda.
59. ↑ "Brahmamuhurta: The best time for meditation". Times of India. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/brahmamuhurta-the-best-time-for-meditation/articleshow/4659848.cms.
60. ↑ 60.0 60.1 Mysteries of the Rosary by Stephen J. Binz 2005 ISBN 1-58595-519-1 p. 3
61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 The everything Buddhism book by Jacky Sach 2003 ISBN 978-1-58062-884-6 p. 175
62. ↑ For a general overview, see Henry, Gray; Marriott, Susannah (2008). Beads of faith: pathways to meditation and spirituality using rosaries, prayer beads, and sacred words. Louisville, KY: Fons Vitae. ISBN 978-1-887752-95-4. OCLC 179839679.
63. ↑ DerSarkissian, Carol (15 February 2024). "What Are Mala Beads?". https://www.webmd.com/balance/what-are-mala-beads.
64. ↑ "Chanting Hare Krishna on Japa Beads" (in en-US). 2019-09-29. https://krishna.org/chanting-hare-krishna-on-beads/.
65. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Vishnu Devananda, Swami (1995). Meditation and mantras. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 82–83. ISBN 81-208-1615-3. OCLC 50030094.
66. ↑ Arimura, R (October 2021). "A Case Study of the Evangelization of Japan". Anales del Instituto de Investigaciones Estéticas XLIII (119): 209–247. doi:10.22201/iie.18703062e.2021.119.2761. https://www.redalyc.org/journal/369/36972034008/html/.
67. ↑ Simoons, Frederick J. (1998). Plants of life, plants of death. Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press. pp. 7–40. ISBN 0-585-17620-5. OCLC 45733876.
68. ↑ Foulk, T. Griffith (1998). "The Encouragement Stick: 7 Views". Tricycle (Winter). https://tricycle.org/magazine/encouragement-stick-7-views/. Retrieved 6 May 2020.
69. ↑ Meling, Daniel; Egger, Klemens; Aicher, Helena D; Jareño Redondo, Javier; Mueller, Jovin; Dornbierer, Joëlle; Temperli, Elijah; Vasella, Emilia A et al. (2024-09-27). "Meditating on psychedelics. A randomized placebo-controlled study of DMT and harmine in a mindfulness retreat" (in en). Journal of Psychopharmacology 38 (10): 897–910. doi:10.1177/02698811241282637. ISSN 0269-8811. PMID 39340164.
70. ↑ Jiwani, Zishan; Goldberg, Simon B.; Stroud, Jack; Young, Jacob; Curtin, John; Dunne, John D.; Simonsson, Otto; Webb, Christian A. et al. (2024-08-28). "Can Psychedelic Use Benefit Meditation Practice? Examining Individual, Psychedelic, and Meditation-Related Factors" (in en). doi:10.1101/2024.08.27.24312677.
71. ↑ Singer, Berit; Meling, Daniel; Hirsch-Hoffmann, Matthias; Michels, Lars; Kometer, Michael; Smigielski, Lukasz; Dornbierer, Dario; Seifritz, Erich et al. (2024-03-26). "Psilocybin enhances insightfulness in meditation: a perspective on the global topology of brain imaging during meditation" (in en). Scientific Reports 14 (1): 7211. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-55726-x. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 38531905.
72. ↑ Thích Nhất Hạnh. (1996). The Long Road Turns to Joy: A Guide to Walking Meditation. Parallax Press.
73. ↑ Everly & Lating 2002, p. 199–202.
74. ↑ Rossano, Matt J. (February 2007). "Did Meditating Make Us Human?". Cambridge Archaeological Journal 17 (1): 47–58. doi:10.1017/S0959774307000054.
75. ↑ Dhavamony, Mariasusai (1982) (in en). Classical Hinduism. Università Gregoriana Editrice. pp. 243–244. ISBN 978-88-7652-482-0. https://books.google.com/books?id=DD0w_IMFA8gC&q=meditation+hinduism&pg=PA243. Retrieved 2020-10-27.
76. ↑ Lusthaus 2018.
77. ↑ Alexander Wynne, The Origin of Buddhist Meditation. Routledge 2007, p. 51. The earliest reference is actually in the Mokshadharma, which dates to the early Buddhist period.
78. ↑ The Katha Upanishad describes yoga, including meditation. On meditation in this and other post-Buddhist Hindu literature, see Collins, Randall (2000). The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press. p. 199.
79. ↑ 79.0 79.1 Flood, Gavin (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 94–95. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo.
80. ↑ "Human Development: Kaivalya". http://encyclopedia.uia.org/en/development/12338690.
81. ↑ Larson 2008, p. 43-45.
82. ↑ Karel Werner (1994), The Yogi and the Mystic. Routledge, ISBN 978-0-7007-0272-5, page 26
83. ↑ Ram, Bhava (2009) (in English). The 8 Limbs of Yoga: Pathway to Liberation. Deep Yoga. p. 170.
84. ↑ White, David Gordon (2014). The "Yoga Sutra of Patanjali": A Biography. Princeton University Press. pp. xiii–xvi, 49. ISBN 978-0-691-14377-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=0ZGrAgAAQBAJ.
85. ↑ Holdrege, Barbara A. (2015). Bhakti and embodiment: fashioning divine bodies and devotional bodies in Kṛṣṇa bhakti. Routledge Hindu studies series. London; New York: Routledge. pp. 272–273. ISBN 978-0-415-67070-8.
86. ↑ Mahapragya, Acharya (2004). "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh.
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88. ↑ Fischer-Schreiber, Ehrhard & Diener 1991, p. 142.
89. ↑ Sharf 2015, p. 475.
90. ↑ McRae 1986, p. 116.
91. ↑ Yu 2021, p. 157.
92. ↑ Lai & Cheng 2008, p. 351.
93. ↑ Suzuki 2014, p. 112.
94. ↑ Schaik 2018, p. 70, 93.
95. ↑ McRae 1986, p. 143.
96. ↑ Sharf 2014, p. 939.
97. ↑ Heinrich Dumoulin (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History. Vol. 1: India and China. p. 64.
