Franklin D. Roosevelt

President of the United States from 1933 to 1945

"FDR" redirects here. For other uses, see FDR (disambiguation) and Franklin D. Roosevelt (disambiguation).

Franklin D. Roosevelt

File:FDR 1944 Color Portrait.jpg

Roosevelt's official campaign portrait, 1944

32nd President of the United States
In office
March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945
Vice President|

* John Nance Garner
(1933–1941)

* Henry A. Wallace
(1941–1945)

* Harry S. Truman
(January–April 1945)

Preceded by| Herbert Hoover
Succeeded by| Harry S. Truman
44th Governor of New York
In office
January 1, 1929 – January 1, 1933
Lieutenant| Herbert H. Lehman
Preceded by| Al Smith
Succeeded by| Herbert H. Lehman
Assistant Secretary of the Navy
In office
March 17, 1913 – August 26, 1920
President| Woodrow Wilson
Preceded by| Beekman Winthrop
Succeeded by| Gordon Woodbury
Member of the New York State Senate
from the 26th district
In office
January 1, 1911 – March 17, 1913
Preceded by| John F. Schlosser
Succeeded by| James E. Towner
Personal details
Born|

Franklin Delano Roosevelt

(1882-01-30)January 30, 1882
Hyde Park, New York, U.S.
Died| April 12, 1945(1945-04-12) (aged 63)
Warm Springs, Georgia, U.S.
Resting place| Springwood Estate
Political party| Democratic
Spouse|

Eleanor Roosevelt

(m. 1905)​

Children| 6, including Franklin Jr., Anna, Elliott, James II, John II
Parent(s)| James Roosevelt I
Sara Delano
Relatives|

* Roosevelt family
* Delano family

Education| Groton School
Alma mater| Harvard University (AB)
Columbia University
Occupation|

* Politician
* lawyer

Signature| Franklin D. Roosevelt's signature

| File:Vincenzo Laviosa - Franklin D. Roosevelt - Google Art Project.jpg |

This article is part of
a series about

Franklin D. Roosevelt

|

* Early life
* Family
* Paralysis

* State Senator
* Secretary of the Navy

* 1920 Smith–Roosevelt campaign

* * *

44th Governor of New York

* Governorship

* * *

32nd President of the United States

* First & second terms, 1933–1941

* Third & fourth terms, 1941–1945

*     * Timeline

* Transition

* Inaugurations
* first
* second
* third
* fourth

* * *

First term

* First 100 days

* New Deal
* Glass-Steagall Act
* WPA
* Social Security
* SEC
* Fireside Chats

* * *

Second term

* Supreme Court Packing
* National Recovery Act
* 1937 recession
* March of Dimes
* Pre-war foreign policy

* * *

Third term

* World War II
* Attack on Pearl Harbor
* Infamy Speech
* Atlantic Charter
* Japanese Internment
* Tehran Conference
* United Nations
* D-Day
* Second Bill of Rights
* G.I. Bill
* Harlan F. Stone Supreme Court nomination
* Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination

* * *

Fourth term

* Yalta Conference

* Declining health
* Death and state funeral

* * *

Presidential campaigns

* 1932
* primaries
* convention
* campaign
* election

* 1936
* primaries
* convention
* campaign
* election

* 1940
* primaries
* convention
* campaign
* election

* 1944
* primaries
* convention
* campaign
* election

* * *

* Electoral history

* Legacy
* Criticism
* Foreign policy
* New Deal critics
* Civil rights record
* Presidential Library
* Memorial
* Depictions

* * *

File:Seal of the President of the United States.svg

* v
* t
* e

Franklin Delano Roosevelt (/ˈdɛlənoʊ/;[1][2] /ˈroʊzəˌvɛlt, -vəlt/[3][4] ROH-zə-velt, -⁠vəlt; January 30, 1882 - April 12, 1945), often referred to by his initials FDR, was an American politician and attorney who served as the 32nd president of the United States from 1933 until his death in 1945. As the leader of the Democratic Party, he won a record four presidential elections and became a central figure in world events during the first half of the 20th century. Roosevelt directed the federal government during most of the Great Depression, implementing his New Deal domestic agenda in response to the worst economic crisis in U.S. history. As a dominant leader of his party, he built the New Deal Coalition, which defined modern liberalism in the United States throughout the middle third of the 20th century. His third and fourth terms were dominated by World War II, which ended in victory shortly after he died in office.

Born into the prominent Roosevelt family in Hyde Park, New York, he graduated from both Groton School and Harvard College, and attended Columbia Law School, which he left after passing the bar exam to practice law in New York City. In 1905, he married his fifth cousin once removed, Eleanor Roosevelt. They had six children, of whom five survived into adulthood. He won election to the New York State Senate in 1910, and then served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy under President Woodrow Wilson during World War I. Roosevelt was James M. Cox's running mate on the Democratic Party's 1920 national ticket, but Cox was defeated by Republican Warren G. Harding. In 1921, Roosevelt contracted a paralytic illness, believed at the time to be polio, and his legs became permanently paralyzed. While attempting to recover from his condition, Roosevelt founded a polio rehabilitation center in Warm Springs, Georgia. Although unable to walk unaided, Roosevelt returned to public office after his election as governor of New York in 1928. He served as governor from 1929 to 1933, promoting programs to combat the economic crisis besetting the United States.

