Fascism

Political ideology originating in Europe

For other uses of "fascism", "fascist", or "facism", see Fascism (disambiguation).

File:Historical totalitarian leaders.jpg

Collage of totalitarian leaders (L to R) Joseph Stalin, Adolf Hitler, Mao Zedong, Benito Mussolini, and Kim Il-sung

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Fascism

"Everything within the state, everything for the state, nothing outside the state, nothing against the state"

Core tenets

* Palingenetic ultranationalism
* Nationalism
* Imperialism
* Militarism
* Racism
* Dictatorship
* Anti-communism
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-pacifism
* Chauvinism
* Conspiracism
* Direct action
* Social interventionism
* Social order
* Indoctrination
* Irrationalism
* Machismo
* Perpetual war
* Propaganda
* Populism
* Syncretism
* Traditionalism
* Heroism
* Economic interventionism
* Statolatry
* New Man
* Reactionary modernism

Topics

* Definitions
* Economics
* Fascism and ideology
* Fascism worldwide
* Symbolism

Ideas

* Totalitarianism
* Authoritarian democracy
* Class collaboration
* Corporatism
* Eugenics
* Heroic capitalism
* Integral nationalism
* National capitalism
* National syndicalism
* Proletarian nation
* State capitalism
* Supercapitalism
* Third Position

People

* Benito Mussolini
* Adolf Hitler
* Francisco Franco
* Otto Strasser
* José Antonio Primo de Rivera
* Ramiro Ledesma Ramos
* Ante Pavelić
* Italo Balbo
* Corneliu Zelea Codreanu
* Horia Sima
* Giovanni Gentile
* Julius Evola
* Gabriele D'Annunzio
* Giuseppe Bottai
* Galeazzo Ciano
* Achille Starace
* Engelbert Dollfuss
* Ernst Rüdiger Starhemberg
* Georges Valois
* Marcel Bucard
* Joseph Darnand
* Jacques Doriot
* Marcel Déat
* Seigō Nakano
* Sadao Araki
* Shūmei Ōkawa
* Ikki Kita
* Oswald Mosley
* Léon Degrelle
* Joris Van Severen
* Eoin O'Duffy
* Ferenc Szálasi
* Davud Monshizadeh
* Vidkun Quisling
* Dimitrije Ljotić
* Plínio Salgado
* Francisco Rolão Preto
* Konstantin Rodzaevsky
* Abba Achimeir
* Adrien Arcand
* Milan Stojadinović
* Jozef Tiso
* William Dudley Pelley
* Jorge González von Marées
* Salvador Abascal
* Zoltán Böszörmény
* Maurice Bardèche
* Ivan Ilyin

Literature

* "The Doctrine of Fascism"
* "Fascist Manifesto"
* La Conquista del Estado
* Mein Kampf
* My Autobiography
* The Myth of the Twentieth Century
* The Last Will of a Russian Fascist

Organizations

* Axis powers
* 1934 Montreux Fascist conference

History

* March on Rome
* Beer Hall Putsch
* Aventine Secession
* Second Italo-Senussi War
* Mukden Incident
* German election of 1932
* Enabling Act
* Austrian Civil War
* Second Italo-Ethiopian War
* Spanish Civil War
* Marco Polo Bridge Incident
* Anti-Comintern Pact
* Italian invasion of Albania
* World War II
* The Holocaust
* Downfall in Italy
* Downfall in Germany
* Downfall in Japan

Lists

* Fascists by country

Variants

* Austrofascism
* Brazilian Integralism
* British fascism
* Christofascism
* Clerical fascism
* Crypto-fascism
* Ecofascism
* Falangism
* Francoism
* Fascist mysticism
* Feudal fascism
* French fascism
* Hindu fascism
* Hutu Power
* Islamofascism
* Italian fascism
* Japanese fascism
* Legionarism
* Metaxism
* National Bolshevism
* Nazism
* Neo-fascism
* Para-fascism
* Proto-fascism
* Red fascism
* Revisionist Maximalism
* Rexism
* Strasserism
* Shōwa Restoration
* Techno-fascism
* Tropical fascism

Movements

* Africa
* Asia
* Europe
* North America
* South America

Related topics

* Alt-right
* Anti-fascism
* Culture of fear
* Fascist (epithet)
* Glossary of Fascist Italy
* Rashism
* Supremacism

* v
* t
* e

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Revolution
French Revolution

Types

* Bourgeois
* Colour
* Communist
* Democratic
* Nonviolent
* Permanent
* Proletarian
* Social
* Wave

Methods

* Boycott
* Civil disobedience
* Civil war
* Class conflict
* Coup d'état
* Demonstration
* Guerrilla warfare
* Insurgency
* Nonviolent resistance
* Protest
* Rebellion
* Revolutionary terror
* Samizdat
* Strike action
* Tax resistance
* Terrorism

Causes

* Authoritarianism
* Autocracy
* Capitalism
* Collaborationism
* Colonialism
* Cronyism
* Despotism
* Dictatorship
* Discrimination
* Economic depression
* Economic inequality
* Electoral fraud
* Famine
* Fascism
* Feudalism
* Imperialism
* Military occupation
* Monarchy
* Millenarianism
* Natural disaster
* Nepotism
* Persecution
* Political corruption
* Political repression
* Poverty
* Tyranny
* Totalitarianism
* Unemployment

Examples

* Neolithic
* Commercial
* Industrial
* English
* Atlantic
* American
* Brabant
* Liège
* French
* Haitian
* Serbian
* Greek
* Of 1820
* Of 1830
* Belgian
* Texas
* Of 1848
* Hungarian (1848)
* Bulgarian unification
* Philippine
* 1st Iranian
* Young Turk
* Mexican
* Chinese
* Of 1917–1923
* Russian
* German
* Spanish
* Guatemalan
* Chinese Communist
* Hungarian (1956)
* Cuban
* Rwandan
* Cultural
* Nicaraguan
* 2nd Iranian
* Saur
* People Power
* August Revolution
* Carnation
* Of 1989
* Yogurt
* Velvet
* Romanian
* Singing
* Bolivarian
* Bulldozer
* Rose
* Orange
* Tulip
* Kyrgyz
* Arab Spring
* Tunisian
* Egyptian
* Yemeni
* Euromaidan
* 2018–2020 Arab protests
* Sudanese

* v
* t
* e

Fascism /ˈfæʃɪzəm/ is a form of radical authoritarianism that first emerged in Italy under the leadership of Mussolini, who coined the term to describe his political movement in 1919 during World War I. Other European countries quickly followed, notably Nazi Germany, but fascism varied from country to country. As a result, the exact definition of fascist often differs among academics and historians. However, they frequently concur on certain traits of fascism such as absolute power of state, rule by a dictator with control over labor and factory owners, a fear-built society based on the “common will” of the people, the stifling of dissent and persecution of minority groups, and militarism and imperialism by conquering and ruling weak nations.[1] Corporatism became one of the main tenets of fascism, and Benito Mussolini's fascist regime in Italy advocated the collective management of the economy by state officials by integrating large interest groups under the state, which is a combination of crony capitalism and state capitalism; however, the more democratic neo-corporatism often embraced Tripartism.[2]

There have been attempts by media and some scholars to equate nationalism with fascism while discarding its Marxist "anti-capitalist economic, philosophical and political framework."[3] George Friedman opined that in 2016 a number of articles and statements asserted that "fascism is rising in Europe, and that Donald Trump is an American example of fascism." Friedman denounced such beliefs as "a misrepresentation of a very real phenomenon", and that the nation-state is once again becoming the most important part of politics. He went on to say that people simply don't consider multilateral trade treaties and international organizations like the European Union to be in the best interest of their respective countries, and that the idea that fascism is on the rise "derives from a profound misunderstanding of what fascism is." He views it as an attempt to "discredit the resurgence of nationalism and to defend the multinational systems that have dominated the West since World War II."[4]

Fascist governments are highly centralized and want complete dominance over all significant facets of society. To serve the demands of the entire society, as embodied by the state, individuals must renounce their private desires and rights. Fascists believe that liberal democracy is obsolete, and they regard the complete mobilization of society under a totalitarian one-party state as necessary to prepare a nation for armed conflict and to respond effectively to economic difficulties.[5] Such a state is led by a strong leader—such as a dictator and a martial government composed of the members of the governing fascist party—to forge national unity and maintain a stable and orderly society.[5] Fascism rejects assertions that violence is automatically negative in nature, and views political violence, war, and imperialism as means that can achieve national rejuvenation.[6][7][8][9] Fascists advocate a mixed economy, with the principal goal of achieving autarky through protectionist and interventionist economic policies.[10]

Fascists saw World War I as a revolution that brought massive changes to the nature of war, society, the state, and technology. The advent of total war and the total mass mobilization of society had broken down the distinction between civilians and combatants. A "military citizenship" arose in which all citizens were involved with the military in some manner during the war.[11][12] The war had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines and providing economic production and logistics to support them, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.[11][12] Since the end of World War II in 1945, few parties have openly described themselves as fascist. The term is more frequently used pejoratively by political opponents. In the 21st century, the ideological left in the US uses the term fascist pejoratively against its right wing opposition, a view that dominates left-leaning media and the Democrat Party.[13][14]

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Definitions
* 2.1 Position in the political spectrum
* 2.2 Fascist as a pejorative
* 3 History
* 3.1 Fin de siècle era and the fusion of Maurrasism with Sorelianism (1880–1914)
* 3.2 World War I and its aftermath (1914–29)
* 3.2.1 Impact of World War I
* 3.2.2 Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution
* 3.2.3 Fascist Manifesto of 1919
* 3.2.4 Italian Fascists in 1920
* 3.2.5 Fascist violence, 1922
* 3.3 Fascist Italy
* 3.3.1 Mussolini in power
* 3.3.2 Catholic Church
* 3.3.3 Aggressive foreign policy
* 3.3.4 Hitler adopts Italian model
* 3.4 International impact of the Great Depression and the buildup to World War II
* 3.5 World War II (1939–45)
* 3.6 Post-World-War II (1945–present)
* 4 Tenets
* 4.1 Nationalism
* 4.2 Totalitarianism
* 4.3 Corporatist economic system
* 4.4 Economy
* 4.5 Action
* 4.6 Age and gender roles
* 4.7 Palingenesis and modernism
* 5 Criticism of fascism
* 5.1 Anti-democratic and tyrannical
* 5.2 Unprincipled opportunism
* 5.3 Ideological dishonesty
* 6 Distinctions between fascism and other ideologies
* 6.1 Fascism as being associated with socialism
* 6.2 Nazism as being associated with Marxism and Bolshevism
* 7 See also
* 8 References
* 8.1 Primary sources
* 8.2 Secondary sources
* 9 External links

## Etymology[edit | edit source]

The Italian term fascismo is derived from fascio meaning a bundle of rods, ultimately from the Latin word fasces.[15] This was the name given to political organizations in Italy known as fasci, groups similar to guilds or syndicates and at first applied mainly to organisations on the political Left. In 1919, Benito Mussolini founded the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento in Milan, which became the Partito Nazionale Fascista (National Fascist Party) two years later. The Fascists came to associate the term with the ancient Roman fasces or fascio littorio[16]—a bundle of rods tied around an axe,[17] an ancient Roman symbol of the authority of the civic magistrate[18] carried by his lictors, which could be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command.[19][20]

The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.[21] Similar symbols were developed by different fascist movements; for example, the Falange symbol is five arrows joined together by a yoke.[22]

## Definitions[edit | edit source]

Main article: Definitions of fascism

Historians, political scientists, and other scholars have long debated the exact nature of fascism.[23] Each interpretation of fascism is distinct, leaving many definitions too wide or narrow.[24][25]

One common definition of the term focuses on three concepts: the fascist negations of anti-liberalism, anti-communism and anti-conservatism; nationalist authoritarian goals of creating a regulated economic structure to transform social relations within a modern, self-determined culture; and a political aesthetic of romantic symbolism, mass mobilization, a positive view of violence, and promotion of masculinity, youth and charismatic leadership.[26][27] According to many scholars, fascism—especially once in power—has historically attacked communism, conservatism and parliamentary liberalism, attracting support primarily from the far right.[28]

Roger Griffin describes fascism as "a genus of political ideology whose mythic core in its various permutations is a palingenetic form of populist ultranationalism".[29] Griffin describes the ideology as having three core components: "(i) the rebirth myth, (ii) populist ultra-nationalism and (iii) the myth of decadence".[30] Fascism is "a genuinely revolutionary, trans-class form of anti-liberal, and in the last analysis, anti-conservative nationalism" built on a complex range of theoretical and cultural influences. He distinguishes an inter-war period in which it manifested itself in elite-led but populist "armed party" politics opposing socialism and liberalism and promising radical politics to rescue the nation from decadence.[31]

Robert Paxton says that fascism is "a form of political behavior marked by obsessive preoccupation with community decline, humiliation, or victimhood and by compensatory cults of unity, energy, and purity, in which a mass-based party of committed nationalist militants, working in uneasy but effective collaboration with traditional elites, abandons democratic liberties and pursues with redemptive violence and without ethical or legal restraints goals of internal cleansing and external expansion."[32]

Umberto Eco,[33] Kevin Passmore,[34] John Weiss,[35] Ian Adams,[36] and Moyra Grant,[37] mention racism (including anti-semitism) as a characteristic of fascism; e.g. fascistic dictator Hitler idealized German society as a racially unified and hierarchically organized Volksgemeinschaft.

John Lukacs, Hungarian-American historian and Holocaust survivor, argues that there is no such thing as generic fascism. He claims that National Socialism and Communism are essentially manifestations of populism and that states such as National Socialist Germany and Fascist Italy are more different than similar.[38]

### Position in the political spectrum[edit | edit source]

Fascism was influenced by both left and right, conservative and anti-conservative, national and supranational, rational and anti-rational.[39] A number of historians regard fascism as either a revolutionary centrist doctrine, as a doctrine that mixes philosophies of the left and the right, or as both of those things.[40][41] Fascism was founded during World War I by Italian national syndicalists who drew upon left-wing and right-wing political views.