98. ↑ Heinrich Dumoulin (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History, Vol. 2: Japan. World Wisdom. p. 5. ISBN 0-941532-90-9.
99. ↑ "How to Use Guided Meditation for Calm and Mindfulness". March 5, 2021. https://www.unitedwecare.com/guided-meditation-for-calm-mindfulness/.
100. ↑ Gethin, The Buddhist Path to Awakening
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102. ↑ Polak 2011.
103. ↑ Bronkhorst 1993, p. 131.
104. ↑ Vetter 1988, pp. xxi–xxxvii.
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106. ↑ Sharma, Suresh (2004). Cultural and Religious Heritage of India: Sikhism. Mittal Publications. p. 7. ISBN 978-81-7099-961-4.
107. ↑ Ranjan, Abhiruchi (2019). "Ravidassia Religiosity in the Modern Era: Perspectives in Theory and from the Field". Sociological Bulletin 68 (3): 274–289. doi:10.1177/0038022919876403. ISSN 0038-0229.
108. ↑ Duggal, Kartar (1980). The Prescribed Sikh Prayers (Nitnem). Abhinav Publications. p. 20. ISBN 978-81-7017-377-9.
109. ↑ Singh, Nirbhai (1990). Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and Its Manifestations. Atlantic Publishers & Distribution. p. 105. https://archive.org/details/philosophyofsikh0000nirb.
110. ↑ Kohn, Livia (2008), "Meditation and visualization," in The Encyclopedia of Taoism, ed. by Fabrizio Pregadio, p. 118.
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113. ↑ Mair, Victor H., tr. (1994), Wandering on the Way: Early Taoist Tales and Parables of Chuang Tzu, Bantam Books, p. 64.
114. ↑ The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 1
115. ↑ Jacobs, L. (1976). Jewish Mystical Testimonies. Jerusalem: Keter Publishing House Jerusalem.
116. ↑ Kaplan 1978, p. 101.
117. ↑ The history and varieties of Jewish meditation by Mark Verman 1997 ISBN 978-1-56821-522-8 p. 45
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119. ↑ Buxbaum, Y. (1990) Jewish Spiritual Practices, New York, Rowman and Littlefield, pp. 108-10, 423-35.
120. ↑ Scholem, Gershom Gerhard (1961). Major Trends in Jewish Mysticism. Schocken Books. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8052-1042-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=kD2y4wMOlAoC&pg=PA34. Retrieved 2018-05-09.
121. ↑ Kaplan 1982.
122. ↑ Matt, D.C. (1996) The Essential Kabbalah: The Heart of Jewish Mysticism, San Francisco, HarperCollins.
123. ↑ Kaplan 1978, op cit p. 2.
124. ↑ Kaplan 1982, op cit, p. 13.
125. ↑ Claussen, Geoffrey. "The Practice of Musar" . Conservative Judaism 63, no. 2 (2012): 3–26. Retrieved 10 June 2014
126. ↑ "Rabbi Alan Lew" (in en-US). 2006-09-15. https://www.pbs.org/wnet/religionandethics/2006/09/15/september-15-2006-rabbi-alan-lew/3733/.
127. ↑ Lew, Alan (2007-07-31) (in en). Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life. Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0-316-02591-1. https://books.google.com/books?id=_2BA8b7eUEUC. Retrieved 2019-08-09.
128. ↑ Michaelson, Jay (10 June 2005). "Judaism, Meditation and The B-Word". The Forward. https://forward.com/culture/3652/judaism-meditation-and-the-b-word/.
129. ↑ The Rosary: A Path Into Prayer by Liz Kelly 2004 ISBN 0-8294-2024-X pp. 79, 86
130. ↑ Christian Meditation for Beginners by Thomas Zanzig, Marilyn Kielbasa 2000, ISBN 0-88489-361-8 p. 7
131. ↑ Hadot, Pierre; Arnold I. Davidson (1995) Philosophy as a way of life ISBN 0-631-18033-8 pp. 83–84
132. ↑ An introduction to Christian spirituality by F. Antonisamy, 2000 ISBN 81-7109-429-5 pp. 76–77
133. ↑ Simple Ways to Pray by Emilie Griffin 2005 ISBN 0-7425-5084-2 p. 134
134. ↑ Archived from the original on 11 February 2014.
135. ↑ An introduction to the Christian Orthodox churches by John Binns 2002 ISBN 0-521-66738-0 p. 128
136. ↑ Christian Spirituality: A Historical Sketch by George Lane 2005 ISBN 0-8294-2081-9 p. 20
137. ↑ Christian spirituality: themes from the tradition by Lawrence S. Cunningham, Keith J. Egan 1996 ISBN 0-8091-3660-0 p. 38
138. ↑ The Oblate Life by Gervase Holdaway, 2008 ISBN 0-8146-3176-2 p. 109
139. ↑ After Augustine: the meditative reader and the text by Brian Stock 2001 ISBN 0-8122-3602-5 p. 105
140. ↑ 140.0 140.1 "Pope at Audience: Meditating is a way of encountering Jesus - Vatican News" (in en). 2021-04-28. https://www.vaticannews.va/en/pope/news/2021-04/pope-francis-general-audience-meditation-prayer.html.
141. ↑ kathleenaleteia (2021-04-28). "Meditation is more than a self-help trend, explains Pope" (in en). https://aleteia.org/2021/04/28/meditation-is-more-than-a-self-help-trend-explains-pope/.
142. ↑ "Home". http://www.fatima.org/it/essentials/whatucando/potetefare.asp.
143. ↑ "The Holy Rosary". http://www.theholyrosary.org/.
144. ↑ "The Rosary as a Tool for Meditation by Liz Kelly". http://www.loyolapress.com/our-catholic-faith/prayer/personal-prayer-life/different-ways-to-pray/the-rosary-as-a-tool-for-meditation-by-liz-kelly.
145. ↑ Dhiman, Satinder K. (8 September 2020) (in English). The Routledge Companion to Mindfulness at Work. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-429-53486-7.
146. ↑ Winston, Kimberly (1 March 2008) (in English). Bead One, Pray Too. Church Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8192-2092-9.
147. ↑ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 p. 12