In the 1932 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Republican incumbent Herbert Hoover and began his presidency in the midst of the Great Depression. During the first 100 days of the 73rd U.S. Congress, he spearheaded unprecedented federal legislative productivity. Roosevelt called for the creation of programs designed to produce relief, recovery, and reform. Within his first year, he began implementing these policies through a series of executive orders and federal legislation collectively called the New Deal. Many New Deal programs provided relief to the unemployed such as the National Recovery Administration. Several New Deal programs and federal laws such as the Agricultural Adjustment Act provided relief to farmers. Roosevelt also instituted major regulatory reforms related to finance, communications, and labor. In addition to the economy, Roosevelt sought to find a compromise on Prohibition with the urban and rural wings of the Democratic Party. After campaigning on a platform to repeal it, Roosevelt implemented the Beer Permit Act of 1933 and enforced the 21st amendment. Tax revenue collected from alcohol sales would go to public works as part of the New Deal. Roosevelt frequently used radio to speak directly to the American people, giving 30 "fireside chat" radio addresses during his presidency and became the first American president to be televised. The economy improved rapidly during Roosevelt's first term and he won re-election in 1936, in one of the most lopsided victories in American history.

Despite the popularity of the New Deal among supporters of Roosevelt,[5] from 1936 onwards, New Deal legislation was frequently struck down by the US Supreme Court, which maintained a conservative bent. The dispute between Roosevelt and the Court resulted in Roosevelt lobbying for the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937 (or "court packing plan"), which would have expanded the size of the Supreme Court. The bill was blocked by the newly formed bipartisan Conservative Coalition, which also sought to prevent further New Deal legislation. During the recession of 1937–1938, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and monopoly power in the United States. Other major 1930s legislation and agencies implemented under Roosevelt include the Securities and Exchange Commission, the National Labor Relations Act, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Social Security, and the Fair Labor Standards Act.

Roosevelt was re-elected in 1940 for his third term, making him the only U.S. president to serve for more than two terms. By 1939 another World War was on the horizon which prompted the United States to respond by passing a series of laws affirming neutrality and rejecting intervention. Despite this, President Roosevelt gave strong diplomatic and financial support to China, the United Kingdom, and eventually the Soviet Union. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, an event he called "a date which will live in infamy", Roosevelt obtained a congressional declaration of war against Japan. On December 11 Japan's allies, Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy declared war on the United States. In response, the US formally joined the Allies and entered the European theater of war. Assisted by his top aide Harry Hopkins and with very strong national support, he worked closely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet General Secretary Joseph Stalin, and Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek in leading the Allied Powers against the Axis Powers. Roosevelt supervised the mobilization of the U.S. economy to support the war effort and implemented a Europe first strategy, initiating the Lend-Lease program and making the defeat of Germany first a priority over that of Japan, as well as building the world's first atomic bomb. Taking up the Wilsonian mantle, Roosevelt saw as his highest postwar priority the establishment of the United Nations, to replace the defunct League of Nations. Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London, and Beijing, and these Big Four would resolve all major world problems. It was under his wartime leadership that the United States became a superpower on the world stage.

Roosevelt won re-election in the 1944 presidential election on his post-war recovery platform. His physical health began declining during the later war years, and less than three months into his fourth term, Roosevelt died on April 12, 1945. Vice President Harry S. Truman assumed office as president and oversaw the acceptance of surrender by the Axis powers. Since his death, several of Roosevelt's actions have come under substantial criticism, such as the relocation and internment of Japanese Americans in concentration camps. Nevertheless, he is consistently ranked by scholars, political scientists, and historians as one of the greatest presidents in American history.

## Contents

* 1 Early life and marriage
* 1.1 Childhood
* 1.2 Education and early career
* 1.3 Marriage, family, and affairs
* 2 Early political career (1910–1920)
* 2.1 New York state senator (1910–1913)
* 2.2 Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)
* 2.3 Campaign for vice president (1920)
* 3 Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)
* 4 Governor of New York (1929–1932)
* 5 1932 presidential election
* 6 Presidency (1933–1945)
* 6.1 Transition and assassination attempt
* 6.2 First and second terms (1933–1941)
* 6.2.1 First New Deal (1933–1934)
* 6.2.2 Second New Deal (1935–1936)
* 6.2.3 Re-election, 1936
* 6.2.4 Supreme Court fight and second term legislation
* 6.2.5 Conservation and the environment
* 6.2.6 GNP and unemployment rates
* 6.2.7 Foreign policy (1933–1941)
* 6.3 Election of 1940
* 6.4 Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)
* 6.4.1 Lead-up to the war
* 6.4.2 Pearl Harbor and declarations of war
* 6.4.3 War plans
* 6.4.4 Nuclear program
* 6.4.5 Wartime conferences
* 6.4.6 Course of the war
* 6.4.7 Home front
* 6.4.8 Declining health
* 6.4.9 Election of 1944
* 6.4.10 Final months and death
* 7 Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Jews
* 7.1 Mexicans
* 7.2 Lynching
* 7.3 Japanese-Americans
* 7.4 Jews
* 8 Legacy
* 8.1 Historical reputation
* 8.2 Memorials
* 9 See also
* 10 Notes
* 11 References
* 11.1 Works cited
* 12 Further reading
* 12.1 Biographical
* 12.2 Scholarly topical studies
* 12.3 Foreign policy and World War II
* 12.4 Criticism
* 12.5 Rhetoric
* 12.6 Historiography
* 12.7 Primary sources
* 13 External links