In 1919 Benito Mussolini described fascism as a movement that would strike "against the backwardness of the right and the destructiveness of the left".[42][43] Later, the Italian Fascists described their ideology in The Doctrine of Fascism, stating: "We are free to believe that this is the century of authority, a century tending to the “right,” a Fascist century. If the 19th century was the century of the individual (liberalism implies individualism) we are free to believe that this is the “collective” century, and therefore the century of the State.[44][45][46] Mussolini stated that fascism's position on the political spectrum was not a serious issue for fascists: "Fascism, sitting on the right, could also have sat on the mountain of the center ... These words in any case do not have a fixed and unchanged meaning: they do have a variable subject to location, time and spirit. We don't give a damn about these empty terminologies and we despise those who are terrorized by these words."[47]

The accommodation of the political right into the Italian Fascist movement in the early 1920s created internal factions within the movement. The "Fascist left" included Michele Bianchi, Giuseppe Bottai, Angelo Oliviero Olivetti, Sergio Panunzio, and Edmondo Rossoni, who were committed to advancing national syndicalism as a replacement for parliamentary liberalism in order to modernize the economy and advance the interests of workers and common people.[48] The "Fascist right" included members of the paramilitary Squadristi and former members of the Italian Nationalist Association (ANI).[48] The Squadristi wanted to establish Fascism as a complete dictatorship, while the former ANI members, including Alfredo Rocco, sought to institute an authoritarian corporatist state to replace the liberal state in Italy, while retaining the existing elites.[48] Upon accommodating the political right, there arose a group of monarchist fascists who sought to use fascism to create an absolute monarchy under King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy.[48]

After King Victor Emmanuel III forced Mussolini to resign as head of government and placed him under arrest in 1943, Mussolini was rescued by German forces. While continuing to rely on Germany for support, Mussolini and the remaining loyal Fascists founded the Italian Social Republic with Mussolini as head of state. Mussolini sought to re-radicalize Italian Fascism, declaring that the Fascist state had been overthrown because Italian Fascism had been subverted by Italian conservatives and the bourgeoisie.[49] Then the new Fascist government proposed the creation of workers' councils and profit-sharing in industry, although the German authorities, who effectively controlled northern Italy at this point, ignored these measures and did not seek to enforce them.[49]

A number of post-World War II fascist movements described themselves as a "third position" outside the traditional political spectrum.[50] Spanish Falangist leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera said: "basically the Right stands for the maintenance of an economic structure, albeit an unjust one, while the Left stands for the attempt to subvert that economic structure, even though the subversion thereof would entail the destruction of much that was worthwhile".[51]

### Fascist as a pejorative[edit | edit source]

Main article: Fascist (insult)

Following the defeat of the Axis Powers in World War II, the term fascist has been used as a pejorative,[52] often referring to widely varying movements across the political spectrum.[53] George Orwell wrote in 1944 that "the word 'Fascism' is almost entirely meaningless ... almost any English person would accept 'bully' as a synonym for 'Fascist'".[53]

Contrary to the popular use of the term, Communist states have sometimes been referred to as "fascist", typically as an insult. Marxist interpretations of the term have, for example, been applied in relation to Cuba under Fidel Castro and Vietnam under Ho Chi Minh.[54]

Chinese Marxists used the term to denounce the Soviet Union during the Sino-Soviet Split, and likewise, the Soviets used the term to denounce Chinese Marxists[55] and social democracy (coining a new term social fascism).

In the United States, Herbert Matthews of the New York Times asked in 1946, "Should we now place Stalinist Russia in the same category as Hitlerite Germany? Should we say that she is Fascist?"[56] J. Edgar Hoover, longtime FBI director and ardent anti-communist, wrote extensively of "Red Fascism".[57]

Professor Richard Griffiths of the University of Wales[58] wrote in 2005 that "fascism" is the "most misused, and over-used word, of our times".[25] "Fascist" is sometimes applied to post-World War II organizations and ways of thinking that academics more commonly term "neo-fascist".[59]

## History[edit | edit source]

Further information: Fascism and ideology

### Fin de siècle era and the fusion of Maurrasism with Sorelianism (1880–1914)[edit | edit source]

The historian Zeev Sternhell has traced the ideological roots of fascism back to the 1880s, and in particular to the fin de siècle theme of that time.[60][61] The theme was based on a revolt against materialism, rationalism, positivism, bourgeois society and democracy.[62] The fin-de-siècle generation supported emotionalism, irrationalism, subjectivism and vitalism.[63] The fin-de-siècle mindset saw civilization as being in a crisis that required a massive and total solution.[62] The fin-de-siècle intellectual school considered the individual only one part of the larger collectivity, which should not be viewed as an atomized numerical sum of individuals.[62] They condemned the rationalistic individualism of liberal society and the dissolution of social links in bourgeois society.[62]

The fin-de-siècle outlook was influenced by various intellectual developments, including Darwinian biology; Wagnerian aesthetics; Arthur de Gobineau's racialism; Gustave Le Bon's psychology; and the philosophies of Friedrich Nietzsche, Fyodor Dostoyevsky and Henri Bergson.[64] Social Darwinism, which gained widespread acceptance, made no distinction between physical and social life, and viewed the human condition as being an unceasing struggle to achieve the survival of the fittest.[64] Social Darwinism challenged positivism's claim of deliberate and rational choice as the determining behaviour of humans, with social Darwinism focusing on heredity, race, and environment.[64] Social Darwinism's emphasis on biogroup identity and the role of organic relations within societies fostered legitimacy and appeal for nationalism.[65] New theories of social and political psychology also rejected the notion of human behaviour being governed by rational choice, and instead claimed that emotion was more influential in political issues than reason.[64] Nietzsche's argument that "God is dead" coincided with his attack on the "herd mentality" of Christianity, democracy and modern collectivism; his concept of the übermensch; and his advocacy of the will to power as a primordial instinct, were major influences upon many of the fin-de-siècle generation.[66] Bergson's claim of the existence of an "élan vital" or vital instinct centred upon free choice and rejected the processes of materialism and determinism; this challenged Marxism.[67]

Gaetano Mosca in his work The Ruling Class (1896) developed the theory that claims that in all societies an "organized minority" will dominate and rule over the "disorganized majority".[68][69] Mosca claims that there are only two classes in society, "the governing" (the organized minority) and "the governed" (the disorganized majority).[70] He claims that the organized nature of the organized minority makes it irresistible to any individual of the disorganized majority.[70]

The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin's concept of propaganda of the deed, which stressed the importance of direct action as the primary means of politics, including revolutionary violence, became popular among fascists who admired the concept and adopted it as a part of fascism.[71]

File:Charles Maurras - avant 1922.jpg

Charles Maurras.

File:Georges Sorel.jpg

Georges Sorel

French nationalist and reactionary monarchist Charles Maurras influenced fascism.[72] Maurras promoted what he called integral nationalism, which called for the organic unity of a nation, Maurras insisted that a powerful monarch was an ideal leader of a nation. Maurras distrusted what he considered the democratic mystification of the popular will that created an impersonal collective subject.[72] He claimed that a powerful monarch was a personified sovereign who could exercise authority to unite a nation's people.[72] Maurras' integral nationalism was idealized by fascists, but modified into a modernized revolutionary form that was devoid of Maurras' monarchism.[72]

French revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel promoted the legitimacy of political violence in his work Reflections on Violence (1908) and other works in which he advocated radical syndicalist action to achieve a revolution to overthrow capitalism and the bourgeoisie through a general strike.[73] In Reflections on Violence, Sorel emphasized need for a revolutionary political religion.[74] Also, in his work The Illusions of Progress, Sorel denounced democracy as reactionary, saying "nothing is more aristocratic than democracy".[75] By 1909 after the failure of a syndicalist general strike in France, Sorel and his supporters left the radical left and went to the radical right, where they sought to merge militant Catholicism and French patriotism with their views—advocating anti-republican Christian French patriots as ideal revolutionaries.[76] Initially Sorel had officially been a revisionist of Marxism, but by 1910 announced his abandonment of socialist literature and claimed in 1914, using an aphorism of Benedetto Croce that "socialism is dead" because of the "decomposition of Marxism".[77] Sorel became a supporter of reactionary Maurrassian nationalism beginning in 1909 that influenced his works.[77] Maurras held interest in merging his nationalist ideals with Sorelian syndicalism as a means to confront democracy.[78] Maurras stated "a socialism liberated from the democratic and cosmopolitan element fits nationalism well as a well made glove fits a beautiful hand".[79]

File:EnricoCorradini.jpg

Enrico Corradini

The fusion of Maurrassian nationalism and Sorelian syndicalism influenced radical Italian nationalist Enrico Corradini.[80] Corradini spoke of the need for a nationalist-syndicalist movement, led by elitist aristocrats and anti-democrats who shared a revolutionary syndicalist commitment to direct action and a willingness to fight.[80] Corradini spoke of Italy as being a "proletarian nation" that needed to pursue imperialism in order to challenge the "plutocratic" French and British.[81] Corradini's views were part of a wider set of perceptions within the right-wing Italian Nationalist Association (ANI), which claimed that Italy's economic backwardness was caused by corruption in its political class, liberalism, and division caused by "ignoble socialism".[81] The ANI held ties and influence among conservatives, Catholics, and the business community.[81] Italian national syndicalists held a common set of principles: the rejection of bourgeois values, democracy, liberalism, Marxism, internationalism, and pacifism; and the promotion of heroism, vitalism, and violence.[82] The ANI claimed that liberal democracy was no longer compatible with the modern world, and advocated a strong state and imperialism, claiming that humans are naturally predatory and that nations were in a constant struggle, in which only the strongest could survive.[83]

File:Manifesto of Futurism.jpg

Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Italian modernist author of the Futurist Manifesto (1909) and later the co-author of the Fascist Manifesto (1919)

Futurism was both an artistic-cultural movement and initially a political movement in Italy led by Filippo Tommaso Marinetti who founded the Futurist Manifesto (1908), that championed the causes of modernism, action, and political violence as necessary elements of politics while denouncing liberalism and parliamentary politics. Marinetti rejected conventional democracy based on majority rule and egalitarianism, for a new form of democracy, promoting what he described in his work "The Futurist Conception of Democracy" as the following: "We are therefore able to give the directions to create and to dismantle to numbers, to quantity, to the mass, for with us number, quantity and mass will never be—as they are in Germany and Russia—the number, quantity and mass of mediocre men, incapable and indecisive".[84]

Futurism influenced fascism in its emphasis on recognizing the virile nature of violent action and war as being necessities of modern civilization.[85] Marinetti promoted the need of physical training of young men, saying that in male education, gymnastics should take precedence over books, and he advocated segregation of the genders on this matter, in that womanly sensibility must not enter men's education whom Marinetti claimed must be "lively, bellicose, muscular and violently dynamic".[86]

### World War I and its aftermath (1914–29)[edit | edit source]

Benito Mussolini in 1917, as a soldier in World War I. In 1914, Mussolini founded the Fasci d'Azione Rivoluzionaria that he led. Mussolini promoted the Italian intervention in the war as a revolutionary nationalist action to liberate Italian-claimed lands from Austria-Hungary.

At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914, the Italian political left became severely split over its position on the war. The Italian Socialist Party (PSI) opposed the war but a number of Italian revolutionary syndicalists supported war against Germany and Austria-Hungary on the grounds that their reactionary regimes had to be defeated to ensure the success of socialism.[87] Angelo Oliviero Olivetti formed a pro-interventionist fascio called the Fasci of International Action in October 1914.[87] Benito Mussolini upon being expelled from his position as chief editor of the PSI's newspaper Avanti! for his anti-German stance, joined the interventionist cause in a separate fascio.[88] The term "Fascism" was first used in 1915 by members of Mussolini's movement, the Fasci of Revolutionary Action.[89]

The first meeting of the Fasci of Revolutionary Action was held on 24 January 1915[90] when Mussolini declared that it was necessary for Europe to resolve its national problems—including national borders—of Italy and elsewhere "for the ideals of justice and liberty for which oppressed peoples must acquire the right to belong to those national communities from which they descended".[90] Attempts to hold mass meetings were ineffective, and the organization was regularly harassed by government authorities and socialists.[91]

File:IR Lübeck 033 - EB.jpg

German soldiers being cheered in Lubeck during their advance to the front lines in 1914 during World War I. The concept of the "Spirit of 1914" by Johann Plenge identified the outbreak of war as forging national solidarity of Germans.

Similar political ideas arose in Germany after the outbreak of the war. German sociologist Johann Plenge spoke of the rise of a "National Socialism" in Germany within what he termed the "ideas of 1914" that were a declaration of war against the "ideas of 1789" (the French Revolution).[92] According to Plenge, the "ideas of 1789" that included rights of man, democracy, individualism and liberalism were being rejected in favor of "the ideas of 1914" that included "German values" of duty, discipline, law, and order.[92] Plenge believed that racial solidarity (volksgemeinschaft) would replace class division and that "racial comrades" would unite to create a socialist society in the struggle of "proletarian" Germany against "capitalist" Britain.[92] He believed that the "Spirit of 1914" manifested itself in the concept of the "People's League of National Socialism".[93] This National Socialism was a form of state socialism that rejected the "idea of boundless freedom" and promoted an economy that would serve the whole of Germany under the leadership of the state.[93] This National Socialism was opposed to capitalism because of the components that were against "the national interest" of Germany, but insisted that National Socialism would strive for greater efficiency in the economy.[93] Plenge advocated an authoritarian rational ruling elite to develop National Socialism through a hierarchical technocratic state.[94]

#### Impact of World War I[edit | edit source]

Fascists viewed World War I as bringing revolutionary changes in the nature of war, society, the state, and technology, as the advent of total war and mass mobilization had broken down the distinction between civilian and combatant, as civilians had become a critical part in economic production for the war effort, and thus arose a "military citizenship" in which all citizens were involved to the military in some manner during the war.[11][12] World War I had resulted in the rise of a powerful state capable of mobilizing millions of people to serve on the front lines or provide economic production and logistics to support those on the front lines, as well as having unprecedented authority to intervene in the lives of citizens.[11][12] Fascists viewed technological developments of weaponry and the state's total mobilization of its population in the war as symbolizing the beginning of a new era fusing state power with mass politics, technology, and particularly the mobilizing myth that they contended had triumphed over the myth of progress and the era of liberalism.[11]

File:Italian Arditi.jpg

Members of Italy's Arditi corps in 1918 holding daggers, a symbol of their group. The Arditi formed in 1917, as groups of soldiers trained for dangerous missions, refusal to surrender, and willingness to fight to the death. The Italian Fascist movement adopted the Arditi's black uniform and fez in homage to the Arditi.