148. ↑ Christian Meditation by Edmund P. Clowney, 1979 ISBN 1-57383-227-8 pp. 12–13
149. ↑ The encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3 by Erwin Fahlbusch, Geoffrey William Bromiley 2003 ISBN 90-04-12654-6 p. 488
150. ↑ EWTN: Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Letter on certain aspects of Christian meditation (in English), 15 October 1989]
151. ↑ "Los Angeles Times, February 8, 2003, New Age Beliefs Aren't Christian, Vatican Finds". http://articles.latimes.com/2003/feb/08/local/me-relignewage8/2.
152. ↑ "Vatican sounds New Age alert". 4 February 2003. https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2722743.stm.
153. ↑ "Prersentation of Holy See's Document on New Age". https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/pontifical_councils/interelg/documents/rc_pc_interelg_doc_20030203_press-conf-new-age_en.html.
154. ↑ 154.0 154.1 Prayer: a history by Philip Zaleski, Carol Zaleski 2005 ISBN 0-618-15288-1 pp. 147–49
155. ↑ 155.0 155.1 Global Encyclopaedia of Education by Rama Sankar Yadav & B.N. Mandal 2007 ISBN 978-81-8220-227-6 p. 63
156. ↑ Sainthood and revelatory discourse by David Emmanuel Singh 2003 ISBN 81-7214-728-7 p. 154
157. ↑ Spiritual Psychology by Akbar Husain 2006 ISBN 81-8220-095-4 p. 109
158. ↑ Dwivedi, Kedar Nath (2016). "Book Reviews". Group Analysis 22 (4): 434. doi:10.1177/0533316489224010.
159. ↑ Khalifa, Rashad (2001). Quran: The Final Testament. Universal Unity. p. 536. ISBN 978-1-881893-05-9.
160. ↑ Holmes, David S. (January 1984). "Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction". American Psychologist 39 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.39.1.1. PMID 6142668. http://www.appstate.edu/~bromanfulksj/Holmes - Meditation and Somatic Arousal Reduction.pdf. Retrieved 2 July 2020.
161. ↑ 161.0 161.1 "Meditation". Baháʼí International Community. 2015. https://www.bahai.org/beliefs/life-spirit/devotion/meditation.
162. ↑ 162.0 162.1 162.2 162.3 Smith, Peter (2000). "Meditation". A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 243–44. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/243.
163. ↑ Smith, Peter (2000). "Prayer". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6. https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/274.
164. ↑ Hatcher, William S. (1982). The Concept of Spirituality . Bahá'í Studies, volume 11. Association for Bahá'í Studies. Ottawa.
165. ↑ Effendi, Shoghi (1973). Directives from The Guardian. Hawaii Baháʼí Publishing Trust. p. 28. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-71.html#pg28. Retrieved 2011-07-01.
166. ↑ Gustave Reininger, ed (1997). Centering prayer in daily life and ministry. New York: Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1041-2. https://books.google.com/books?id=xEhaEDm7jsIC&pg=PT1. Retrieved 2020-05-07.
167. ↑ The organization Contemplative Outreach , which teaches Christian Centering Prayer, has chapters in non-Western locations in Malaysia, Singapore, and South Korea (accessed 5 July 2010)
168. ↑ 168.0 168.1 Taylor 1999, p. 3.
169. ↑ Taylor 1999, p. 4.
170. ↑ Taylor 1999, p. 7.
171. ↑ Everly & Lating 2002, p. 200.
172. ↑ Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion by David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden, Stanton Marlan 2009 ISBN page 559
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* Farias, M.; Maraldi, E.; Wallenkampf, K. C.; Lucchetti, G. (2020). "Adverse events in meditation practices and meditation-based therapies: a systematic review.". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 142 (5): 374–393. doi:10.1111/acps.13225. PMID 32820538. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/acps.13225.
* Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, ed (1991). The Shambhala Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Shambhala Publications.
* Gangadharan, Shobana; Hemamalini, M. (2021), Community Health Nursing: Framework for Practice: Vol 2-E-Book, Elsevier Health Sciences
* Gethin, Rupert (1998). The foundations of Buddhism. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-289223-1.
* Goldstein, Joseph (2003). One Dharma: the emerging Western Buddhism. New York: Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-251701-5.
* Goleman, Daniel (1988). The meditative mind: The varieties of meditative experience. New York: Tarcher. ISBN 978-0-87477-833-5. https://archive.org/details/meditativemind00dani.
* Goud, S. S. (2022). "A Double-Edged Sword-A Case Report of Psychosis Associated with Excessive Unguided Meditation.". Case Reports in Psychiatry 2022 (2661824). doi:10.1155/2022/2661824. PMID 36316997.
* Jevning, R.; Wallace, R.K.; Beidebach, M. (September 1992). "The physiology of meditation: A review. A wakeful hypometabolic integrated response". Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews 16 (3): 415–424. doi:10.1016/s0149-7634(05)80210-6. PMID 1528528.
* Kamalashila (2003), Meditation: The Buddhist art of tranquility and insight, Birmingham: Windhorse Publications
* Kaplan, A. (1978). Meditation and the Bible. Maine: Samuel Weiser.
* Kaplan, A. (1982). Meditation and Kabbalah. Maine: Samuel Weiser.
* Kapleau, Phillip (1989). The three pillars of Zen: teaching, practice, and enlightenment (25th anniversary ed.). New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 0-385-26093-8.