## Early life and marriage[edit | edit source]

### Childhood[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin-Roosevelt-1884.jpg

A young, unbreeched Roosevelt in 1884, 2 years old[a]

Franklin Delano Roosevelt was born on January 30, 1882, in the Hudson Valley town of Hyde Park, New York, to businessman James Roosevelt I and his second wife, Sara Ann Delano. His parents, who were sixth cousins,[7] both came from wealthy, established New York families, the Roosevelts, the Aspinwalls and the Delanos, respectively. Roosevelt's paternal ancestor migrated to New Amsterdam in the 17th century, and the Roosevelts succeeded as merchants and landowners.[8] The Delano family patriarch, Philip Delano, traveled to the New World on the Fortune in 1621, and the Delanos thrived as merchants and shipbuilders in Massachusetts.[9] Franklin had a half-brother, James Roosevelt "Rosy" Roosevelt, from his father's previous marriage.[10]

Their father graduated from Harvard Law School in 1851 but chose not to practice law after receiving an inheritance from his grandfather, James Roosevelt. [10] Roosevelt's father, a prominent Bourbon Democrat, once took Franklin to meet President Grover Cleveland, who said to him: "My little man, I am making a strange wish for you. It is that you may never be President of the United States."[11] Franklin's mother, the dominant influence in his early years, once declared, "My son Franklin is a Delano, not a Roosevelt at all."[7][12] James, who was 54 when Franklin was born, was considered by some as a remote father, though biographer James MacGregor Burns indicates James interacted with his son more than was typical at the time.[13]

Roosevelt learned to ride; shoot; and sail; and play polo, tennis, and golf.[14][15]

### Education and early career[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin D. Roosevelt Portrait in New York City, New York - NARA - 196675.jpg

Roosevelt in 1893, at the age of 11

File:FDR at Groton April 1900.JPG

Roosevelt in 1900, at the age of 18

Frequent trips to Europe—beginning at age two and from age seven to fifteen—helped Roosevelt become conversant in German and French. Except for attending public school in Germany at age nine,[16] Roosevelt was home-schooled by tutors until age 14. He then attended Groton School, an Episcopal boarding school in Groton, Massachusetts.[17] He was not among the more popular Groton students, who were better athletes and had rebellious streaks.[18] Its headmaster, Endicott Peabody, preached the duty of Christians to help the less fortunate and urged his students to enter public service. Peabody remained a strong influence throughout Roosevelt's life, officiating at his wedding and visiting him as president.[19][20]

Like most of his Groton classmates, Roosevelt went to Harvard College.[18] He was a member of the Alpha Delta Phi fraternity[21] and the Fly Club,[22] and served as a school cheerleader.[23] Roosevelt was relatively undistinguished as a student or athlete, but he became editor-in-chief of The Harvard Crimson daily newspaper, a position that required ambition, energy, and the ability to manage others.[24] He later said, "I took economics courses in college for four years, and everything I was taught was wrong."[25]

Roosevelt's father died in 1900, causing great distress for him.[26] The following year, Roosevelt's fifth cousin Theodore Roosevelt became President of the United States. Theodore's vigorous leadership style and reforming zeal made him Franklin's role model and hero.[27] Franklin graduated from Harvard in 1903 with an A.B. in history. He entered Columbia Law School in 1904 but dropped out in 1907 after passing the New York Bar Examination.[28][b] In 1908, he took a job with the prestigious law firm of Carter Ledyard & Milburn, working in the firm's admiralty law division.[30]

### Marriage, family, and affairs[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin D. Roosevelt and Eleanor Roosevelt with Anna and baby James, formal portrait in Hyde Park, New York 1908.jpg