#### Impact of the Bolshevik Revolution[edit | edit source]

The October Revolution of 1917—in which Bolshevik communists led by Vladimir Lenin seized power in Russia—greatly influenced the development of fascism.[95] In 1917, Mussolini, as leader of the Fasci of Revolutionary Action, praised the October Revolution, but later he became unimpressed with Lenin, regarding him as merely a new version of Tsar Nicholas.[96] After World War I fascists have commonly campaigned on anti-Marxist agendas.[95] Bolshevism and fascism both advocated a revolutionary ideology, believed in the necessity of a vanguard elite, had disdain for bourgeois values, and had totalitarian ambitions.[95] In practice, fascism and Bolshevism have commonly emphasized revolutionary action, proletarian nation theories, one-party states, and party-armies.[95]

With the antagonism between anti-interventionist Marxists and pro-interventionist Fascists complete by the end of the war, the two sides became irreconcilable. The Fascists presented themselves as anti-Marxists and as opposed to the Marxists.[97] Benito Mussolini consolidated control over the Fascist movement in 1919 with the founding of the Fasci italiani di combattimento, whose opposition to socialism he declared:

> We declare war against socialism, not because it is socialism, but because it has opposed nationalism. Although we can discuss the question of what socialism is, what is its program, and what are its tactics, one thing is obvious: the official Italian Socialist Party has been reactionary and absolutely conservative. If its views had prevailed, our survival in the world of today would be impossible.[98]

#### Fascist Manifesto of 1919[edit | edit source]

In 1919, Alceste De Ambris and Futurist movement leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti created The Manifesto of the Italian Fasci of Combat (a.k.a. the Fascist Manifesto).[99] The Manifesto was presented on 6 June 1919 in the Fascist newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia. The Manifesto supported the creation of universal suffrage for both men and women (the latter being realized only partly in late 1925, with all opposition parties banned or disbanded; proportional representation on a regional basis; government representation through a corporatist system of "National Councils" of experts, selected from professionals and tradespeople, elected to represent and hold legislative power over their respective areas, including labour, industry, transportation, public health, communications, etc.; and the abolition of the Italian Senate.[100] The Manifesto supported the creation of an eight-hour work day for all workers, a minimum wage, worker representation in industrial management, equal confidence in labour unions as in industrial executives and public servants, reorganization of the transportation sector, revision of the draft law on invalidity insurance, reduction of the retirement age from 65 to 55, a strong progressive tax on capital, confiscation of the property of religious institutions and abolishment of bishoprics, and revision of military contracts to allow the government to seize 85% of their[who?] profits.[101] It also called for the creation of a short-service national militia to serve defensive duties, nationalization of the armaments industry, and a foreign policy designed to be peaceful but also competitive.[102]

File:Fiume cheering D'Annunzio.jpg

Residents of Fiume cheer the arrival of Gabriele d'Annunzio and his blackshirt-wearing nationalist raiders. D'Annunzio and Fascist Alceste De Ambris developed the quasi-fascist Italian Regency of Carnaro, a city-state in Fiume, from 1919 to 1920. D'Annunzio's actions in Fiume inspired the Italian Fascist movement.

The next events that influenced the Fascists in Italy was the raid of Fiume by Italian nationalist Gabriele d'Annunzio and the founding of the Charter of Carnaro in 1920.[103] D'Annunzio and De Ambris designed the Charter, which advocated national-syndicalist corporatist productionism alongside D'Annunzio's political views.[104] Many Fascists saw the Charter of Carnaro as an ideal constitution for a Fascist Italy.[105] This behaviour of aggression towards Yugoslavia and South Slavs was pursued by Italian Fascists with their persecution of South Slavs—especially Slovenes and Croats.

#### Italian Fascists in 1920[edit | edit source]

In 1920, militant strike activity by industrial workers reached its peak in Italy; 1919 and 1920 were known as the "Red Years".[106] Mussolini and the Fascists took advantage of the situation by allying with industrial businesses and attacking workers and peasants in the name of preserving order and internal peace in Italy.[107]

Fascists identified their primary opponents as the majority of socialists on the left who had opposed intervention in World War I.[105] The Fascists and the Italian political right held common ground: both held Marxism in contempt, discounted class consciousness and believed in the rule of elites.[108] The Fascists assisted the anti-socialist campaign by allying with the other parties and the conservative right in a mutual effort to destroy the Italian Socialist Party and labour organizations committed to class identity above national identity.[108]

Fascism sought to accommodate Italian conservatives by making major alterations to its political agenda—abandoning its previous populism, republicanism, and anticlericalism, adopting policies in support of free enterprise, and accepting the Roman Catholic Church and the monarchy as institutions in Italy.[109] To appeal to Italian conservatives, Fascism adopted policies such as promoting family values, including promotion policies designed to reduce the number of women in the workforce limiting the woman's role to that of a mother. The fascists banned literature on birth control and increased penalties for abortion in 1926, declaring both crimes against the state.[110] Though Fascism adopted a number of positions designed to appeal to reactionaries, the Fascists sought to maintain Fascism's revolutionary character, with Angelo Oliviero Olivetti saying "Fascism would like to be conservative, but it will [be] by being revolutionary."[111] The Fascists supported revolutionary action and committed to secure law and order to appeal to both conservatives and syndicalists.[112]

Prior to Fascism's accommodation of the political right, Fascism was a small, urban, northern Italian movement that had about a thousand members.[113] After Fascism's accommodation of the political right, the Fascist movement's membership soared to approximately 250,000 by 1921.[114]

#### Fascist violence, 1922[edit | edit source]

Beginning in 1922, Fascist paramilitaries escalated their strategy from one of attacking socialist offices and homes of socialist leadership figures to one of violent occupation of cities. The Fascists met little serious resistance from authorities and proceeded to take over several northern Italian cities.[115] The Fascists attacked the headquarters of socialist and Catholic labour unions in Cremona and imposed forced Italianization upon the German-speaking population of Trent and Bolzano.[115] After seizing these cities, the Fascists made plans to take Rome.[115]

File:March on Rome.jpg

Benito Mussolini with three of the four quadrumvirs during the March on Rome: from left to right: unknown, de Bono, Mussolini, Balbo and de Vecchi

On 24 October 1922, the Fascist party held its annual congress in Naples, where Mussolini ordered Blackshirts to take control of public buildings and trains and to converge on three points around Rome.[115] The Fascists managed to seize control of several post offices and trains in northern Italy while the Italian government, led by a left-wing coalition, was internally divided and unable to respond to the Fascist advances.[116] King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy perceived the risk of bloodshed in Rome in response to attempting to disperse the Fascists to be too high.[117] Victor Emmanuel III decided to appoint Mussolini as Prime Minister of Italy, and Mussolini arrived in Rome on 30 October to accept the appointment.[117] Fascist propaganda aggrandized this event, known as "March on Rome", as a "seizure" of power because of Fascists' heroic exploits.[115]

### Fascist Italy[edit | edit source]

Historian Stanley G. Payne says Fascism in Italy was:

A primarily political dictatorship....The Fascist Party itself had become almost completely bureaucratized and subservient to, not dominant over, the state itself. Big business, industry, and finance retained extensive autonomy, particularly in the early years. The armed forces also enjoyed considerable autonomy....The Fascist militia was placed under military control....The judicial system was left largely intact and relatively autonomous as well. The police continued to be directed by state officials and were not taken over by party leaders...nor was a major new police elite created....There was never any question of bringing the Church under overall subservience.... Sizable sectors of Italian cultural life retained extensive autonomy, and no major state propaganda-and-culture ministry existed....The Mussolini regime was neither especially sanguinary nor particularly repressive.[118]

#### Mussolini in power[edit | edit source]

Upon being appointed Prime Minister of Italy, Mussolini had to form a coalition government, because the Fascists did not have control over the Italian parliament.[119] Mussolini's coalition government initially pursued economically liberal policies under the direction of liberal finance minister Alberto De Stefani, a member of the Center Party, including balancing the budget through deep cuts to the civil service.[119] Initially, little drastic change in government policy had occurred and repressive police actions were limited.[119]

The Fascists began their attempt to entrench Fascism in Italy with the Acerbo Law, which guaranteed a plurality of the seats in parliament to any party or coalition list in an election that received 25% or more of the vote.[120] Through considerable Fascist violence and intimidation, the list won a majority of the vote, allowing many seats to go to the Fascists.[120] In the aftermath of the election, a crisis and political scandal erupted after Socialist Party deputy Giacomo Matteoti was kidnapped and murdered by a Fascist.[120] The liberals and the leftist minority in parliament walked out in protest in what became known as the Aventine Secession.[121] On 3 January 1925, Mussolini addressed the Fascist-dominated Italian parliament and declared that he was personally responsible for what happened, but he insisted that he had done nothing wrong. He proclaimed himself dictator of Italy, assuming full responsibility over the government and announcing the dismissal of parliament.[121] From 1925 to 1929, Fascism steadily became entrenched in power: opposition deputies were denied access to parliament, censorship was introduced, and a December 1925 decree made Mussolini solely responsible to the King.[122]

#### Catholic Church[edit | edit source]

In 1929, the Fascist regime gained the political support and blessing of the Roman Catholic Church after the regime signed a concordat with the Church, known as the Lateran Treaty, which gave the papacy state sovereignty and financial compensation for the seizure of Church lands by the liberal state in the nineteenth century.[123] Not long after signing the agreement, the Church, by Mussolini’s own confession, had threatened to have him “excommunicated”, in part because of his intractable nature and that he had "confiscated more issues of Catholic newspapers in the next three months than in the previous seven years.”[124] By the late 1930s, Mussolini became more vocal in his anti-clerical rhetoric, repeatedly denouncing the Catholic Church and discussing ways to depose the pope. He took the position that the “papacy was a malignant tumor in the body of Italy and must 'be rooted out once and for all,’ because there was no room in Rome for both the Pope and himself.”[125] In her 1974 book, Mussolini’s widow, Rachele, claimed that her husband had always been an atheist until near the end of his life, writing that her husband was “basically irreligious until the later years of his life.”[126]

The National Socialists of Germany employed similar anti-clerical policies. The Gestapo confiscated hundreds of monasteries in Austria and Germany, evicted clergymen and laymen alike, and often replaced crosses with a swastikas.[127] Referring to the swastika as the “Devil’s Cross,” church leaders found their youth organizations banned, their meetings limited and various Catholic periodicals censored or banned. Government officials eventually found it necessary to place “Nazis into editorial positions in the Catholic press.”[128] Up to 2720 clerics, mostly Catholics, were arrested by the Gestapo and imprisoned inside of Germany’s Dachau concentration camp, resulting in over 1,000 deaths[129]

#### Aggressive foreign policy[edit | edit source]

In the 1920s, Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive foreign policy that included an attack on the Greek island of Corfu, aims to expand Italian territory in the Balkans, plans to wage war against Turkey and Yugoslavia, attempts to bring Yugoslavia into civil war by supporting Croat and Macedonian separatists to legitimize Italian intervention, and making Albania a de facto protectorate of Italy, which was achieved through diplomatic means by 1927.[130] In response to revolt in the Italian colony of Libya, Fascist Italy abandoned previous liberal-era colonial policy of cooperation with local leaders. Instead, claiming that Italians were a superior race to African races and thereby had the right to colonize the "inferior" Africans, it sought to settle 10 to 15 million Italians in Libya.[131] This resulted in an aggressive military campaign known as the Pacification of Libya against natives in Libya, including mass killings, the use of concentration camps, and the forced starvation of thousands of people.[131] Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 Bedouin Cyrenaicans, half the population of Cyrenaica in Libya, from their settlements that was slated to be given to Italian settlers.[132][133]

#### Hitler adopts Italian model[edit | edit source]

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 119-1486, Hitler-Putsch, München, Marienplatz.jpg

Nazis in Munich during the Beer Hall Putsch.

The March on Rome brought Fascism international attention. One early admirer of the Italian Fascists was Adolf Hitler, who, less than a month after the March, had begun to model himself and the Nazi Party upon Mussolini and the Fascists.[134] The Nazis, led by Hitler and the German war hero Erich Ludendorff, attempted a "March on Berlin" modeled upon the March on Rome, which resulted in the failed Beer Hall Putsch in Munich in November 1923.[135]

### International impact of the Great Depression and the buildup to World War II[edit | edit source]

The conditions of economic hardship caused by the Great Depression brought about an international surge of social unrest. According to historian Philip Morgan, "the onset of the Great Depression...was the greatest stimulus yet to the diffusion and expansion of fascism outside Italy".[136] Fascist propaganda blamed the problems of the long depression of the 1930s on minorities and scapegoats: “Judeo-Masonic-bolshevik” conspiracies, left-wing internationalism, and the presence of immigrants.

In Germany, it contributed to the rise of the National Socialist German Workers' Party, which resulted in the demise of the Weimar Republic, and the establishment of the fascist regime, Nazi Germany, under the leadership of Adolf Hitler. With the rise of Hitler and the Nazis to power in 1933, liberal democracy was dissolved in Germany, and the Nazis mobilized the country for war, with expansionist territorial aims against several countries. In the 1930s the Nazis implemented racial laws that deliberately discriminated against, disenfranchised, and persecuted Jews and other racial and minority groups.

Fascist movements grew in strength elsewhere in Europe. Hungarian fascist Gyula Gömbös rose to power as Prime Minister of Hungary in 1932 and attempted to entrench his Party of National Unity throughout the country; he created an eight-hour work day, a forty-eight-hour work week in industry, and sought to entrench a corporatist economy; and pursued irredentist claims on Hungary's neighbors.[137] The fascist Iron Guard movement in Romania soared in political support after 1933, gaining representation in the Romanian government, and an Iron Guard member assassinated Romanian prime minister Ion Duca.[138] During the 6 February 1934 crisis, France faced the greatest domestic political turmoil since the Dreyfus Affair when the fascist Francist Movement and multiple far right movements rioted en masse in Paris against the French government resulting in major political violence.[139] A variety of para-fascist governments that borrowed elements from fascism were formed during the Great Depression, including those of Greece, Lithuania, Poland, and Yugoslavia.[140]

File:SaudacaoIntegralista1935.jpg

Integralists marching in Brazil.