* Lai, Whalen; Cheng, Yu-yin (2008), "Chinese Buddhist Philosophy from Han through Tang", The Routledge History of Chinese Philosophy, Routledge
* Larson, Gerald James (2008). The Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Yoga: India's philosophy of meditation. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-3349-4. https://books.google.com/books?id=p6pURGdBBmIC.
* Lindahl, J.R.; Fisher, N.E.; Cooper, D.J. (2017). "The varieties of contemplative experience: A mixed-methods study of meditation-related challenges in Western Buddhists". PLOS ONE 12 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0176239. PMID 28542181. Bibcode: 2017PLoSO..1276239L.
* Lusthaus, Dan (2018), Samkhya, acmuller.net, Resources for East Asian Language and Thought, Musashino University
* Matko, Karin; Sedlmeier, Peter (15 October 2019), "What Is Meditation? Proposing an Empirically Derived Classification System", Front. Psychol. 10 (Sec. Cognition): 2276, doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02276, PMID 31681085
* McRae, John (1986), The Northern School and the Formation of Early Chʻan Buddhism, University of Hawaii Press
* Naranjo, Claudio; Ornstein, Robert E. (1972). On the psychology of meditation. A Viking compass book. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 978-0-670-52506-5.
* Ospina, MB; Bond, K; Karkhaneh, M; Tjosvold, L; Vandermeer, B; Liang, Y; Bialy, L; Hooton, N et al. (June 2007). "Meditation practices for health: state of the research". Evidence Report/Technology Assessment (155): 1–263. PMID 17764203.
* Perez-De-Albeniz, Alberto; Holmes, Jeremy (2000). "Meditation: Concepts, Effects And Uses In Therapy". International Journal of Psychotherapy 5 (1): 49–58. doi:10.1080/13569080050020263.
* Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
* Salguero, C. Pierce (2023). ""Meditation Sickness" in Medieval Chinese Buddhism and the Contemporary West". Journal of Buddhist Ethics 30 (2): 169–211. ISSN 1076-9005. https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2023/08/Salguero-Finalized-ms-for-publication47.pdf. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
* Schaik, Sam van (2018), The spirit of Zen, Yale University Press
* Schlosser, Marco; Sparby, Terje; Vörös, Sebastjan; Jones, Rebecca; Marchant, Natalie L. (2019). "Unpleasant meditation-related experiences in regular meditators: Prevalence, predictors, and conceptual considerations". PLOS ONE 14 (5). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0216643. PMID 31071152. Bibcode: 2019PLoSO..1416643S.
* Shapiro, D. H. (1982). "Overview: Clinical and physiological comparison of meditation with other self-control strategies". American Journal of Psychiatry 139 (3): 267–74. doi:10.1176/ajp.139.3.267. PMID 7036760. Reprinted as chapter 1 (pp. 5–10) in Shapiro, Deane H.; Walsh, Roger N. (1984). Meditation, classic and contemporary perspectives. New York: Aldine. ISBN 978-0-202-25136-3. https://books.google.com/books?id=w9sv49ZHqWUC. Retrieved 2016-10-14. (the book was republished in 2008: ISBN 978-0-202-36244-1, 0-202-36244-2)
* Sharf, Robert (2014), "Mindfulness and Mindlessness in Early Chan", Philosophy East & West 64 (4): 933–964, doi:10.1353/pew.2014.0074
* Sharf, Robert H. (2015), "Is mindfulness Buddhist? (and why it matters)", Transcultural Psychiatry 52 (4): 470–484, doi:10.1177/1363461514557561, PMID 25361692, https://www.academia.edu/26441098, retrieved 2022-09-07
* Suzuki, D.T. (2014), Selected Works of D.T. Suzuki, Volume I: Zen, University of California Press
* Taylor, Eugene (1999). Murphy, Michael; Donovan, Steven; Taylor, Eugene. eds. "Introduction". The Physical and Psychological Effects of Meditation: A Review of Contemporary Research with a Comprehensive Bibliography 1931–1996: 1–32. http://library.noetic.org/library/publication-bibliographies/physical-and-psychological-effects-meditation. Retrieved 2016-10-13.
* Thera, Nyanaponika (1996). The Heart of Buddhist Meditation: A Handbook of Mental Training based on the Buddha's Way of Mindfulness. York Beach, ME: Samuel Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-073-8.
* Vetter, Tilmann (1988), The Ideas and Meditative Practices of Early Buddhism, BRILL
* Vörös, Sebastjan (2016). "Sitting with the Demons – Mindfulness, Suffering, and Existential Transformation". Asian Studies 4 (2): 59–83. doi:10.4312/as.2016.4.2.59-83.
* Walsh, Roger; Shapiro, Shauna L. (2006). "The meeting of meditative disciplines and western psychology: A mutually enriching dialogue". American Psychologist 61 (3): 227–239. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.61.3.227. PMID 16594839. http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/7885t0n6.
* Yadav, J.; Bhardwaj, A.; Jangid, P.; Singh, P.; Gupta, R. (2023). "Meditation-A Slippery Slope for Psychosis: A Case Series With Review of Evidence". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease 211 (8): 634–638. doi:10.1097/NMD.0000000000001656. PMID 37505896. https://journals.lww.com/jonmd/abstract/2023/08000/meditation_a_slippery_slope_for_psychosis__a_case.12.aspx.
* Yu, Jimmy (2021), Reimagining Chan Buddhism: Sheng Yen and the Creation of the Dharma Drum Lineage of Chan, Routledge