Eleanor and Franklin with their first two children, 1908

During his second year of college, he met and proposed to Boston heiress Alice Sohier, who turned him down.[18] Franklin then began courting his child-acquaintance and fifth cousin once removed, Eleanor Roosevelt, a niece of Theodore Roosevelt.[31] In 1903 Franklin proposed to Eleanor, and after resistance from his mother, they were married on March 17, 1905.[18][32] Eleanor's father, Elliott, was deceased, and her uncle Theodore, then the president, gave away the bride.[33] The young couple moved into Springwood, and Franklin and Sara Roosevelt also provided a townhouse for the couple in New York City, where Sara built a house alongside for herself. Eleanor never felt at home in the houses at Hyde Park or New York, but she loved the family's vacation home on Campobello Island, which Sara also gave the couple.[34] Burns indicates young Roosevelt was self-assured and at ease in the upper class, while Eleanor was then shy and disliked social life, and initially stayed home to raise their children.[35] As his father had, Franklin left the raising of the children to his wife, and Eleanor delegated it to caregivers. She later said she knew "absolutely nothing about handling or feeding a baby."[36] Although Eleanor thought sex was "an ordeal to be endured",[37] she and Franklin had six children. Anna, James, and Elliott were born in 1906, 1907, and 1910, respectively. The couple's second son, Franklin, died in infancy in 1909. Another son, also named Franklin, was born in 1914, and the youngest child, John, was born in 1916.[38]

Roosevelt had several extra-marital affairs, including with Eleanor's social secretary Lucy Mercer, soon after she was hired in 1914, and discovered by Eleanor in 1918.[39] Franklin contemplated divorcing Eleanor, but Sara objected, and Lucy would not marry a divorced man with five children.[40] Franklin and Eleanor remained married, and Roosevelt promised never to see Lucy again. Eleanor never forgave him, and their marriage became more of a political partnership.[41] Eleanor soon established a separate home in Hyde Park at Val-Kill, and devoted herself to social and political causes independent of her husband. The emotional break in their marriage was so severe that when Roosevelt asked Eleanor in 1942—in light of his failing health—to come back home and live with him again, she refused.[42] He was not always aware of when she visited the White House and for some time she could not easily reach him on the telephone without his secretary's help; Roosevelt, in turn, did not visit Eleanor's New York City apartment until late 1944.[43]

Franklin broke his promise to Eleanor as he and Lucy maintained a formal correspondence, and began seeing each other again in 1941 or earlier.[44][45] Roosevelt's son Elliott claimed that his father had a 20-year affair with his private secretary, Marguerite "Missy" LeHand.[46] Another son, James, stated that "there is a real possibility that a romantic relationship existed" between his father and Crown Princess Märtha of Norway, who resided in the White House during part of World War II. Aides began to refer to her at the time as "the president's girlfriend",[47], and gossip linking the two romantically appeared in the newspapers.[48]

## Early political career (1910–1920)[edit | edit source]

### New York state senator (1910–1913)[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1912.png

Roosevelt in 1912

Roosevelt cared little for the practice of law and told friends he planned to enter politics.[49] Despite his admiration for cousin Theodore, Franklin shared his father's bond with the Democratic Party, and in preparation for the 1910 elections, the party recruited Roosevelt to run for a seat in the New York State Assembly.[50] Roosevelt was a compelling recruit for the party. He had the personality and energy for campaigning, and he had the money to pay for his own campaign.[51] But Roosevelt's campaign for the state assembly ended after the Democratic incumbent, Lewis Stuyvesant Chanler, chose to seek re-election. Rather than putting his political hopes on hold, Roosevelt ran for a seat in the state senate.[52] The senate district, located in Dutchess, Columbia, and Putnam, was strongly Republican.[53] Roosevelt feared that opposition from Theodore could end his campaign, but Theodore encouraged his candidacy despite their party differences.[50] Acting as his own campaign manager, Roosevelt traveled throughout the senate district via automobile at a time when few could afford a car.[54] Due to his aggressive campaign,[55] his name recognition in the Hudson Valley, and the Democratic landslide in the 1910 United States elections, Roosevelt won a surprising victory.[56]

Despite short legislative sessions, Roosevelt treated his new position as a full-time career.[57] Taking his seat on January 1, 1911, Roosevelt soon became the leader of a group of "Insurgents" in opposition to the Tammany Hall machine that dominated the state Democratic Party. In the 1911 U.S. Senate election, which was determined in a joint session of the New York state legislature,[c] Roosevelt and nineteen other Democrats caused a prolonged deadlock by opposing a series of Tammany-backed candidates. Tammany threw its backing behind James A. O'Gorman, a highly regarded judge whom Roosevelt found acceptable, and O'Gorman won the election in late March.[58] Roosevelt in the process became a popular figure among New York Democrats.[56] News articles and cartoons depicted "the second coming of a Roosevelt", sending "cold shivers down the spine of Tammany".[59]

Roosevelt opposed Tammany Hall by supporting New Jersey Governor Woodrow Wilson's successful bid for the 1912 Democratic nomination.[60] The election became a three-way contest when Theodore Roosevelt left the Republican Party to launch a third party campaign against Wilson and sitting Republican President William Howard Taft. Franklin's decision to back Wilson over his cousin in the general election alienated some of his family, except Theodore.[61] Roosevelt overcame a bout of typhoid fever, and with help from journalist Louis McHenry Howe, he was re-elected in the 1912 elections. After the election, he served as chairman of the Agriculture Committee, and his success with farm and labor bills was a precursor to his New Deal policies years later.[62] He had then become more consistently progressive, in support of labor and social welfare programs.[63]

### Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1919)[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin Roosevelt Secretary of the Navy 1913.jpg

Roosevelt as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, 1913

Roosevelt's support of Wilson led to his appointment in March 1913 as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, the second-ranking official in the Navy Department after Secretary Josephus Daniels who paid it little attention.[64] Roosevelt had an affection for the Navy, was well-read on the subject, and was a most ardent supporter of a large, efficient force.[65][66] With Wilson's support, Daniels and Roosevelt instituted a merit-based promotion system and made other reforms to extend civilian control over the autonomous departments of the Navy.[67] Roosevelt oversaw the Navy's civilian employees and earned the respect of union leaders for his fairness in resolving disputes.[68] No strikes occurred during his seven-plus years in the office,[69] as he gained valuable experience in labor issues, wartime management, naval issues, and logistics.[70]

In 1914, Roosevelt ran for the seat of retiring Republican Senator Elihu Root of New York. Though he had the backing of Treasury Secretary William Gibbs McAdoo and Governor Martin H. Glynn, he faced a formidable opponent in Tammany-Hall's James W. Gerard.[71] He also was without Wilson's support, as the president needed Tammany's forces for his legislation and 1916 re-election.[72] Roosevelt was soundly defeated in the Democratic primary by Gerard, who in turn lost the general election to Republican James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr. He learned that federal patronage alone, without White House support, could not defeat a strong local organization.[73] After the election, he and Tammany Hall boss, Charles Francis Murphy, sought accommodation and became allies.[74]

Roosevelt refocused on the Navy Department, as World War I broke out in Europe in August 1914.[75] Though he remained publicly supportive of Wilson, Roosevelt sympathized with the Preparedness Movement, whose leaders strongly favored the Allied Powers and called for a military build-up.[76] The Wilson administration initiated an expansion of the Navy after the sinking of the RMS Lusitania by a German submarine, and Roosevelt helped establish the United States Navy Reserve and the Council of National Defense.[77] In April 1917, after Germany declared it would engage in unrestricted submarine warfare and attacked several U.S. ships, Congress approved Wilson's call for a declaration of war on Germany.[78]

Roosevelt requested that he be allowed to serve as a naval officer, but Wilson insisted that he continue to serve as Assistant Secretary. For the next year, Roosevelt remained in Washington to coordinate the deployment of naval vessels and personnel, as the Navy expanded fourfold.[79][80] In the summer of 1918, Roosevelt traveled to Europe to inspect naval installations and meet with French and British officials. In September, he returned to the United States on board the USS Leviathan. On the 11-day voyage, the pandemic influenza virus struck and killed many on board. Roosevelt became very ill with influenza and complicating pneumonia, but recovered by the time the ship landed in New York.[81][82] After Germany signed an armistice in November 1918, Daniels and Roosevelt supervised the demobilization of the Navy.[83] Against the advice of older officers such as Admiral William Benson—who claimed he could not "conceive of any use the fleet will ever have for aviation"—Roosevelt personally ordered the preservation of the Navy's Aviation Division.[84] With the Wilson administration near an end, Roosevelt planned his next run for office. He approached Herbert Hoover about running for the 1920 Democratic presidential nomination, with Roosevelt as his running mate.[85]

### Campaign for vice president (1920)[edit | edit source]

File:Franklin D. Roosevelt and James Cox in Dayton, Ohio - NARA - 197236.jpg

Cox and Roosevelt in Ohio, 1920

Roosevelt's plan for Hoover to run for the nomination fell through after Hoover publicly declared himself to be a Republican, but Roosevelt decided to seek the 1920 vice presidential nomination. After Governor James M. Cox of Ohio won the party's presidential nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention, he chose Roosevelt as his running mate, and the convention nominated him by acclamation.[86] Although his nomination surprised most people, he balanced the ticket as a moderate, a Wilsonian, and a prohibitionist with a famous name.[87][88] Roosevelt, then 38, resigned as Assistant Secretary after the Democratic convention and campaigned across the nation for the party ticket.[89]

During the campaign, Cox and Roosevelt defended the Wilson administration and the League of Nations, both of which were unpopular in 1920.[90] Roosevelt personally supported U.S. membership in the League of Nations, but, unlike Wilson, he favored compromising with Senator Henry Cabot Lodge and other "Reservationists".[91] The Cox–Roosevelt ticket was defeated by Republicans Warren G. Harding and Calvin Coolidge in the presidential election by a wide margin, and the Republican ticket carried every state outside of the South.[92] Roosevelt accepted the loss without issue and later reflected that the relationships and goodwill that he built in the 1920 campaign proved to be a major asset in his 1932 campaign. The 1920 election also saw the first public participation of Eleanor Roosevelt who, with the support of Louis Howe, established herself as a valuable political player.[93]