In the Americas, the Brazilian Integralists led by Plínio Salgado, claimed as many as 200,000 members although following coup attempts it faced a crackdown from the Estado Novo of Getúlio Vargas in 1937.[141] In the 1930s, the National Socialist Movement of Chile gained seats in Chile's parliament and attempted a coup d'état that resulted in the Seguro Obrero massacre of 1938.[142]

During the Great Depression, Mussolini promoted active state intervention in the economy. He denounced the contemporary "supercapitalism" that he claimed began in 1914 as a failure because of its alleged decadence, its support for unlimited consumerism and its intention to create the "standardization of humankind".[143] Fascist Italy created the Institute for Industrial Reconstruction (IRI), a giant state-owned firm and holding company that provided state funding to failing private enterprises.[144] The IRI was made a permanent institution in Fascist Italy in 1937, pursued Fascist policies to create national autarky, and had the power to take over private firms to maximize war production.[144] While Hitler’s regime only nationalized 500 companies in key industries by the early 1940s,[145] Mussolini declared in 1934 that “Three-fourths of Italian economy, industrial and agricultural, is in the hands of the state.”[146] Due to the world-wide depression, Mussolini’s government was able to take over most of Italy’s largest failing banks, who held controlling interest in many Italian businesses. The Institute for Industrial Reconstruction, a state-operated holding company in charge of bankrupt banks and companies, reported in early 1934 that they held assets of “48.5 percent of the share capital of Italy,” which later included the capital of the banks themselves.[147] Political historian Martin Blinkhorn estimated Italy’s scope of state intervention and ownership “greatly surpassed that in Nazi Germany, giving Italy a public sector second only to that of Stalin’s Russia.”[148] In the late 1930s, Italy enacted manufacturing cartels, tariff barriers, currency restrictions, and massive regulation of the economy to attempt to balance payments.[149] Italy's policy of autarky failed to achieve effective economic autonomy.[149] Nazi Germany similarly pursued an economic agenda with the aims of autarky and rearmament and imposed protectionist policies, including forcing the German steel industry to use lower-quality German iron ore rather than superior-quality imported iron.[150]

### World War II (1939–45)[edit | edit source]

In Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, both Mussolini and Hitler pursued territorial expansionist and interventionist foreign policy agendas from the 1930s through the 1940s culminating in World War II. Mussolini called for irredentist Italian claims to be reclaimed, establishing Italian domination of the Mediterranean Sea and securing Italian access to the Atlantic Ocean, and the creation of Italian spazio vitale ("vital space") in the Mediterranean and Red Sea regions.[151] Hitler called for irredentist German claims to be reclaimed along with the creation of German lebensraum ("living space") in Eastern Europe, including territories held by the Soviet Union, that would be colonized by Germans.[152]

File:Inmate at the Rab concentration camp.jpg

Emaciated male inmate at the Italian Rab concentration camp.

From 1935 to 1939 Germany and Italy escalated their demands for territorial claims and greater influence in world affairs. Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1935 resulting in its condemnation by the League of Nations and its widespread diplomatic isolation. In 1936 Germany remilitarized the industrial Rhineland; the region had been ordered demilitarized by the Treaty of Versailles. In 1938 Germany annexed Austria and Italy assisted Germany in resolving the diplomatic crisis between Germany versus Britain and France over claims on Czechoslovakia by arranging the Munich Agreement that gave Germany the Sudetenland and was perceived at the time to have averted a European war. These hopes faded when Hitler violated the Munich Agreement by ordering the invasion and partition of Czechoslovakia between Germany and a client state of Slovakia in 1939. At the same time from 1938 to 1939, Italy was demanding territorial and colonial concessions from France and Britain.[153] In 1939, Germany prepared for war with Poland, but attempted to gain territorial concessions from Poland through diplomatic means.[154] The Polish government did not trust Hitler's promises and refused to accept Germany's demands.[154]

The invasion of Poland by Germany was deemed unacceptable by Britain, France and their allies, resulting in their mutual declaration of war against Germany that was deemed the aggressor in the war in Poland, resulting in the outbreak of World War II. In 1940, Mussolini led Italy into World War II on the side of the Axis. Mussolini was aware that Italy did not have the military capacity to carry out a long war with France or the United Kingdom and waited until France was on the verge of imminent collapse and surrender from the German invasion before declaring war on France and the United Kingdom on 10 June 1940, on the assumption that the war would be short-lived following France's collapse.[155] Mussolini believed that following a brief entry of Italy into war with France, followed by the imminent French surrender, Italy could gain some territorial concessions from France and then concentrate its forces on a major offensive in Egypt where British and Commonwealth forces were outnumbered by Italian forces.[156] Plans by Germany to invade the UK in 1940 failed after Germany lost the aerial warfare campaign in the Battle of Britain. In 1941 the Axis campaign spread to the Soviet Union after Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa. Axis forces at the height of their power controlled almost all of continental Europe. The war became prolonged—contrary to Mussolini's plans—resulting in Italy losing battles on multiple fronts and requiring German assistance.

File:Buchenwald Corpses 60623.jpg

Corpses of victims of the German Buchenwald concentration camp.

During World War II, the Axis Powers in Europe, led by Nazi Germany, participated in the extermination of millions of Poles, Jews, Gypsies and others in the genocide known as the Holocaust.

After 1942, Axis forces began to falter. By 1943, after Italy faced multiple military failures, the complete reliance and subordination of Italy to Germany, the Allied invasion of Italy, and the corresponding international humiliation, Mussolini was removed as head of government and arrested on the order of King Victor Emmanuel III, who proceeded to dismantle the Fascist state and declared Italy's switching of allegiance to the Allied side. Mussolini was rescued from arrest by German forces and led the German client state, the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945. Nazi Germany faced multiple losses and steady Soviet and Western Allied offensives from 1943 to 1945.

On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed by Italian communist partisans. On 30 April 1945, Hitler committed suicide. Shortly afterwards, Germany surrendered and the Nazi regime was systematically dismantled by the occupying Allied powers. An International Military Tribunal was subsequently convened in Nuremberg. Beginning in November 1945 and lasting through 1949, numerous Nazi political, military and economic leaders were tried and convicted of war crimes, with many of the worst offenders receiving the death penalty.

### Post-World-War II (1945–present)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Neo-fascism

File:Juan Peron con banda de presidente.jpg

Juan Perón, President of Argentina from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974. Perón admired Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on those pursued by Fascist Italy.

The victory of the Allies over the Axis powers in World War II led to the collapse of many fascist regimes in Europe. The Nuremberg Trials convicted several Nazi leaders of crimes against humanity involving the Holocaust. There remained, however, several movements and governments that were ideologically related to fascism.

Francisco Franco's Falangist one-party state in Spain was officially neutral during World War II and it survived the collapse of the Axis Powers. Franco's rise to power had been directly assisted by the militaries of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany during the Spanish Civil War, and Franco had sent volunteers to fight on the side of Nazi Germany against the Soviet Union during World War II. After World War II and a period of international isolation, Franco's regime normalized relations with the Western powers during the Cold War, until Franco's death in 1975 and the transformation of Spain into a liberal democracy.

Roughly during the same period, the neighbouring country of Portugal was under the control of the Estado Novo, a dictatorship led by António de Oliveira Salazar that was in many aspects inspired by Mussolini's fascism. The Estado Novo also maintained an officially neutral position during World War II and lasted from 1932 to 1974.

Peronism, associated with the regime of Juan Perón in Argentina from 1946 to 1955 and 1973 to 1974, was strongly influenced by fascism.[157] Between 1939 and 1941, prior to his rise to power, Perón had developed a deep admiration of Italian Fascism and modelled his economic policies on Italian Fascist policies.[157]

File:Giorgio Almirante.jpg

Giorgio Almirante, leader of the Italian Social Movement from 1969–1987.

The term neo-fascism refers to fascist movements after World War II. In Italy, the Italian Social Movement, led by Giorgio Almirante, was a major neo-fascist movement that transformed itself into a self-described "post-fascist" movement called the National Alliance (AN), which has been an ally of Silvio Berlusconi's Forza Italia for a decade. In 2008, AN joined Forza Italia in Berlusconi's new party The People of Freedom. In 2012 a group of politicians split from The People of Freedom, refounding the party with the name Brothers of Italy. In Germany, various neo-Nazi movements have been formed and banned in accordance with Germany's constitutional law which forbids Nazism. The National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) is widely considered a neo-Nazi party, although the party does not publicly identify itself as such.

File:Golden Dawn demonstration 1.jpg

Golden Dawn demonstration in Greece in 2012.

After the onset of the Great Recession and economic crisis in Greece, a movement known as the Golden Dawn, widely considered a neo-Nazi party, soared in support out of obscurity and won seats in Greece's parliament, espousing a staunch hostility towards minorities, illegal immigrants, and refugees. In 2013, after the murder of an anti-fascist musician by a person with links to Golden Dawn, the Greek government ordered the arrest of Golden Dawn's leader Nikolaos Michaloliakos and other Golden Dawn members on charges related to being associated with a criminal organization.

In Israel, the Im Tirtzu movement has been termed a Fascist organization, and a judge ruled that it had "fascist attributes".[158]

## Tenets[edit | edit source]

### Nationalism[edit | edit source]

When defining nationalism, there is widespread agreement among scholars that the origins of nation and nationalism bloomed and gained their modern political meanings and significance during the French Revolution of 1789. The nation was defined by the French Revolution as a democratic, sovereign, secular republic of equal citizens, a definition that dominated nationalist studies and movements throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. One must also consider that "scholarship on nationalism is deeply engrossed in intense debates about the meaning of nation and nationalism, their origins, and their nature and scope." [159] The uncertainty is often caused by scholars' use of subjective or objective criteria to define nations and nationalism, or by seeing them as merely political or cultural phenomena.[159] Some scholars have ascertained that words like race, nationalism and nation are deeply intertwined historically, politically, and culturally. [160]: 4981 Anthony D. Smith and Gottfried Hard, both traditionalists, defined nationalism as "temporary and universal". Smith favored a mixed approach when investigating and analyzing race, nation, and nationalism.. He believed nationalism was rooted in the phenomena of ethnicity and that nationalism was "modern and conventional". According to Smith, nationalism as an approach is a contemporary concept with obvious origins.[160]: 4982

When a nation attains political recognition, it assumes the mantle of nationalism. National consciousness, a sense of unity, is only conveyed to the inhabitants of a certain territory if they are the custodians of their ancient history and traditions and share the same language and religion. They adhere to essential oneness despite their variety. The national consciousness that exists in the minds of the majority is the source of nationalism. Unfortunately, the aforementioned conditions may not always be present. But, it is necessary to unite on other matters. Nationalism cannot emerge otherwise.[160]: 4982

George Friedman opined over the articles and statements asserting that "fascism is rising in Europe, and that Donald Trump is an American example of fascism."[4] He defined it as "a misrepresentation of a very real phenomenon" and that the nation-state is once again becoming the most important part of politics. Some people simply don't consider multilateral trade treaties and international organizations like the European Union to be in the best interest of their respective countries. Friedman believes the idea that fascism is on the rise "derives from a profound misunderstanding of what fascism is." He views it as an attempt to "discredit the resurgence of nationalism and to defend the multinational systems that have dominated the West since World War II."[4]

> "Fascism without the dictator, without the elimination of elections, without suppression of free speech and the right to assemble, isn’t fascism." ~George Friedman[4]

### Totalitarianism[edit | edit source]

Fascism promotes the establishment of a totalitarian state.[161] It opposes liberal democracy, rejects multi-party systems, and supports a one-party state. The Doctrine of Fascism states, "The Fascist conception of the State is all-embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State—a synthesis and a unit inclusive of all values—interprets, develops, and potentiates the whole life of a people."[162] In The Legal Basis of the Total State, Nazi political theorist Carl Schmitt described the Nazi intention to form a "strong state which guarantees a totality of political unity transcending all diversity" in order to avoid a "disastrous pluralism tearing the German people apart".[163]

Fascist states pursued policies of social indoctrination through propaganda in education and the media and regulation of the production of educational and media materials.[164][165] Education was designed to glorify the fascist movement and inform students of its historical and political importance to the nation. It attempted to purge ideas that were not consistent with the beliefs of the fascist movement and to teach students to be obedient to the state.[166]

### Corporatist economic system[edit | edit source]

Main article: Corporatism

See also: Preussentum und Sozialismus

A fascist corporation is a government body that brings together federations of workers and employers syndicates belonging to the same profession and branch, to regulate production in a holistic manner. Each trade union would theoretically represent its professional concerns, especially by negotiation of labour contracts and the like. It was theorized that this method could result in harmony among social classes.[167]

In Italy from 1922 until 1943, corporatism became influential amongst Italian nationalists led by Benito Mussolini. The Charter of Carnaro gained much popularity as the prototype of a "corporative state", having displayed much within its tenets as a guild system combining the concepts of autonomy and authority in a special synthesis.[168] Alfredo Rocco spoke of a corporative state and declared corporatist ideology in detail. Rocco would later become a member of the Italian fascist regime.[169]

The Fascist regime created a corporatist economic system in 1925 with creation of the Palazzo Vidioni Pact, in which the Italian employers' association Confindustria and Fascist trade unions agreed to recognize each other as the sole representatives of Italy's employers and employees, excluding non-Fascist trade unions.[170] The Fascist regime first created a Ministry of Corporations that organized the Italian economy into 22 sectoral corporations, banned workers' strikes and lock-outs, and in 1927 created the Charter of Labour, which established workers' rights and duties and created labour tribunals to arbitrate employer-employee disputes.[170] In practice, the sectoral corporations exercised little independence and were largely controlled by the regime, and employee organizations were rarely led by employees themselves but instead by appointed Fascist party members.[170]

### Economy[edit | edit source]

Main article: Economics of fascism

Fascism presented itself as a third position, alternative to both international socialism and free market capitalism.[171] As a means to increase the country's strength, fascism utilizes the country's assets. Doing so tends to lead to "a nationalization of assets, and in this, fascism resembles Marxism — an anti-capitalist economic, philosophical and political framework of beliefs that promote a classless society."[3] While fascism opposed mainstream socialism, it sometimes regarded itself as a type of "socialism", to highlight their commitment to solidarity and unity.[172][173] Fascists opposed international free market capitalism, but supported a type of productive capitalism.[174]

Fascist governments advocated resolution of domestic class conflict within a nation in order to secure national solidarity.[175] This would be done through the state mediating relations between the classes (contrary to the views of classical liberal-inspired capitalists).[176] While fascism was opposed to domestic class conflict, it was held that bourgeois-proletarian conflict existed primarily in national conflict between proletarian nations versus bourgeois nations.[177] Fascism condemned what it viewed as widespread character traits that it associated as the typical bourgeois mentality that it opposed, such as materialism, crassness, cowardice, inability to comprehend the heroic ideal of the fascist "warrior"; and associations with liberalism, individualism, and parliamentarianism.[178] In 1918, Mussolini defined what he viewed as the proletarian character, defining proletarian as being one and the same with producers, a productivist perspective that associated all people deemed productive, including entrepreneurs, technicians, workers, and soldiers as being proletarian.[179] He acknowledged the historical existence of both bourgeois and proletarian producers, but declared the need for bourgeois producers to merge with proletarian producers.[179]