Web sources

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Definition of meditate". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 18 December 2017. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/meditate.
2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "meditate". https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/meditate.
3. ↑ "meditation – Meaning". Cambridge English Dictionary. http://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/meditation.
4. ↑ sadguru.us, The Bird's way
5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 unknown (2017-05-26). "Does meditation carry a risk of harmful side effects?". https://www.nhs.uk/news/lifestyle-and-exercise/does-meditation-carry-a-risk-of-harmful-side-effects/.
6. ↑ Itai Ivtzan (2016). "Dangers of Meditation". https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/mindfulness-wellbeing/201603/dangers-meditation.
7. ↑ Miguel Farias (2015). "Meditation is touted as a cure for mental instability but can it actually be bad for you?". https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/features/meditation-is-touted-as-a-cure-for-mental-instability-but-can-it-actually-be-bad-for-you-10268291.html?amp.

## Further reading

* Austin, James H. (1999). Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding of Meditation and Consciousness. Cambridge: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-51109-6.
* Brahm, Ajahn (2006). Mindfulness Bliss and Beyond. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-0-86171-275-5.
* Craven, John L. (October 1989). "Meditation and Psychotherapy". The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry 34 (7): 648–653. doi:10.1177/070674378903400705. PMID 2680046.
* Hanson, Rick; Mendius, Richard (2009). Buddha's Brain: The Practical Neuroscience of Happiness, Love, and Wisdom. New Harbinger Publications. ISBN 978-1-57224-695-9. https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781572246959.
* Hart, William (1987). Art of Living: Vipassana Meditation. Harper Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-063724-8.
* Krishnamurti, Jiddu (1999). This Light in Oneself: True Meditation. Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-57062-442-9.
* Kutz, I; Borysenko, JZ; Benson, H (January 1985). "Meditation and psychotherapy: a rationale for the integration of dynamic psychotherapy, the relaxation response, and mindfulness meditation". American Journal of Psychiatry 142 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1176/ajp.142.1.1. PMID 3881049.
* Larson, Gerald James (1998). Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. London: Motilal Banarasidass. ISBN 81-208-0503-8. https://books.google.com/books?id=Ih2aGLp4d1gC.
* Levin, Michal (2002). Meditation, Path to the Deepest Self. Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7894-8333-1.
* Lutz, A.; Greischar, L. L.; Rawlings, N. B.; Ricard, M.; Davidson, R. J. (16 November 2004). "Long-term meditators self-induce high-amplitude gamma synchrony during mental practice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 101 (46): 16369–16373. doi:10.1073/pnas.0407401101. PMID 15534199. Bibcode: 2004PNAS..10116369L.
* Shapiro, Deane H. (1992). "Adverse effects of meditation: a preliminary investigation of long-term meditators". International Journal of Psychosomatics 39 (1–4): 62–7. PMID 1428622.
* Sogyal Rinpoche (1994). The Tibetan Book of Living and Dying. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-250834-2.
* Tart, Charles T., ed (1969). Altered states of consciousness: a book of readings. New York: Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-84560-7. OCLC 5476.
* Wenner, Melinda (30 June 2007). "Brain Scans Reveal Why Meditation Works". https://www.livescience.com/7306-brain-scans-reveal-meditation-works.html.