## Paralytic illness and political comeback (1921–1928)[edit | edit source]

Further information: Paralytic illness of Franklin D. Roosevelt

After the election, Roosevelt returned to New York City, where he practiced law and served as a vice president of the Fidelity and Deposit Company.[94] He also sought to build support for a political comeback in the 1922 elections, but his career was derailed by illness.[94] While the Roosevelts were vacationing at Campobello Island in August 1921, he fell ill. His main symptoms were fever; symmetric, ascending paralysis; facial paralysis; bowel and bladder dysfunction; numbness and hyperesthesia; and a descending pattern of recovery. Roosevelt was left permanently paralyzed from the waist down. He was diagnosed with polio. Armond S. Goldman and Daniel A. Goldman wrote in 2017 that his symptoms were more consistent with Guillain–Barré syndrome.[95]

File:Roosevelt in a wheelchair.jpg

Rare photograph of Roosevelt in a wheelchair, with Fala and Ruthie Bie, the daughter of caretakers at his Hyde Park estate. Photo taken by his cousin Margaret Suckley (February 1941).

Though his mother favored his retirement from public life, Roosevelt, his wife, and Roosevelt's close friend and adviser, Louis Howe, were all determined that he continue his political career.[96] He convinced many people that he was improving, which he believed to be essential prior to run for public office again.[97] He laboriously taught himself to walk short distances while wearing iron braces on his hips and legs by swiveling his torso, supporting himself with a cane.[98] He was careful never to be seen using his wheelchair in public, and great care was taken to prevent any portrayal in the press that would highlight his disability.[99] However, his disability was well known before and during his presidency and became a major part of his image. He usually appeared in public standing upright, supported on one side by an aide or one of his sons.[100]

Beginning in 1925, Roosevelt spent most of his time in the Southern United States, at first on his houseboat, the Larooco.[101] Intrigued by the potential benefits of hydrotherapy, he established a rehabilitation center at Warm Springs, Georgia, in 1926. To create the rehabilitation center, he assembled a staff of physical therapists and used most of his inheritance to purchase the Merriweather Inn. In 1938, he founded the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, leading to the development of polio vaccines.[102]

Roosevelt maintained contacts with the Democratic Party during the 1920s, and he remained active in New York politics while also establishing contacts in the South, particularly in Georgia.[103] He issued an open letter endorsing Al Smith's successful campaign in New York's 1922 gubernatorial election, which both aided Smith and showed Roosevelt's continuing relevance as a political figure.[104] Roosevelt and Smith came from different backgrounds and never fully trusted one another, but Roosevelt supported Smith's progressive policies, while Smith was happy to have the backing of the prominent and well-respected Roosevelt.[105]

Roosevelt gave presidential nominating speeches for Smith at the 1924 and 1928 Democratic National Conventions; the speech at the 1924 convention marked a return to public life following his illness and convalescence.[106] That year, the Democrats were badly divided between an urban wing, led by Smith, and a conservative, rural wing, led by William Gibbs McAdoo. On the 101st ballot, the nomination went to John W. Davis, a compromise candidate who suffered a landslide defeat in the 1924 presidential election. Like many others throughout the United States, Roosevelt did not abstain from alcohol during the Prohibition era, but publicly he sought to find a compromise on Prohibition acceptable to both wings of the party.[107]

In 1925, Smith appointed Roosevelt to the Taconic State Park Commission, and his fellow commissioners chose him as chairman.[108] In this role, he came into conflict with Robert Moses, a Smith protégé,[108] who was the primary force behind the Long Island State Park Commission and the New York State Council of Parks.[108] Roosevelt accused Moses of using the name recognition of prominent individuals including Roosevelt to win political support for state parks, but then diverting funds to the ones Moses favored on Long Island, while Moses worked to block the appointment of Howe to a salaried position as the Taconic commission's secretary.[108] Roosevelt served on the commission until the end of 1928,[109] and his contentious relationship with Moses continued as their careers progressed.[110]

Peace was the catchword of the 1920s, and in 1923 Edward Bok established the $100,000 American Peace Award for the best plan to bring peace to the world. Roosevelt had leisure time and interest, and he drafted a plan for the contest. He never submitted it because his wife Eleanor Roosevelt was selected as a judge for the prize. His plan called for a new world organization that would replace the League of Nations.[111] Although Roosevelt had been the vice-presidential candidate on the Democratic ticket of 1920 that supported the League of Nations, by 1924 he was ready to scrap it. His draft of a "Society of Nations" accepted the reservations proposed by Henry Cabot Lodge in the 1919 Senate debate. The new Society would not become involved in the Western Hemisphere, where the Monroe doctrine held sway. It would not have any control over military forces. Although Roosevelt's plan was never made public, he thought about the problem a great deal and incorporated some of his 1924 ideas into the design for the United Nations in 1944–1945.[112]

## Governor of New York (1929–1932)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Governorship of Franklin D. Roosevelt