Fascism claimed to economically represent a type of nationalist productivist socialism that while condemning parasitical capitalism, was willing to accommodate productivist capitalism within it.[174] This was derived from Henri de Saint Simon, whose ideas inspired the creation of utopian socialism and influenced other ideologies, that stressed solidarity rather than class war and whose conception of productive people in the economy included both productive workers and productive bosses to challenge the influence of the aristocracy and unproductive financial speculators.[180] Saint Simon's vision combined the traditionalist right-wing criticisms of the French Revolution combined with a left-wing belief in the need for association or collaboration of productive people in society.[180] Whereas Marxism condemned capitalism as a system of exploitative property relations, fascism saw the nature of the control of credit and money in the contemporary capitalist system as abusive.[174] Fascism did not see class conflict between the Marxist-defined proletariat and the bourgeoisie as a given or as an engine of historical materialism.[174] Instead, it viewed workers and productive capitalists in common as productive people who were in conflict with parasitic elements in society including: corrupt political parties, corrupt financial capital, and feeble people.[174] Fascist leaders such as Mussolini and Hitler spoke of the need to create a new managerial elite led by engineers and captains of industry—but free from the parasitic leadership of industries.[174] Hitler stated that the Nazi Party supported bodenständigen Kapitalismus (productive capitalism) that was based upon profit earned from one's own labour, but condemned unproductive capitalism or loan capitalism, which derived profit from speculation.[181]

Fascist economics supported a state-controlled economy that accepted a mix of private and public ownership over the means of production.[182] Economic planning was applied to both the public and private sector, and the prosperity of private enterprise depended on its acceptance of synchronizing itself with the economic goals of the state.[183] Fascist economic ideology supported the profit motive, but emphasized that industries must uphold the national interest as superior to private profit.[183]

While fascism accepted the importance of material wealth and power, it condemned materialism, which it identified as being present in both communism and capitalism, and criticized materialism for lacking acknowledgement of the role of the spirit.[184] In particular, fascists criticized capitalism not because of its competitive nature nor support of private property, which fascists supported—but due to its materialism, individualism, alleged bourgeois decadence, and alleged indifference to the nation.[185] Fascism denounced Marxism for its advocacy of materialist internationalist class identity, which fascists regarded as an attack upon the emotional and spiritual bonds of the nation and a threat to the achievement of genuine national solidarity.[186]

Economic self-sufficiency, known as autarky, was a major goal of most fascist governments.[187]

In discussing the spread of fascism beyond Italy, historian Philip Morgan states

> Since the Depression was a crisis of laissez-faire capitalism and its political counterpart, parliamentary democracy, fascism could pose as the 'third-way' alternative between capitalism and Bolshevism, the model of a new European 'civilization'. As Mussolini typically put it in early 1934, "from 1929...fascism has become a universal phenomenon... The dominant forces of the 19th century, democracy, socialism, liberalism have been exhausted...the new political and economic forms of the twentieth-century are fascist'(Mussolini 1935: 32).[136]

Fascists promoted social welfare to ameliorate economic conditions affecting their nation or race as a whole, but they did not support social welfare for egalitarian reasons towards those not considered racially embodied with pure German blood. Under an extensive welfare system, over 17 million Germans obtain assistance under the control of  National Socialist People's Welfare (NSV) by 1939, an agency that had “projected a powerful image of caring and support.”[188] The NSV had grown to the second largest Nazi group organization by 1939, dwarfed only by the German Labor Front. The NSV and its Winter Aid and Strength Through Joy provided evidence to the German citizenry that the National Socialists were keeping their promise to create “an organic national community” where “class conflict and social antagonisms would be overcome,” and the “egoism of the individual” would instead surrender to the “overriding interests of the whole.”[189] These programs were designed to “obliterate distinctions of class and status,” and enhance the lives of the ordinary people.[190] Fascists criticized egalitarianism as preserving the weak. They instead promoted social Darwinist views.[191][192]

### Action[edit | edit source]

Fascism emphasizes direct action, including supporting the legitimacy of political violence, as a core part of its politics.[8][193] Fascism views violent action as a necessity in politics that fascism identifies as being an "endless struggle".[194] This emphasis on the use of political violence means that most fascist parties have also created their own private militias (e.g. the Nazi Party's Brown shirts and Fascist Italy's Blackshirts).

The basis of fascism's support of violent action in politics is connected to social Darwinism.[194] Fascist movements have commonly held social Darwinist views of nations, races, and societies.[195] They say that nations and races must purge themselves of socially and biologically weak or degenerate people, while simultaneously promoting the creation of strong people, in order to survive in a world defined by perpetual national and racial conflict.[196]

### Age and gender roles[edit | edit source]

File:Piccole Italiane.jpg

Members of the Piccole Italiane, an organization for girls within the National Fascist Party in Italy.

File:Bundesarchiv Bild 102-04517A, Potsdam, Mädchen in der Führerinnenschule.jpg

Members of the League of German Girls, an organization for girls within the Nazi Party in Germany.

Fascism emphasizes youth both in a physical sense of age and in a spiritual sense as related to virility and commitment to action.[197] The Italian Fascists' political anthem was called Giovinezza ("The Youth").[197] Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people who will affect society.[198]

Italian Fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality.[199] Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered deviant sexual behaviour.[199] It condemned pornography, most forms of birth control and contraceptive devices (with the exception of the condom), homosexuality, and prostitution as deviant sexual behaviour, although enforcement of laws opposed to such practices was erratic and authorities often turned a blind eye.[199] Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth, declared homosexuality a social disease, and pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.[199]

Mussolini perceived women's primary role as primarily child bearers and men, warriors—once saying, "War is to man what maternity is to the woman."[200] In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian Fascist government gave financial incentives to women who raised large families, and initiated policies intended to reduce the number of women employed.[201] Italian Fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation," and the Italian Fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation.[202] In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment," and that for women, working was "incompatible with childbearing." Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force."[203]

The German Nazi government strongly encouraged women to stay at home to bear children and keep house.[204] This policy was reinforced by bestowing the Cross of Honor of the German Mother on women bearing four or more children. The unemployment rate was cut substantially, mostly through arms production and sending women home so that men could take their jobs. Nazi propaganda sometimes promoted premarital and extramarital sexual relations, unwed motherhood and divorce, but at other times the Nazis opposed such behaviour.[205]

The Nazis decriminalized abortion in cases where fetuses had hereditary defects or were of a race the government disapproved of, while the abortion of healthy pure German, Aryan fetuses remained strictly forbidden.[206] For non-Aryans, abortion was often compulsory. Their eugenics program also stemmed from the "progressive biomedical model" of Weimar Germany.[207] In 1935 Nazi Germany expanded the legality of abortion by amending its eugenics law, to promote abortion for women with hereditary disorders.[206] The law allowed abortion if a woman gave her permission and the fetus was not yet viable,[208][209] and for purposes of so-called racial hygiene.[210][211]

The Nazis said that homosexuality was degenerate, effeminate, perverted, and undermined masculinity because it did not produce children.[212] They considered homosexuality curable through therapy, citing modern scientism and the study of sexology, which said that homosexuality could be felt by "normal" people and not just an abnormal minority.[213] Open homosexuals were interned in Nazi concentration camps.[214]

### Palingenesis and modernism[edit | edit source]

Fascism emphasizes both palingenesis and modernism.[215] In particular, fascism's nationalism has been identified as having a palingenetic character. Fascism promotes the regeneration of the nation and purging it of decadence.[215] Fascism accepts forms of modernism that it deems promotes national regeneration while rejecting forms of modernism that are regarded as antithetical to national regeneration.[216] Fascism aestheticized modern technology and its association with speed, power, and violence.[217] Fascism admired advances in the economy in the early 20th century, particularly Fordism and scientific management.[218] Fascist modernism has been recognized as inspired or developed by various figures—such as Filippo Tommaso Marinetti, Ernst Jünger, Gottfried Benn, Louis-Ferdinand Céline, Knut Hamsun, Ezra Pound, and Wyndham Lewis.[219]

In Italy, such modernist influence was exemplified by Marinetti who advocated a palingenetic modernist society that condemned liberal-bourgeois values of tradition and psychology, while promoting a technological-martial religion of national renewal that emphasized militant nationalism.[220] In Germany, it was exemplified by Jünger who was influenced by his observation of the technological warfare during World War I, and claimed that a new social class had been created that he described as the "warrior-worker".[221] Jünger like Marinetti emphasized the revolutionary capacities of technology, and emphasized an "organic construction" between human and machine as a liberating and regenerative force in that challenged liberal democracy, conceptions of individual autonomy, bourgeois nihilism, and decadence.[221] He conceived of a society based on a totalitarian concept of "total mobilization" of such disciplined warrior-workers.[221]

## Criticism of fascism[edit | edit source]

Fascism has been widely criticized and condemned in modern times since the defeat of the Axis Powers in World War II.

### Anti-democratic and tyrannical[edit | edit source]

Further information: Anti-democratic thought

One of the most common and strongest criticisms of fascism is that it is a tyranny.[222] Fascism is deliberately and entirely non-democratic and anti-democratic.[223][224][225]

### Unprincipled opportunism[edit | edit source]

Some critics of Italian fascism have said that much of the ideology was merely a by-product of unprincipled opportunism by Mussolini, and that he changed his political stances merely to bolster his personal ambitions while he disguised them as being purposeful to the public.[226] Richard Washburn Child, the American ambassador to Italy who worked with Mussolini and became his friend and admirer, defended Mussolini's opportunistic behaviour, writing: "Opportunist is a term of reproach used to brand men who fit themselves to conditions for the reasons of self-interest. Mussolini, as I have learned to know him, is an opportunist in the sense that he believed that mankind itself must be fitted to changing conditions rather than to fixed theories, no matter how many hopes and prayers have been expended on theories and programmes."[227] Child quoted Mussolini as saying, "The sanctity of an ism is not in the ism; it has no sanctity beyond its power to do, to work, to succeed in practice. It may have succeeded yesterday and fail to-morrow. Failed yesterday and succeed to-morrow. The machine first of all must run!".[227]

Some have criticized Mussolini's actions during the outbreak of World War I as opportunist for seeming to suddenly abandon Marxist egalitarian internationalism for non-egalitarian nationalism, and note to that effect that upon Mussolini endorsing Italy's intervention in the war against Germany and Austria-Hungary, he and the new fascist movement received financial support from foreign sources, such as Ansaldo (an armaments firm) and other companies[228] as well as the British Security Service MI5.[229] Some, including Mussolini's socialist opponents at the time, have noted that regardless of the financial support he accepted for his pro-interventionist stance, Mussolini was free to write whatever he wished in his newspaper Il Popolo d'Italia, without prior sanctioning from his financial backers.[230] Furthermore, the major source of financial support that Mussolini and the fascist movement received in World War I was from France, and is widely believed to have been French socialists who supported the French government's war against Germany and who sent support to Italian socialists who wanted Italian intervention on France's side.[231]

Mussolini's transformation away from Marxism into what eventually became fascism began prior to World War I, as Mussolini had grown increasingly pessimistic about Marxism and egalitarianism while becoming increasingly supportive of figures who opposed egalitarianism, such as Friedrich Nietzsche.[232] By 1902, Mussolini was studying Georges Sorel, Nietzsche, and Vilfredo Pareto.[233] Sorel's emphasis on the need for overthrowing decadent liberal democracy and capitalism by the use of violence, direct action, general strikes and neo-Machiavellian appeals to emotion impressed Mussolini deeply.[234] Mussolini's use of Nietzsche made him a highly unorthodox socialist, due to Nietzsche's promotion of elitism and anti-egalitarian views.[232] Prior to World War I, Mussolini's writings over time indicated that he had abandoned the Marxism and egalitarianism that he had previously supported, in favour of Nietzsche's übermensch concept and anti-egalitarianism.[232] In 1908, Mussolini wrote a short essay called "Philosophy of Strength" based on his Nietzschean influence, in which Mussolini openly spoke fondly of the ramifications of an impending war in Europe in challenging both religion and nihilism: "a new kind of free spirit will come, strengthened by the war, ... a spirit equipped with a kind of sublime perversity, ... a new free spirit will triumph over God and over Nothing."[85]

### Ideological dishonesty[edit | edit source]

Fascism has been criticized for being ideologically dishonest.

Major examples of ideological dishonesty have been identified in Italian fascism's changing relationship with German Nazism.[235][236] Fascist Italy's official foreign policy positions were known to commonly utilize rhetorical ideological hyperbole to justify its actions, although during Dino Grandi's tenure as Italy's foreign minister, the country engaged in realpolitik free of such fascist hyperbole.[237] Italian fascism's stance towards German Nazism fluctuated from support from the late 1920s to 1934, when it celebrated Hitler's rise to power and meeting with Hitler in 1934; to opposition from 1934 to 1936 after the assassination of Italy's allied leader in Austria, Engelbert Dollfuss, by Austrian Nazis; and again back to support after 1936, when Germany was the only significant power that did not denounce Italy's invasion and occupation of Ethiopia.