* v
* t
* e

Meditation

Main topics|

* Brain activity and meditation
* History of meditation
* Meditation in popular culture
* Mind–body interventions
* Research on meditation

Traditions|

* Anapanasati (Buddhist breathing meditation)
* Buddhist meditation
* Christian meditation
* Taoist meditation
* Dancemeditation
* Dhyāna (Buddhist meditation)
* Dhyāna (Hindu meditation)
* Islamic meditation
* Jain meditation
* Jewish meditation
* Muraqabah (Sufi meditation)
* New Age meditation
* Naam Japo (Sikism meditation)
* Neigong
* Pranayama (yoga breathing practice)
* Qigong
* Shikantaza (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
* Silva Method
* Tantra
* Transcendental meditation (TM)
* Vipassanā (Silent meditation)
* Yoga
* Zazen (Zen Buddhist seated meditation)
* Zhan zhuang (Qigong standing meditation)
* 5Rhythms

Techniques|

* Biofeedback
* Brainwave entrainment
* Breathing
* Chanting
* Concentration
* Emptiness
* Guided meditation
* Higher consciousness
* Mantra
* Mindfulness
* Mudra
* Music
* Oneness
* Poetry
* Postures
* Prayer
* Relaxation
* Samyama
* Sexuality
* Silence
* Sound
* Trance
* Visualization

Leaders|

* Focused attention
* Thich Nhat Hanh
* Open awareness
* Jon Kabat-Zinn
* Sam Harris
* Multiple methods
* Pema Chödrön
* Susan Piver
* S. N. Goenka
* Joseph Goldstein
* Yuval Harari
* 14th Dalai Lama
* Matthieu Ricard
* Sharon Salzberg
* Daniel Goleman
* Thubten Chodron
* Martine Batchelor
* Stephen Batchelor

* Category

* v
* t
* e

New Age movement

Culture|

* New Age communities
* New Age music
* New Age travelers

Groups|

* The Family
* New World Alliance
* Rainbow Family

Non-exclusive
themes|

* Age of Aquarius
* Akashic records
* Alternative medicine
* Ancient astronauts
* Angels
* Animism
* Ascended master
* Astral projection
* Astrology
* Atlantis
* Aura
* Conspiracy theories
* Contactee
* Cosmic ordering
* Conscious evolution
* Crystal healing
* Earth Changes
* Earth mysteries
* Ecofeminism
* Energy
* Environmentalism
* Faith healing
* Feng shui
* Gaia hypothesis
* Gaia philosophy
* Gnosis
* Goddess movement
* Higher consciousness
* Idealism
* Indigo children
* Intuition
* Karma
* Law of attraction
* Lemuria
* Magic
* Meditation
* Mediumship
* Michael Teachings
* Odic force
* Paganism
* Pantheism
* Parapsychology
* Perception
* Perennial philosophy
* Quantum mysticism
* Qi
* Reincarnation
* Religious pluralism
* Supernatural
* Tantra
* UFOs
* Veganism
* Vegetarianism
* Visualization
* Wellness
* Yoga

Proponents or
individual
influences|

* José Argüelles
* Richard Bach
* Alice Bailey
* Annie Besant
* Helena Blavatsky
* William Bloom
* Gregg Braden
* Rhonda Byrne
* Eileen Caddy
* Marjorie Cameron
* Lee Carroll
* Edgar Cayce
* Deepak Chopra
* Andrew Cohen
* Benjamin Creme
* Aleister Crowley
* Scott Cunningham
* Adi Da
* Ram Dass
* Wayne Dyer
* Werner Erhard
* Marilyn Ferguson
* Debbie Ford
* Gandalf
* Linda Goodman
* Glenda Green
* Alex Grey
* Michael Harner
* Esther Hicks
* Barbara Marx Hubbard
* David Icke
* Timothy Leary
* John Lilly
* Max Freedom Long
* Shirley MacLaine
* Leon MacLaren
* Terence McKenna
* Corinne McLaughlin
* Michael Mirdad
* Tony Nader
* Mariam Nour
* Leonard Orr
* Jack Parsons
* Daniel Quinn
* Rajneesh
* James Redfield
* Wilhelm Reich
* Jane Roberts
* Helena Roerich
* Mark Satin
* Helen Schucman
* John Selby
* Ravi Shankar
* David Spangler
* Joshua David Stone
* Ingo Swann
* Michael Talbot
* William Thetford
* Eckhart Tolle
* Neale Donald Walsch
* Alan Watts
* Ken Wilber
* Stuart Wilde
* Marianne Williamson
* Robert Anton Wilson
* Oprah Winfrey
* Fred Alan Wolf
* Roger Woolger
* Maharishi Mahesh Yogi