File:Governor Roosevelt and Al Smith.jpg

Gov. Roosevelt with his predecessor Al Smith, 1930

Smith, the Democratic presidential nominee in the 1928 election, asked Roosevelt to run for governor of New York in the 1928 state election.[113] Roosevelt initially resisted, as he was reluctant to leave Warm Springs and feared a Republican landslide in 1928.[114] Party leaders eventually convinced him only he could defeat the Republican gubernatorial nominee, New York Attorney General Albert Ottinger.[115] He won the party's gubernatorial nomination by acclamation and again turned to Howe to lead his campaign. Roosevelt was also joined on the campaign trail by associates Samuel Rosenman, Frances Perkins, and James Farley.[116] While Smith lost the presidency in a landslide, and was defeated in his home state, Roosevelt was elected governor by a one-percent margin,[117] and became a contender in the next presidential election.[118]

Roosevelt proposed the construction of hydroelectric power plants and addressed the ongoing farm crisis of the 1920s.[119] Relations between Roosevelt and Smith suffered after he chose not to retain key Smith appointees like Moses.[120] He and his wife Eleanor established an understanding for the rest of his career; she would dutifully serve as the governor's wife but would also be free to pursue her own agenda and interests.[121] He also began holding "fireside chats", in which he directly addressed his constituents via radio, often pressuring the New York State Legislature to advance his agenda.[122]

In October 1929, the Wall Street Crash occurred, and with it came the Great Depression in the United States.[123] Roosevelt saw the seriousness of the situation and established a state employment commission. He also became the first governor to publicly endorse the idea of unemployment insurance.[124]

File:1930 New York gubernatorial election results map by county.svg

Results of the 1930 gubernatorial election in New York

When Roosevelt began his run for a second term in May 1930, he reiterated his doctrine from the campaign two years before: "that progressive government by its very terms must be a living and growing thing, that the battle for it is never-ending and that if we let up for one single moment or one single year, not merely do we stand still but we fall back in the march of civilization."[125] He ran on a platform that called for aid to farmers, full employment, unemployment insurance, and old-age pensions.[126] He was elected to a second term by a 14% margin.[127]

Roosevelt proposed an economic relief package and the establishment of the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration to distribute those funds. Led first by Jesse I. Straus and then by Harry Hopkins, the agency assisted well over one-third of New York's population between 1932 and 1938.[128] Roosevelt also began an investigation into corruption in New York City among the judiciary, the police force, and organized crime, prompting the creation of the Seabury Commission. The Seabury investigations exposed an extortion ring, led many public officials to be removed from office, and made the decline of Tammany Hall inevitable.[129]

Roosevelt supported reforestation with the Hewitt Amendment in 1931, which gave birth to New York's State Forest system.[130]

## 1932 presidential election[edit | edit source]

Main article: 1932 United States presidential election

File:Vincenzo Laviosa - Franklin D. Roosevelt - Google Art Project.jpg

Roosevelt in the early 1930s

As the 1932 presidential election approached, Roosevelt turned his attention to national politics, established a campaign team led by Howe and Farley, and a "brain trust" of policy advisers, primarily composed of Columbia University and Harvard University professors.[131] There were some who were not so sanguine about his chances, such as Walter Lippmann, the dean of political commentators, who observed of Roosevelt: "He is a pleasant man who, without any important qualifications for the office, would very much like to be president."[132]

However, Roosevelt's efforts as governor to address the effects of the depression in his own state established him as the front-runner for the 1932 Democratic presidential nomination.[132] Roosevelt rallied the progressive supporters of the Wilson administration while also appealing to many conservatives, establishing himself as the leading candidate in the South and West. The chief opposition to Roosevelt's candidacy came from Northeastern conservatives, Speaker of the House John Nance Garner of Texas and Al Smith, the 1928 Democratic presidential nominee.[132]

Roosevelt entered the convention with a delegate lead due to his success in the 1932 Democratic primaries, but most delegates entered the convention unbound to any particular candidate. On the first presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt received the votes of more than half but less than two-thirds of the delegates, with Smith finishing in a distant second place. Roosevelt then promised the vice-presidential nomination to Garner, who controlled the votes of Texas and California; Garner threw his support behind Roosevelt after the third ballot, and Roosevelt clinched the nomination on the fourth ballot.[132] Roosevelt flew in from New York to Chicago after learning that he had won the nomination, becoming the first major-party presidential nominee to accept the nomination in person.[133] His appearance was essential, to show himself as vigorous, despite the ravaging disease that disabled him physically.[132]

File:ElectoralCollege1932.svg

1932 electoral vote results

In his acceptance speech, Roosevelt declared, "I pledge you, I pledge myself to a new deal for the American people... This is more than a political campaign. It is a call to arms."[134] Roosevelt promised securities regulation, tariff reduction, farm relief, government-funded public works, and other government actions to address the Great Depression.[135] Reflecting changing public opinion, the Democratic platform included a call for the repeal of Prohibition; Roosevelt himself had not taken a public stand on the issue prior to the convention but promised to uphold the party platform.[136] Otherwise, Roosevelt's primary campaign strategy was one of caution, intent upon avoiding mistakes that would distract from Hoover's failings on the economy. His statements attacked the incumbent and included no other specific policies or programs.[132]