After antagonism exploded between Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy over the assassination of Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss in 1934, Mussolini and Italian fascists denounced and ridiculed Nazism's racial theories, particularly by denouncing its Nordicism, while promoting Mediterraneanism.[236] Mussolini himself responded to Nordicists' claims of Italy being divided into Nordic and Mediterranean racial areas due to Germanic invasions of Northern Italy, by claiming that while Germanic tribes such as the Lombards took control of Italy after the fall of Ancient Rome, they arrived in small numbers (about 8,000) and quickly assimilated into Roman culture and spoke the Latin language within fifty years.[238] Italian fascism was influenced by the tradition of Italian nationalists scornfully looking down upon Nordicists' claims, and taking pride in comparing the age and sophistication of ancient Roman civilization as well as the classical revival in the Renaissance, to that of Nordic societies that Italian nationalists described as "newcomers" to civilization in comparison.[235] At the height of antagonism between the Nazis and Italian fascists over race, Mussolini claimed that the Germans themselves were not a pure race and noted with irony that the Nazi theory of German racial superiority was based on the theories of non-German foreigners, such as Frenchman Arthur de Gobineau.[239] After the tension in German-Italian relations diminished during the late 1930s, Italian fascism sought to harmonize its ideology with German Nazism and combined Nordicist and Mediterranean racial theories, noting that Italians were members of the Aryan Race, composed of a mixed Nordic-Mediterranean subtype.[236]

Mussolini declared in 1938, upon Italy's adoption of antisemitic laws, that Italian fascism had always been antisemitic,[236] In fact, Italian fascism did not endorse antisemitism until the late 1930s, when Mussolini feared alienating antisemitic Nazi Germany, whose power and influence were growing in Europe. Prior to that period there had been notable Jewish Italians who had been senior Italian fascist officials, including Margherita Sarfatti, who had also been Mussolini's mistress.[236] Also, contrary to Mussolini's claim in 1938, only a small number of Italian fascists were staunchly antisemitic (such as Roberto Farinacci and Giuseppe Preziosi) while others, such as Italo Balbo, who came from Ferrara, which had one of Italy's largest Jewish communities, were disgusted by the antisemitic laws and opposed them.[236] Fascism scholar Mark Neocleous notes that while Italian fascism did not have a clear commitment to antisemitism, there were occasional antisemitic statements issued prior to 1938, such as Mussolini in 1919 declaring that the Jewish bankers in London and New York were connected by race to the Russian Bolsheviks, and that eight percent of the Russian Bolsheviks were Jews.[240]

## Distinctions between fascism and other ideologies[edit | edit source]

### Fascism as being associated with socialism[edit | edit source]

According to David McGowan, Benito Mussolini posed as a socialist writer in order to gain credentials so he could pass his anti-democratic ideology off as a popular movement. Once in office, the regime targeted labour by outlawing strikes and nationalizing all independent trade unions, while imposing mandatory union membership upon all Italian workers.[241] In Germany, mass arrests led to members of the left being placed in concentration camps. The supposed alliance between Germany and the Soviet Union from August 1939 to June 1941 was a non-aggression pact that included tremendous trade of raw materials to Germany and industrial equipment to Russia. [242]

An avowed Marxist and a leader of the “Bolshevik wing of the Italian Socialist Party” during his early years,[243] in one of his last interviews in 1945 Mussolini said: “I have been and am a socialist. The accusation of inconsistency has no foundation.[244] Earlier, Mussolini had fancied himself as the “Lenin of Italy” during the 1919 Italian elections as a candidate for his Fascist Revolutionary Party (Partito Fascista Rivoluzionario PFR),.[245] As late as 1921, Mussolini publicly bragged about his “paternity” to the Italian communist movement, declaring before the Italy’s Chamber of Deputies, as a newly elected Fascist member: “I know the Communists. I know them because some of them are my children…”[246] Others, such as Richard Pipes, argued that “Mussolini never concealed his sympathy and admiration for Communism”, contending that the Duce “thought highly of Lenin’s ‘brutal energy,’ and saw nothing objectionable in Bolshevik massacres of hostages.”[247]

Under German fascism, Hitler also professed his dedication to socialism in public and private, confiding to his economic advisor, Otto Wagener, that “We want to start by implementing socialism in our nation among our Volk! It is not until the individual nations are socialist that they can address themselves to international socialism.”[248] In public, Hitler delivered a 1920 speech declaring that “we are socialists,” who must exhibit the social ideal that a state could not bring about a “lasting inner health if it is not built on internal social justice.”[249]

### Nazism as being associated with Marxism and Bolshevism[edit | edit source]

In Chapter 7 of Mein Kampf named The Conflict with the Red Forces, Adolf Hitler commented on how red was chosen for posters to irritate the Left so as to attract supporters of the Red Flag he described as adversaries that had been instructed to end their meetings. He further expressed amusement at the "silly faint-hearted bourgeoisie and their efforts to puzzle out our origin, our intentions and our aims". [250] Nonetheless, Hitler admitted in Mein Kampf that should the “National Socialist movement” fail to understand the fundamental “significance of race,” it “would really do nothing more than compete with Marxism on its own ground.”[251] In a private conversation with Otto Wagener, Hitler professed that “What Marxism, Leninism and Stalinism failed to accomplish, we shall be in a position to achieve,”[252] and that “National Socialists wish precisely to attract all socialists, even the Communists;…” [253]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Clerical fascism
* Christofascism
* Economics of fascism
* Fascism and ideology
* Islamofascism
* Nazism

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96. ^ Peter Neville. Mussolini. Oxon, England; New York, New York: Routledge, 2004. p. 36.
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138. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England: Routledge, 2005. pp. 282–88.
139. ^ Stuart Joseph Woolf. Fascism in Europe. 3rd Edition. Taylor & Francis, 1983. p. 311.
140. ^ Stanley G. Payne. A history of fascism, 1914–1945. Digital Printing edition. Oxon, England: Routledge, 2005. p. 145.
141. ^ Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, pp. 150–52
142. ^ Stanley G. Payne, A History of Fascism: 1914–1945, London: Routledge, 2001, pp. 341–42.
143. ^ Günter Berghaus. Fascism and theatre: comparative studies on the aesthetics and politics of performance. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 2000. pp. 136–37
144. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 189.
145. ^ R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich, Clarendon Press (Oxford University Press), 1994, p.16
146. ^ Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford: UK, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 59; Mussolini’s speech to the Chamber of Deputies was on May 26, 1934
147. ^ Gianni Toniolo, editor, The Oxford Handbook of the Italian Economy Since Unification, Oxford: UK, Oxford University Press, 2013, p. 59
148. ^ Martin Blinkhorn, Mussolini and Fascist Italy, New York: NY, Routledge, 1991, p. 26
149. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 72.
150. ^ Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 190.
151. ^ Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. New York, New York: Routledge, 2001. p. 51.
152. ^ Aristotle A. Kallis. Fascist ideology: territory and expansionism in Italy and Germany, 1922–1945. New York, New York: Routledge, 2001. p. 53.
153. ^ Davide Rodogno. Fascism's European empire. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 47.
154. ^ a b Eugene Davidson. The Unmaking of Adolf Hitler. Columbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Press, 2004 pp. 371–72.
155. ^ MacGregor Knox. Mussolini unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 122–23.
156. ^ MacGregor Knox. Mussolini unleashed, 1939–1941: Politics and Strategy in Fascist Italy's Last War. Edition of 1999. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1999. pp. 122–27.
157. ^ a b Blamires, Cyprian, World Fascism: a Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006) p. 512.
158. ^ "Rejecting bulk of libel suit, court rules Im Tirtzu movement can be likened to Fascism – National".
159. ^ a b Dar, Abdul Maajid (2022-11-17). "Revisiting key debates in the study of nationalism". Humanities and Social Sciences Communications. Springer Science and Business Media LLC. 9 (1): 1. doi:10.1057/s41599-022-01432-w. ISSN 2662-9992.
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162. ^ Mussolini, Benito. 1935. Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers. p 14.
163. ^ Griffin, Roger (ed). 1995. "The Legal Basis of the Total State" – by Carl Schmitt. Fascism. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 72.
164. ^ Pauley, Bruce F. (2003). Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century Italy. Wheeling: Harlan Davidson, Inc. Pauley. p. 117.
165. ^ Payne, Stanley G. 1996. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Routledge p. 220
166. ^ Pauley, 2003. 117–119.
167. ^ Mazower, Mark (1999). Dark Continent: Europe's 20th Century. p. 29\. ISBN 0-679-43809-2.
168. ^ Parlato, Giuseppe (2000). La sinistra fascista (in Italian). Bologna: Il Mulino. p. 88.
169. ^ Payne, Stanley G. (1996). A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Routledge. p. 64\. ISBN 1-85728-595-6.
170. ^ a b c Cyprian Blamires, Paul Jackson. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 150.
171. ^ Steve Bastow, James Martin. Third Way Discourse: European Ideologies in the Twentieth Century. Edinburgh University Press Ltd, 2003. p. 36.
172. ^ Benito Mussolini, Doctrine of Fascism (1932).
173. ^ Blamires, Cyprian, World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 (Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc, 2006) p. 610.
174. ^ a b c d e f Alberto Spektorowski, Liza Ireni-Saban. Politics of Eugenics: Productionism, Population, and National Welfare. Routledge, 2013.
175. ^ Griffin, Roger. The Nature of Fascism (New York: St. Martins Press, 1991) pp. 222–23.
176. ^ Calvin B. Hoover, The Paths of Economic Change: Contrasting Tendencies in the Modern World, The American Economic Review, Vol. 25, No. 1, Supplement, Papers and Proceedings of the Forty-seventh Annual Meeting of the American Economic Association. (March 1935), pp. 13–20.
177. ^ Neocleous, Mark, Fascism (Minneapolis, MN: Minnesota University Press, 1997) pp. 21–22.
178. ^ Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 102.
179. ^ a b Marco Piraino, Stefano Fiorito. Fascist Identity. pp. 39–41.
180. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 535.
181. ^ Jonathan C. Friedman. The Routledge History of the Holocaust. Routledge, 2011. p. 24.
182. ^ Robert Millward. Private and public enterprise in Europe: energy, telecommunications and transport, 1830–1990. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, p. 178.
183. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006. p. 189.
184. ^ Peter Davies, Derek Lynch. The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right. Routledge, 2002. p. 103.
185. ^ Robert O. Paxton. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books edition. Vintage Books, 2005. p. 10.
186. ^ John Breuilly. Nationalism and the State. University of Chicago Press edition. University of Chicago, 1994. p. 290.
187. ^ Alexander J. De Grand, Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, Routledge, 1995. pp. 60–61
188. ^ Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939, New York: NY, The Penguin Press, 2005, p. 489
189. ^ Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939, Penguin Press, 2005, p.492
190. ^ Richard J. Evans, The Third Reich in Power, 1933-1939, Penguin Press, 2005, p.492
191. ^ Griffen, Roger; Feldman, Matthew. Fascism: Critical Concepts. p. 353. "When the Russian revolution occurred in 1917 and the 'Democratic' revolution spread after the First World War, anti-bolshevism and anti-egalitarianism rose as very strong "restoration movements" on the European scene. However, by the turn of that century no one could predict that fascism would become such a concrete, political reaction ..."
192. ^ Hawkins, Mike. Social Darwinism in European and American Thought, 1860–1945: Nature as Model and Nature as Threat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. p. 285. "Conflict is in fact the basic law of life in all social organisms, as it is of all biological ones; societies are formed, gain strength, and move forwards through conflict; the healthiest and most vital of them assert themselves against the weakest and less well adapted through conflict; the natural evolution of nations and races takes place through conflict." Alfredo Rocco, Italian Fascist.
193. ^ John Breuilly. Nationalism and the State. p. 294.
194. ^ a b Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology. Routledge. Oxon, England; New York, New York: Routledge, 2010. p. 106.
195. ^ Payne, Stanley G. A History of Fascism, 1914–1945. Routledge, 1996. pp. 485–86.
196. ^ Griffin, Roger (ed.). Fascism. Oxford University Press, 1995. p. 59.
197. ^ a b Mark Antliff. Avant-Garde Fascism: The Mobilization of Myth, Art, and Culture in France, 1909–1939. Duke University Press, 2007. p. 171.
198. ^ Maria Sop Quine. Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies. Routledge, 1995. p. 47.
199. ^ a b c d Maria Sop Quine. Population Politics in Twentieth Century Europe: Fascist Dictatorships and Liberal Democracies. Routledge, 1995. pp. 46–47.
200. ^ Bollas, Christopher, Being a Character: Psychoanalysis and Self-Experience (Routledge, 1993) ISBN 978-0-415-08815-2, p. 205.
201. ^ McDonald, Harmish, Mussolini and Italian Fascism (Nelson Thornes, 1999) p. 27.
202. ^ Mann, Michael. Fascists (Cambridge University Press, 2004) p. 101.
203. ^ Durham, Martin, Women and Fascism (Routledge, 1998) p. 15.
204. ^ Evans, pp. 331–32
205. ^ Allen, Ann Taylor, Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism: Memory and Morality in Twentieth-Century Germany H-German, H-Net Reviews, January 2006
206. ^ a b Friedlander, Henry (1995). The origins of Nazi genocide: from euthanasia to the final solution. Chapel Hill, North Carolina: University of North Carolina Press. p. 30. ISBN 0-8078-4675-9. OCLC 60191622.
207. ^ McLaren, Angus, Twentieth-Century Sexuality p. 139 Blackwell Publishing 1999
208. ^ Proctor, Robert E. (1989). Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 366. ISBN 0-674-74578-7. OCLC 20760638. "This emendation allowed abortion only if the woman granted permission, and only if the fetus was not old enough to survive outside the womb. It is unclear if either of these qualifications was enforced."
209. ^ Arnot, Margaret; Cornelie Usborne (1999). Gender and Crime in Modern Europe. New York City: Routledge. p. 241. ISBN 1-85728-745-2. OCLC 249726924.
210. ^ Proctor, Robert E. (1989). Racial Hygiene: Medicine Under the Nazis. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 122–23. ISBN 0-674-74578-7. OCLC 20760638. "Abortion, in other words, could be allowed if it was in the interest of racial hygiene ... the Nazis did allow (and in some cases even required) abortions for women deemed racially inferior ... On November 10, 1938, a Luneberg court declared abortion legal for Jews."
211. ^ Tierney, Helen (1999). Women's studies encyclopedia. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 589. ISBN 0-313-31072-6. OCLC 38504469. "In 1939, it was announced that Jewish women could seek abortions, but non-Jewish women could not."
212. ^ Evans, p. 529
213. ^ Allen, Ann Taylor, Review of Dagmar Herzog, Sex after Fascism January 2006
214. ^ "Persecution of Homosexuals in the Third Reich". Ushmm.org. Retrieved 4 June 2010.
215. ^ a b Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006 p. 168.
216. ^ Cyprian Blamires. World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2006 pp. 168–69.
217. ^ Mark Neocleous. Fascism. University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 63.
218. ^ Mark Neocleous. Fascism. University of Minnesota Press, 1997. p. 65.
219. ^ "Fascist Modernism" by Jobst Welge. Astradur Eysteinsson (ed.), Vivian Liska (ed.). Modernism, Volumes 1–2. John Benjamins Publishing, 2007. p. 547.
220. ^ "Fascist Modernism" by Jobst Welge. Astradur Eysteinsson (ed.), Vivian Liska (ed.). Modernism, Volumes 1–2. John Benjamins Publishing, 2007. p. 550.
221. ^ a b c "Fascist Modernism" by Jobst Welge. Astradur Eysteinsson (ed.), Vivian Liska (ed.). Modernism, Volumes 1–2. John Benjamins Publishing, 2007. p. 553.
222. ^ Roger Boesche. Theories of Tyranny, from Plato to Arendt. p. 11.
223. ^ Paul Barry Clarke, Joe Foweraker. Encyclopedia of Democratic Thought. Routledge, 2001. p. 540.
224. ^ John Pollard. The Fascist Experience in Italy. Routledge, 1998. p. 121.
225. ^ Roger Griffin. The Nature of Fascism. New York, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1991. p. 42.
226. ^ Gerhard Schreiber, Bernd Stegemann, Detlef Vogel. Germany and the Second World War: Volume III: The Mediterranean, South-East Europe, and North Africa 1939–1941 (From Italy's Declaration of Non-Belligerence to the Entry of the United States into the War) (Oxford University Press, 1995) p. 111.
227. ^ a b Mussolini, Benito, My Rise And Fall, Volumes 1–2. Da Capo Press ed. (Da Capo Press, 1998) p. ix. (Note: Mussolini wrote the second volume about his fall from power as head of government of the Kingdom of Italy in 1943, though he was restored to power in northern Italy by the German military.)
228. ^ Smith, Dennis Mack,Modern Italy; A Political History. (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1997) p. 284.
229. ^ Kington, Tom (13 October 2009). "Recruited by MI5: the name's Mussolini. Benito Mussolini – Documents reveal Italian dictator got start in politics in 1917 with help of £100 weekly wage from MI5". Guardian. UK. Retrieved 14 October 2009.
230. ^ O'Brien, Paul, Mussolini in the First World War: The Journalist, The Soldier, The Fascist, p. 37.
231. ^ Gregor 1979, p. 200.
232. ^ a b c Golomb & Wistrich 2002, p. 249.
233. ^ Delzel, Charles F., ed. Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 (Harper Rowe, 1970) p. 96.
234. ^ Delzel, Charles F., ed. Mediterranean Fascism 1919–1945 (Harper Rowe, 1970) p. 3.
235. ^ a b Aaron Gillette. Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. London, England; New York, New York: Routledge, 2001. p. 17.
236. ^ a b c d e f John Pollard. The Fascist Experience in Italy. Routledge, 1998. p. 129.
237. ^ H. James Burgwyn. Italian Foreign Policy in the Interwar Period, 1918–1940. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1997. p. 58.
238. ^ Aaron Gillette. Racial Theories in Fascist Italy. London, England; New York, New York: Routledge, 2001. p. 93.
239. ^ Gillette, Aaron. Racial theories in fascist Italy. London, England; New York, New York: Routledge, 2002. p. 45.
240. ^ Mark Neocleous. Fascism. Open University Press, 1997. pp. 35–36.
241. ^ Gaetano Salvemini, The Fate of Trade Unions Under Fascism, Chap. 3: "Italian Trade Unions Under Fascism", 1937, p. 35
242. ^ McGowan, David (21 June 2001). Understanding the F-Word: American Fascism and the Politics of Illusion. iUniverse. ISBN 978-0595186402.
243. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini, New York: NY, Vintage Books, 1983, p. 96
244. ^ Ivanoe Fossani, journalist, “Soliloquy for ‘freedom’ Trimellone island”, on the Italian Island of Trimelone, one of the last interviews of Mussolini, March 20, 1945, from Opera omnia, vol. 32. Interview is also known as "Testament of Benito Mussolini, or Testamento di Benito Mussolini. Also published under “Mussolini confessed to the stars”, Publishing House Latinitas, Rome, 1952. (Intervista di Ivanoe Fossani, Soliloquio in “libertà” all'isola Trimellone, Isola del Trimellone, 20 marzo 1945)
245. ^ Denis Mack Smith, Modern Italy: A Political History, University of Michigan Press, 1997, p. 284
246. ^ Ernst Nolte, The Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, Henry Holt & Company, Inc.; first edition, 1966, p. 154. Original source: Opera Omnia di Benito Mussolini, XVI, 440. Speech was given on June 21, 1921 in Italy’s Chamber of Deputies
247. ^ Richard Pipes, Russia Under The Bolshevik Regime, New York: NY, Vintage Books, 1995, p. 252
248. ^ Otto Wagener, Hitler—Memoirs of a Confidant, editor, Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., Yale University Press,1985, p. 288
249. ^ Adolf Hitler, “Why We Are Anti-Semites,” August 15, 1920 speech in Munich at the Hofbräuhaus. Speech also known as “Why Are We Anti-Semites?” Translated from Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 16. Jahrg., 4. H. (Oct., 1968), pp. 390-420. Edited by Carolyn Yeager. [1]
250. ^ Hitler, Adolf (21 March 1939). Mein Kampf. Hurst and Blackett LTD.
251. ^ Mein Kampf, Volume Two - The National Socialist Movement, Chapter IV: “Personality and the Conception of the Folkish State”, 1926
252. ^ Otto Wagener, Hitler—Memoirs of a Confidant, Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., editor, New Haven: CT, Yale University Press, 1985, p. 149
253. ^ Otto Wagener, in Hitler—Memoirs of a Confidant, editor, Henry Ashby Turner, Jr., Yale University Press, 1985, p. 26