Other
influences|

* Advaita Vedanta
* Animism
* Anthroposophy
* Ariosophy
* Ascended Master Teachings
* Astrology
* Beat Generation
* Buddhism
* Cannabis culture
* Cognitive science
* Conspiracy theories
* Discordianism
* Eight-circuit model of consciousness
* Entheogens
* Esalen Institute
* Esoteric Christianity
* Esotericism
* Freemasonry
* Fringe science
* Gnosticism
* Hermeticism
* Hinduism
* Hippie subculture
* Human Potential Movement
* Huna
* Integral theory
* Kabbalah
* Leather subculture
* Metaphysics
* Neuro-linguistic programming
* New Thought
* Nonviolence
* Occultism
* Paganism
* Neo-Druidism
* Neotantra
* Wicca
* Postmodernism
* Pseudoarchaeology
* Pseudoscience
* Psychedelic music
* Quantum mechanics
* Radical Faeries
* Rastafari movement
* Rosicrucianism
* School of Economic Science
* Science fiction
* Seth Material
* Shamanism
* Shinto
* Spiritism
* Spiritualism
* Spirituality
* Sufism
* Taoism
* Thelema
* Theosophy
* Traditionalist School
* Transhumanism
* Transpersonal psychology
* Zen

* v
* t
* e

Religion

Major religious groups and denominations1

| Abrahamic|

| Judaism|

* Orthodox
* Haredi
* Hasidic
* Modern
* Conservative
* Reform
* Karaite
* Samaritanism
* Haymanot
* Reconstructionist
* Renewal
* Humanistic

|

Christianity|

* Catholicism
* Latin
* Eastern
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Nestorianism
* Assyrian
* Ancient
* Proto-Protestantism
* Waldensians
* Czech Brethren/Moravians
* Protestantism
* Lutheranism
* Calvinism
* Reformed
* Presbyterianism
* Congregationalism
* Anabaptism
* Amish
* Brethren
* Hutterites
* Mennonites
* Schwenkfelders
* Anglicanism
* Methodism
* Holiness
* Baptists
* Quakerism
* Plymouth Brethren
* Restorationism
* Irvingism
* Adventism
* Pentecostalism/Charismatic
* Independent Catholicism
* Nontrinitarianism
* Unitarianism
* Swedenborgianism
* Mormonism
* Christadelphians
* Bible Students/Jehovah's Witnesses
* Anglo-Israelism
* Oneness Pentecostalism
* Spiritual
* Tolstoyan
* Judaizers
* Nondenominational
* Evangelicalism
* Esoteric

Islam|

* Sunni
* Ashʿari
* Maturidi
* Traditionalist theology
* Salafism
* Wahhabism
* Modernist Salafism
* Shia
* Twelver
* Zaidiyyah
* Isma'ilism
* Alawis
* Sufism
* Khawarij
* Ibadi
* Alevism
* Ahmadi
* Mahdavia
* Quranism
* Non-denominational

Others|

* Bábism
* Azali
* Bahá'í
* Druze
* Ali-Illahism
* Yarsanism
* Mandaeism
* Rastafarianism

Dharmic|

| Hinduism|

* Vaishnavism
* Sri Vaishnavism
* Brahma Sampradaya
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Pushtimarg
* Mahanubhava
* Ramanandi
* Varkari
* Shaivism
* Siddhantism
* Kashmir
* Kapalika
* Kaumaram
* Lingayatism
* Nath
* Balinese
* Shaktism
* Smartism
* Śrauta
* Sant Mat
* Ayyavazhi
* Neo-Hinduism

|

Buddhism|

* Theravada
* Mahayana
* Chan/Zen
* Amidism
* Nichiren
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan
* Neo-Buddhism

Others|

* Jainism
* Digambara
* Śvētāmbara
* Sikhism

Mazdan|

* Zoroastrianism

Indo-European|

* Armenian
* Baltic
* Celtic
* Druidry
* Germanic
* Hellenism
* Italo-Roman
* Romanian
* Slavic
* Yazidis
* Ossetian
* Kalash

Uralic|

* Estonian
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Mari
* Mordvin
* Sámi
* Udmurt

Altaic|

* Turko-Mongolic
* Tengrism
* Burkhanism
* Vattisen Yaly
* Tungusic
* Manchu
* Evenki

Chinese|

* Confucianism
* Taoism
* Folk Taoism
* Yao Taoism
* Nuo
* Salvationist
* Xiantiandao
* Yiguandao
* Luoism

Tibeto-
Burmese|

* Bon
* Burmese
* Benzhuism
* Bimoism
* Bathouism
* Bongthingism
* Donyi-Polo
* Heraka
* Kiratism
* Qiang
* Sanamahism

Korean|

* Sindoism
* Cheondoism
* Jeungsanism

Japanese|

* Shinto
* Tenrikyo
* Ryukyuan

Tai and Miao|

* Ahom
* Hmongism
* Mo
* Satsana Phi

Austroasiatic|

* Vietnamese
* Caodaism
* Đạo Mẫu
* Hoahaoism
* Sarnaism

Austronesian|

* Batak Parmalim
* Dayak
* Kaharingan
* Momolianism
* Javanese Kejawèn
* Karo Pemena
* Malaysian
* Philippine Dayawism
* Tagalog
* Polynesian
* Hawaiian
* Māori
* Sumbese Marapu
* Sundanese Wiwitan