### Primary sources[edit | edit source]

* Gentile, Giovanni. 1932. The Doctrine of Fascism. Enciclopedia Italiana.
* de Oliveira Salazar, António. 1939. Doctrine and Action: Internal and Foreign Policy of the New Portugal, 1928–1939. Faber and Faber.
* Mosley, Sir Oswald. 1968. My Life. Nelson Publications.
* de Rivera, José Antonio Primo. 1971. Textos de Doctrina Politica. Madrid.
* Mussolini, Benito. 1998. My Rise And Fall . Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80864-1
* Ciano, Galezzo. 2001. The Ciano Diaries, 1939–1943. Simon Publications. ISBN 1-931313-74-1
* Mussolini, Benito. 2006. My Autobiography: With "The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism". Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-44777-4

### Secondary sources[edit | edit source]

* Blamires, Cyprian. World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc., 2006.
* Costa Pinto, Antonio, ed. Rethinking the Nature of Fascism: Comparative Perspectives (Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 287 pages
* Evans, Richard J, The Third Reich in Power: 1933–1939, The Penguin Press HC, 2005
* De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice. Transaction Books. ISBN 0-87855-619-2
* De Felice, Renzo. 1977. Interpretations of Fascism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-45962-8.
* Kitsikis, Dimitri. 2005. Pour une étude scientifique du fascisme. Ars Magna Editions. ISBN 2-912164-11-7.
* Kitsikis, Dimitri. 2006. Jean-Jacques Rousseau et les origines françaises du fascisme. Ars Magna Editions. ISBN 2-912164-46-X.
* Ben-Am, Shlomo. 1983. Fascism from Above: The Dictatorship of Primo de Rivera in Spain, 1923–1930. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-822596-2
* Payne, Stanley G. 1987. The Franco Regime, 1936–1975. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-11070-2
* Vatikiotis, Panayiotis J. 1988. Popular Autocracy in Greece, 1936–1941: A Political Biography of General Ioannis Metaxas. Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-4869-8
* Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914–45. University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-14874-2
* Costa Pinto, António. 1995. Salazar's Dictatorship and European Fascism: Problems of Interpretation. Social Science Monographs. ISBN 0-88033-968-3
* Golomb, Jacob; Wistrich, Robert S. 2002. Nietzsche, godfather of fascism?: on the uses and abuses of a philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
* Griffiths, Richard. 2001. An Intelligent Person's Guide to Fascism. Duckworth. ISBN 0-7156-2918-2
* Gregor, Anthony James. 1979. Young Mussolini and the intellectual origins of fascism. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California, US; London, England: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03799-1
* Lewis, Paul H. 2002. Latin Fascist Elites: The Mussolini, Franco, and Salazar Regimes. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-97880-X
* McGaughey, Ewan. 2016. 'Fascism-Lite in America (or the Social Ideal of Donald Trump)'. TLI Think! Paper 26/2016
* Payne, Stanley G. 2003. Falange: A History of Spanish Fascism. Textbook Publishers. ISBN 0-7581-3445-2
* Paxton, Robert O. 2005. The Anatomy of Fascism. Vintage Books. ISBN 1-4000-3391-8
* Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
* Nolte, Ernst The Three Faces of Fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, translated from the German by Leila Vennewitz, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1965.
* Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
* Richman, Sheldon (2008). Fascism. The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-0865976658. OCLC 237794267.
* Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
* Seldes, George. 1943, reprinted 2009. Facts and Fascism. New York: In Fact. ISBN 0-930852-43-5. p. 288.
* Sohn-Rethel, Alfred Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, London, CSE Bks, 1978 ISBN 0-906336-00-7
* Kallis, Aristotle A., "To Expand or Not to Expand? Territory, Generic Fascism and the Quest for an 'Ideal Fatherland'" Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 38, No. 2. (Apr. 2003), pp. 237–60.
* Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-505780-5
* Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism," chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991, Routledge, London.
* Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 0-19-511793-X
* Sauer, Wolfgang "National Socialism: totalitarianism or fascism?" pp. 404–24 from The American Historical Review, Volume 73, Issue #2, December 1967.
* Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution., Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. + Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006, pp. 227–50
* Baker, David. "The political economy of fascism: Myth or reality, or myth and reality?" New Political Economy, Volume 11, Issue 2 June 2006, pp. 227–50
* Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin's Press.
* Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, (Contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.)
* Gentile, Emilio. 2005. The Origins of Fascist Ideology, 1918–1925: The First Complete Study of the Origins of Italian Fascism, New York: Enigma Books, ISBN 978-1-929631-18-6
* De Grand, Alexander J. Routledge, 2004. Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: the 'fascist' style of rule
* Caplan, Bryan (2008). "Fascism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp. 166–68. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n103. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC 750831024.

## External links[edit | edit source]

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* v
* t
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Authoritarian and totalitarian forms of government

Forms|

* Absolute monarchy
* Autocracy
* Benevolent dictatorship
* Constitutional dictatorship
* Communist state
* Counterintelligence state
* Dictablanda
* Dictatorship
* Dominant-party system
* Mafia state
* Managerial state
* Military dictatorship
* Ochlocracy
* One-party state
* Oligarchy
* Police state
* Theocracy
* Tsarist autocracy

Concepts|

* Authoritarian capitalism
* Authoritarian democracy
* Authoritarian socialism
* Despotism
* Ecoauthoritarianism
* Éminence grise
* Enlightened absolutism
* Fascism
* Illiberal democracy
* Imperialism
* Inverted totalitarianism
* Nazism
* Power behind the throne
* Right-wing authoritarianism
* Social engineering
* Soft despotism
* Soft tyranny
* Statism
* State within a state
* Marxism–Leninism
* Stalinism
* Maoism
* Militarism
* Third Position
* Totalitarian democracy
* Tyranny
* Tyranny of the majority

* v
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* e

List of political ideologies

* Anti-establishment
* Centrism
* Hardline
* Left-wing politics
* Reactionary
* Revolutionary
* Right-wing politics
* The Establishment

* Agrarianism
* Anarchism
* Authoritarianism
* Capitalism
* Centrism
* Christian democracy
* Collectivism
* Colonialism
* Communalism
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Conservatism
* Constitutionalism
* Corporatism
* Democracy
* Distributism
* Environmentalism
* Extremism
* Familialism
* Fanaticism
* Fascism
* Federalism
* Feminism
* Fundamentalism
* Globalism
* Green
* Hindu nationalism (Hindutva)
* Imperialism
* Individualism
* Industrialism
* Intellectualism
* Interculturalism
* Internationalism
* Islamism
* Leftism
* Legalism
* Liberalism
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* Marxism
* Masculism
* Militarism
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* Progressivism
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* Royalism
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* Separatism
* Social anarchism
* Social credit
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Statism
* Syncretism
* Technocracy
* Third Way
* Totalitarianism
* Utilitarianism
* White supremacy
* Zionism

* v
* t
* e

Fascism

Theory

| Core tenets|

* Nationalism
* Imperialism
* Authoritarianism
* Totalitarianism
* One-party state
* Dictatorship
* Cult of personality
* Direct action
* Social Darwinism
* Social interventionism
* Indoctrination
* Proletarian nation
* Propaganda
* Eugenics
* Heroism
* Militarism
* Economic interventionism
* Protectionism
* Statolatry
* Syndicalism
* New Man
* Social order
* Anti-communism
* Anti-democracy

|

Topics|

* Definitions
* Economics
* Fascism and ideology
* Fascism worldwide
* Symbolism

Ideas|

* Actual Idealism
* Anti-democratic thought
* Class collaboration
* Corporatism
* Heroic capitalism
* National capitalism
* National Socialism (Nazism)
* National syndicalism
* State capitalism
* Supercapitalism
* Third Position
* Totalitarianism
* Social order

Fascist fasces

Variants

* Austrian
* British
* Clerical
* Falangism
* Integralism
* Italian
* Japanese
* Legionarism
* National Bolshevism
* National Radicalism
* Nazism
* National Syndicalism
* Neo
* Proto
* Revisionist Maximalism
* Rexism
* Strasserism
* Techno-fascism

Movements

| Africa|

* Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging
* Greyshirts
* Muslim Association of the Lictor
* Ossewabrandwag
* Young Egypt Party (1933)

|

Asia|

* Al-Muthanna Club
* Brit HaBirionim
* Concordia Association
* Ganap Party
* Grey Wolves
* Imperial Rule Assistance Association
* Philippine Falange
* Sakurakai
* Tōhōkai
* Blue Shirts Society
* Korean National Youth Association

Northern / Northwestern Europe|

* Ailtirí na hAiséirghe
* Black Front (Netherlands)
* Blueshirts
* Breton Social-National Workers' Movement
* British Fascists
* British People's Party (1939)
* British Union of Fascists
* La Cagoule
* Clerical People's Party
* Faisceau
* Flemish National Union
* French Popular Party
* General Dutch Fascist League
* Imperial Fascist League
* Lapua Movement
* Nasjonal Samling
* National Corporate Party
* National Fascisti
* Nationalist Party (Iceland)
* National Socialist Bloc
* National Socialist Dutch Workers Party
* National Socialist League
* National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands
* National Socialist Movement of Norway
* National Socialist Workers' Party of Denmark
* National Socialist Workers' Party (Sweden)
* New Party (UK)
* Patriotic People's Movement (Finland)
* Pērkonkrusts
* Rexist Party

Central Europe|

* Arrow Cross Party
* Austrian National Socialism
* Eidgenössische Sammlung
* Fatherland Front (Austria)
* German National Movement in Liechtenstein
* German National Socialist Workers' Party (Czechoslovakia)
* Liechtenstein Homeland Service
* National Front (Switzerland)
* National Movement of Switzerland
* National Radical Camp Falanga
* National Radical Camp (1934)
* National Union (Switzerland)
* Nazism
* Nazi Party
* Sudeten German Party
* Volksdeutsche Bewegung

Southern Europe|

* Albanian Fascist Party
* Democratic Fascist Party
* Falange
* Freethinkers' Party
* Greek National Socialist Party
* Italian fascism
* Italian Social Republic
* Metaxism
* National Fascist Party
* Republican Fascist Party
* Sammarinese Fascist Party
* Ustaše
* Yugoslav Radical Union
* ZBOR

Eastern and Southeastern Europe|

* Bulgarian National Socialist Workers Party
* Crusade of Romanianism
* Iron Guard
* National-Christian Defense League
* National Fascist Community
* National Fascist Movement
* National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement
* National Social Movement (Bulgaria)
* National Radical Camp Falanga
* National Romanian Fascio
* National Renaissance Front
* Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists
* Ratniks (Bulgaria)
* Romanian Front
* Russian Fascist Party
* Russian Women's Fascist Movement
* Slovak People's Party
* Union of Bulgarian National Legions
* Vlajka

North America|

* Fascism in Canada
* Canadian Union of Fascists
* Parti national social chrétien
* Christian Party (United States, 1930s)
* Gold shirts
* German American Bund
* Silver Legion of America

South America|

* Argentine Fascist Party
* Argentine Patriotic League
* Brazilian Integralism
* Brazilian Integralist Action
* Bolivian Socialist Falange
* Falangism in Latin America
* National Fascist Party (Argentina)
* National Fascist Union (Argentina)
* Nationalist Liberation Alliance
* National Socialist Movement of Chile
* Revolutionary Union

People

* Abba Ahimeir
* Gabriele D'Annunzio
* Nimio de Anquín
* Ion Antonescu
* Sadao Araki
* Adrien Arcand
* Radasłaŭ Astroŭski
* Marc Augier
* Maurice Bardèche
* John Beckett
* Jacques Benoist-Méchin
* Henri Béraud
* Werner Best
* Pierre Biétry
* Luis Carrero Blanco
* Zoltán Böszörmény
* Giuseppe Bottai
* Robert Brasillach
* Josef Bühler
* Marcelo Caetano
* Alphonse de Châteaubriant
* Corneliu Zelea Codreanu
* Gustavs Celmiņš
* Chen Gongbo
* Frits Clausen
* Enrico Corradini
* Carlo Costamagna
* Charles Coughlin
* Nichifor Crainic
* A. C. Cuza
* Richard Walther Darré
* Alceste De Ambris
* Marcel Déat
* Léon Degrelle
* Paul Déroulède
* Savitri Devi
* Roman Dmowski
* Engelbert Dollfuss
* Ion Dragoumis
* Pierre Drieu La Rochelle
* Aleksandr Dugin
* Julius Evola
* Gottfried Feder
* Albert Forster
* Hans Frank
* Friedrich Franz V
* Rashid Ali al-Gaylani
* Giovanni Gentile
* Ion Gigurtu
* Joseph Goebbels
* Octavian Goga
* Puyi
* Jorge González von Marées
* Hermann Göring
* Giuliano Gozi
* Arthur Greiser
* Fritz Grobba
* Hans F. K. Günther
* Wilhelm Gustloff
* Emil Hácha
* Rudolf Hess
* Reinhard Heydrich
* Heinrich Himmler
* Adolf Hitler
* Émile Janvion
* Wang Jingwei
* William Joyce
* Bronislav Kaminski
* Max Leo Keller
* Ikki Kita
* Yevhen Konovalets
* Alexandros Koryzis
* Vihtori Kosola
* Fritz Julius Kuhn
* Agostino Lanzillo
* Lee Beom seok
* Charles Lindbergh
* Dimitrije Ljotić
* Leopoldo Lugones
* Hristo Lukov
* Curzio Malaparte
* Nikola Mandić
* Maximiliano Hernández Martínez
* Tefik Mborja
* Robert Michels
* Oswald Mosley
* Asit Krishna Mukherji
* Heinrich Müller
* Benito Mussolini
* Eoin O'Duffy
* Gearóid Ó Cuinneagáin
* Sergio Panunzio
* Giovanni Papini
* Ante Pavelić
* William Dudley Pelley
* Philippe Pétain
* Ernest Peterlin
* Plaek Phibunsongkhram
* Bolesław Piasecki
* Alfred Ploetz
* Robert Poulet
* Ezra Pound
* José Antonio Primo de Rivera
* Ramiro Ledesma Ramos
* Francisco Franco
* Vidkun Quisling
* Rudolf Rahn
* Pedro Pablo Ramírez
* Lucien Rebatet
* Hanna Reitsch
* Cécil von Renthe-Fink
* Joachim von Ribbentrop
* Dionisio Ridruejo
* Alfredo Rocco
* Konstantin Rodzaevsky
* Alfred Rosenberg
* Leon Rupnik
* Plínio Salgado
* Rafael Sánchez Mazas
* Margherita Sarfatti
* Vinayak Damodar Savarkar
* Carl Schmitt
* Kurt Schuschnigg
* Arthur Seyss-Inquart
* Horia Sima
* Ardengo Soffici
* Troy Southgate
* Ugo Spirito
* Milan Stojadinović
* Gregor Strasser
* Otto Strasser
* Mykola Stsiborskyi
* Ferenc Szálasi
* Jozef Tiso
* Shūmei Ōkawa
* Gonzalo Torrente Ballester
* Aleksandar Tsankov
* Georges Valois
* Anastasy Vonsyatsky
* Yeom dong jin

Works

| Literature|

* An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
* The Doctrine of Fascism
* Fascist Manifesto
* Friendly Fascism: The New Face of Power in America
* Hitlers Zweites Buch
* Italian racial laws
* La Conquista del Estado
* Manifesto of Race
* Manifesto of the Fascist Intellectuals
* Mein Kampf
* My Autobiography
* My Life
* Nuremberg Laws
* The Myth of the Twentieth Century
* Zaveshchanie russkogo fashista

|

Periodicals|

* Ajan Suunta
* l'Alba
* Der Angriff
* Arriba
* La Conquista del Estado
* Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung
* Deutsche Zeitung in Norwegen
* Deutsche Zeitung in den Niederlanden
* Fashist
* Figli d'Italia
* Fritt Folk
* Fronten
* Gândirea
* Gioventù Fascista
* Hrvatski Domobran
* Je suis partout
* La France au travail
* Münchener Beobachter
* Nash Put'
* Novopress
* Nea Imera
* NS Månedshefte
* Norsk-Tysk Tidsskrift
* Le Pays Réel
* Il Popolo d'Italia
* Das Reich
* Das Schwarze Korps
* Sfarmă-Piatră
* Al-Sha'ab
* Signal
* Slovák
* Slovenská pravda
* Der Stürmer
* Tomori
* Vlajka
* Volk en Staat
* Völkischer Beobachter

Film|

* Der Sieg des Glaubens
* Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht
* Triumph of the Will

Sculpture|

* Allach

Related topics|

* Art of the Third Reich
* Fascist architecture
* Heroic realism
* Nazi architecture
* Nazism and cinema
* Nazi plunder
* Syndicalism
* Conservatism

Organizations

| Institutional|

* Ahnenerbe
* Chamber of Fasces and Corporations
* Grand Council of Fascism
* Imperial Way Faction
* Italian Nationalist Association
* Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen
* Quadrumvirs

|

Activist|

* Friends of New Germany
* German American Bund
* Russian Fascist Organization

Youth|

* Albanian Lictor Youth
* Arab Lictor Youth
* Ethiopian Lictor Youth
* Fascist Union of Youth
* Frente de Juventudes
* Al-Futuwwa
* Gioventù Italiana del Littorio
* Great Japan Youth Party
* Hitler Youth
* Faith and Beauty Society
* Deutsches Jungvolk
* Jungmädelbund
* League of German Girls
* Hlinka Youth
* Mocidade Portuguesa
* Nationale Jeugdstorm
* National Youth Organisation (Greece)
* NS Ungdomsfylking
* Opera Nazionale Balilla
* Union of Fascist Little Ones
* Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (boys)
* Union of Young Fascists – Vanguard (girls)
* Ustashe Youth

Paramilitary|

* Albanian Fascist Militia
* Black Brigades
* Blackshirts
* Blueshirts
* Blueshirts (Falange)
* Corpul Muncitoresc Legionar
* Einsatzgruppen
* Gold shirts
* Greenshirts
* Greyshirts
* Heimwehr
* Hirden
* Hlinka Guard
* Iron Wolf
* Lăncieri
* Legião Portuguesa (Estado Novo)
* Makapili
* Rodobrana
* Schutzstaffel
* Serbian Volunteer Corps (World War II)
* Silver Legion of America
* Sturmabteilung
* Sudetendeutsches Freikorps
* Ustashe Militia
* Volkssport
* Walloon Legion
* Waffen-SS
* Weerbaarheidsafdeling
* Werwolf
* Yokusan Sonendan

Student|

* Avanguardia Giovanile Fascista
* Gruppi Universitari Fascisti
* National Socialist German Students' League
* Sindicato Español Universitario

International|

* Axis powers
* NSDAP/AO
* ODESSA

History

| 1910s|

* Arditi
* Fascio

|

1920s|

* March on Rome
* Corfu incident
* Acerbo Law
* Beer Hall Putsch
* Aventine Secession
* Italian economic battles
* 28 May 1926 coup d'état

1930s|

* March of the Iron Will
* November 1932 German federal election
* March 1933 German federal election
* Enabling Act
* Austrian Civil War
* July Putsch
* 1934 Montreux Fascist conference
* Romani genocide
* Spanish Civil War
* 4th of August Regime
* Anti-Comintern Pact

1940s|

* World War II
* Nazi crimes against the Polish nation
* The Holocaust
* Persecution of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia
* End in Italy
* Denazification
* Nuremberg Trials
* Tokyo Trials

Lists

* Anti-fascists
* Books about Hitler
* British fascist parties
* Fascist movements by country (A-F
* G-M
* N-T
* U-Z)
* Nazi ideologues
* Nazi leaders
* Speeches by Hitler
* SS personnel

Related topics

* Alt-right
* Anti-fascism
* Christofascism
* Clerical fascism
* Cryptofascism
* Esoteric Nazism
* Fascist (epithet)
* Fascist mysticism
* Feudal fascism
* Francoism
* French fascism
* Germanisation
* Glossary of Nazi Germany
* Hindu fascism
* Hitler salute
* Ilminism
* Italianization
* of South Tyrol
* Islamofascism
* Japanization
* Ku Klux Klan
* Neo-fascism
* Neo-Legionarism
* Neo-Nazism
* Roman salute
* Social fascism
* Synarchism
* Tropical fascism
* Völkisch movement
* Women in Nazi Germany

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Social and political philosophy

Ancient|

* Aristotle
* Augustine
* Chanakya
* Cicero
* Confucius
* Han Fei
* Lactantius
* Laozi
* Mencius
* Mozi
* Origen
* Philo
* Plato
* Plutarch
* Polybius
* Shang
* Sun Tzu
* Tertullian
* Thucydides
* Valluvar
* Xenophon
* Xunzi

Medieval|

* Alpharabius
* Aquinas
* Avempace
* Averroes
* Baldus
* Bartolus
* Bruni
* Dante
* Gelasius
* al-Ghazali
* Giles
* Gratian
* Gregory
* Ibn Khaldun
* John of Salisbury
* Latini
* Maimonides
* Marsilius
* Muhammad
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Ockham
* Photios
* Ibn Tufail
* Wang

Early modern|

* Beza
* Boétie
* Bodin
* Bossuet
* Buchanan
* Calvin
* Duplessis-Mornay
* Erasmus
* Filmer
* Goslicius
* Grotius
* Guicciardini
* Harrington
* Hayashi
* Hobbes
* Hotman
* James
* Leibniz
* Locke
* Luther
* Machiavelli
* Malebranche
* Milton
* Montaigne
* More
* Müntzer
* Pufendorf
* Sidney
* Spinoza
* Suárez

18th–19th-century|

* Bakunin
* Bastiat
* Beccaria
* Bentham
* Bolingbroke
* Bonald
* Burke
* Carlyle
* Comte
* Condorcet
* Constant
* Cortés
* Emerson
* Engels
* Fichte
* Fourier
* Franklin
* Godwin
* Haller
* Hamann
* Hegel
* Helvétius
* Herder
* Hume
* Jefferson
* Kant
* political philosophy
* Kierkegaard
* Le Bon
* Le Play
* Madison
* Maistre
* Marx
* Mazzini
* Mill
* Montesquieu
* Nietzsche
* Novalis
* Owen
* Paine
* Renan
* Rousseau
* Royce
* Sade
* Saint-Simon
* Schiller
* Smith
* Spencer
* Spooner
* de Staël
* Stirner
* Taine
* Thoreau
* Tocqueville
* Tucker
* Vico
* Vivekananda
* Voltaire
* Warren

20th–21st-century|

* Adorno
* Agamben
* Ambedkar
* Arendt
* Aurobindo
* Aron
* Badiou
* Baudrillard
* Bauman
* Benoist
* Berlin
* Bernstein
* Burnham
* Butler
* Camus
* Chomsky
* de Beauvoir
* Debord
* Deleuze
* Dewey
* Dmowski
* Du Bois
* Dugin
* Durkheim
* Dworkin
* Evola
* Foucault
* Fromm
* Fukuyama
* Gandhi
* Gehlen
* Gentile
* Gramsci
* Guénon
* Habermas
* Hayek
* Heidegger
* Hoppe
* Huntington
* Irigaray
* Jouvenel
* Kautsky
* Kirk
* Kołakowski
* Kropotkin
* Laclau
* Land
* Lenin
* Luxemburg
* MacIntyre
* Mansfield
* Mao
* Marcuse
* Maritain
* Maurras
* Michels
* Mises
* Mosca
* Mouffe
* Negri
* Niebuhr
* Nozick
* Nursî
* Oakeshott
* Ortega
* Pareto
* Polanyi
* Popper
* Qutb
* Radhakrishnan
* Rand
* Rawls
* Röpke
* Rothbard
* Russell
* Santayana
* Sarkar
* Sartre
* Schmitt
* Scruton
* Searle
* Shariati
* Simmel
* Skinner
* Sombart
* Sorel
* Spann
* Spengler
* Strauss
* Sun
* Taylor
* Voegelin
* Walzer
* Weber
* Weil
* Yarvin
* Žižek

Social theories|

* Anarchism
* Authoritarianism
* Collectivism
* Christian theories
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Conflict theories
* Confucianism
* Consensus theory
* Conservatism
* Contractualism
* Cosmopolitanism
* Culturalism
* Elite theory
* Fascism
* Feminist theories
* Gandhism
* Hindu nationalism (Hindutva)
* Individualism
* Islamic theories
* Islamism
* Legalism
* Liberalism
* Libertarianism
* Mohism
* National liberalism
* Populism
* Republicanism
* Social constructionism
* Social constructivism
* Social Darwinism
* Social determinism
* Socialism
* Utilitarianism

Related articles|

* Critique of political economy
* Critique of work
* Jurisprudence
* Philosophy and economics
* Philosophy of education
* Philosophy of history
* Philosophy of law
* Philosophy of love
* Philosophy of social science
* Political ethics
* Social epistemology
* Index

* Category

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