African|

| Traditional|

* Akan
* Akamba
* Baluba
* Bantu
* Kongo
* Zulu
* Berber
* Guanche church
* Bushongo
* Dinka
* Efik
* Fon and Ewe
* Igbo
* Ik
* Lotuko
* Lozi
* Lugbara
* Maasai
* Mbuti
* San
* Serer
* Tumbuka
* Urhobo
* Waaq
* Yoruba
* Ifá

|

Diasporic|

* Candomblé
* Bantu
* Jejé
* Ketu
* Comfa
* Convince
* Espiritismo
* Kumina
* Obeah
* Palo
* Quimbanda
* Santería
* Tambor de Mina
* Trinidad Orisha
* Umbanda
* Vodou
* Voodoo
* Winti

Native
American|

* Abenaki
* Anishinaabe
* Blackfoot
* Californian
* Miwok
* Ohlone
* Pomo
* Cherokee
* Chilote
* Choctaw
* Creek
* Guarani
* Haida
* Ho-Chunk
* Hopi
* Iroquois
* Seneca
* Wyandot
* Longhouse Religion
* Jivaroan
* Kwakwakaʼwakw
* Lakota
* Lenape
* Mapuche
* Mesoamerican
* Aztec
* Maya
* Purépecha
* Midewiwin
* Muisca
* Native American Church
* Navajo
* Nuu-chah-nulth
* Pawnee
* Tsimshian
* Ute
* Zuni

Other ethnic|

* Aboriginal Australian
* Circassian
* Dravidian
* Inuit
* Papuan
* Siberian

Recent|

* Adi Dharm/Brahmoism
* Anthroposophy
* Discordianism
* Eckankar
* Falun Gong
* Fourth Way
* Goddess
* Japanese
* Jediism
* Modekngei
* Neopaganism
* Reconstructionism
* Wicca
* Neoshamanism
* New Acropolis
* New Age
* New Thought
* Rajneesh
* Satanism
* Spiritualism
* Subud
* Tensegrity
* Thelema
* Theosophy
* Neo-Theosophy
* Agni Yoga
* Transcendental Meditation
* UFO religion
* Raëlism
* Scientology
* Unitarian Universalism
* White Brotherhood

Note: 1 The main source: Eliade, Mircea, ed (1987). The Encyclopedia of Religion. New York: MacMillan.

Historical religions

* Prehistoric
* Paleolithic
* Harappan
* Egyptian
* Atenism
* Mesopotamian
* Sumerian
* Babylonian
* Semitic
* Canaanite
* Yahwism
* Arabian
* Somali
* Hurrian
* Urartu
* Etruscan
* Basque
* Georgian
* Vainakh
* Proto-Indo-European
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Vedic
* Mazdaism
* Hittite
* Armenian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Albanian
* Illyrian
* Thracian
* Dacian
* Greek
* Mysteries
* Orphism
* Gnosticism
* Hermeticism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Roman
* Imperial cult
* Gallo-Roman
* Mithraism
* Manichaeism
* Mazdakism
* Scythian
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Frankish
* Norse
* Celtic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Ainu
* Melanesian
* Micronesian
* Nauruan
* Cook Islands
* Rapa Nui
* Tongan
* Inca
* Olmec
* Zapotec
* Fuegian
* Selk'nam
* Guanche
* Swahili
* Jamaican Maroon

Topics

| Aspects|

* Apostasy / Disaffiliation
* Behaviour
* Beliefs
* Clergy
* Conversion
* Deities
* Entheogens
* Ethnic religion
* Denomination
* Faith
* Fire
* Folk religion
* God
* Meditation
* Monasticism
* monk
* nun
* Mysticism
* Mythology
* Nature
* Ordination
* Orthodoxy
* Orthopraxy
* Prayer
* Prophecy
* Religious experience
* Ritual
* liturgy
* sacrifice
* Spirituality
* Supernatural
* Symbols
* Truth
* Water
* Worship

|

Theism|

* Animism
* Deism
* Dualism
* Henotheism
* Monotheism
* Nontheism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism
* Polytheism
* Transtheism

Religious
studies|

* Anthropology
* Cognitive science
* Comparative
* Development
* Evolutionary origin
* Evolutionary psychology
* History
* Philosophy
* Neurotheology
* Psychology
* Sociology
* Theology
* Theories
* Women

Religion and
society

* Agriculture
* Business
* Clergy
* monasticism
* ordination
* Conversion
* evangelism
* missionary
* proselytism
* Disability
* Education
* Fanaticism
* Freedom
* pluralism
* syncretism
* toleration
* universalism
* Fundamentalism
* Growth
* Happiness
* Homosexuality
* Minorities
* National church
* National religiosity levels
* Religiocentrism
* Political science
* Populations
* Schism
* Science
* State
* Theocracy
* Vegetarianism
* Video games
* Violence
* persecution
* terrorism
* war
* Wealth

Secularism and
irreligion

* Antireligion
* Deism
* Agnosticism
* Atheism
* Criticism
* LaVeyan Satanism
* Deconstruction
* Humanistic Judaism
* Irreligion by country
* Objectivism
* Secular humanism
* Secular theology
* Secularization
* Separation of church and state
* Unaffiliated

Overviews
and lists

* Index
* Outline
* Timeline
* Abrahamic prophets
* Deification
* Deities
* Founders
* Mass gatherings
* New religious movements
* Organizations
* Religions and spiritual traditions
* Scholars

* Category
* Portal

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Original source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meditation. Read more

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