After the convention, Roosevelt won endorsements from several progressive Republicans, including George W. Norris, Hiram Johnson, and Robert La Follette Jr.[137] He also reconciled with the party's conservative wing, and even Al Smith was persuaded to support the Democratic ticket.[138] Hoover's handling of the Bonus Army further damaged the incumbent's popularity, as newspapers across the country criticized the use of force to disperse assembled veterans.[139]

Roosevelt won 57% of the popular vote and carried all but six states. Historians and political scientists consider the 1932–36 elections to be a political realignment. Roosevelt's victory was enabled by the creation of the New Deal coalition, small farmers, the Southern whites, Catholics, big city political machines, labor unions, northern African Americans (southern ones were still disfranchised), Jews, intellectuals, and political liberals.[140] The creation of the New Deal coalition transformed American politics and started what political scientists call the "New Deal Party System" or the Fifth Party System.[141] Between the Civil War and 1929, Democrats had rarely controlled both houses of Congress and had won just four of seventeen presidential elections; from 1932 to 1979, Democrats won eight of twelve presidential elections and generally controlled both houses of Congress.[142]

## Presidency (1933–1945)[edit | edit source]

Franklin D. Roosevelt

Roosevelt in 1944

Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt
March 4, 1933 – April 12, 1945
Cabinet| See list
Party| Democratic
Election|

* 1932
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944

Seat| White House

<- Herbert Hoover

Harry S. Truman ->

* * *

File:1894 US Presidential Seal.jpg

Seal of the President
(1894–1945)

As president, Roosevelt appointed powerful men to top positions but made all the major decisions, regardless of delays, inefficiency, or resentment. Analyzing the president's administrative style, Burns concludes:

> The president stayed in charge of his administration...by drawing fully on his formal and informal powers as Chief Executive; by raising goals, creating momentum, inspiring a personal loyalty, getting the best out of people...by deliberately fostering among his aides a sense of competition and a clash of wills that led to disarray, heartbreak, and anger but also set off pulses of executive energy and sparks of creativity...by handing out one job to several men and several jobs to one man, thus strengthening his own position as a court of appeals, as a depository of information, and as a tool of co-ordination; by ignoring or bypassing collective decision-making agencies, such as the Cabinet...and always by persuading, flattering, juggling, improvising, reshuffling, harmonizing, conciliating, manipulating.[143]

### Transition and assassination attempt[edit | edit source]

Main article: Presidential transition of Franklin D. Roosevelt

Roosevelt was elected in November 1932 but like his predecessors did not take office until the following March.[d] After the election, President Hoover sought to convince Roosevelt to renounce much of his campaign platform and to endorse the Hoover administration's policies.[144] Roosevelt refused Hoover's request to develop a joint program to stop the economic decline, claiming that it would tie his hands and that Hoover had the power to act.[145]

During the transition, Roosevelt chose Howe as his chief of staff, and Farley as Postmaster General. Frances Perkins, as Secretary of Labor, became the first woman appointed to a cabinet position.[132] William H. Woodin, a Republican industrialist close to Roosevelt, was the choice for Secretary of the Treasury, while Roosevelt chose Senator Cordell Hull of Tennessee as Secretary of State. Harold L. Ickes and Henry A. Wallace, two progressive Republicans, were selected for the roles of Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Agriculture, respectively.[146]

In February 1933, Roosevelt escaped an assassination attempt by Giuseppe Zangara, who expressed a "hate for all rulers." As he was attempting to shoot Roosevelt, Zangara was struck by a woman with her purse; he instead mortally wounded Chicago Mayor Anton Cermak, who was sitting alongside Roosevelt.[147][148]

### First and second terms (1933–1941)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, first and second terms

When Roosevelt was inaugurated on March 4, 1933, the U.S. was at the nadir of the worst depression in its history. A quarter of the workforce was unemployed, and farmers were in deep trouble as prices had fallen by 60%. Industrial production had fallen by more than half since 1929. Two million people were homeless. By the evening of March 4, 32 of the 48 states – as well as the District of Columbia – had closed their banks.[149]

Historians categorized Roosevelt's program as "relief, recovery, and reform." Relief was urgently needed by tens of millions of unemployed. Recovery meant boosting the economy back to normal, and reform was required of the financial and banking systems. Through Roosevelt's series of fireside chats, he presented his proposals directly to the American public.[150] Energized by his own victory over paralytic illness, he used persistent optimism and activism to renew the national spirit.[151]

#### First New Deal (1933–1934)[edit | edit source]

Main article: New Deal

On his second day in office, Roosevelt declared a four-day national "bank holiday", to end the run by depositors seeking to withdraw funds.[152] He called for a special session of Congress on March 9, when Congress passed, almost sight unseen, the Emergency Banking Act.[152] The act, first developed by the Hoover administration and Wall Street bankers, gave the president the power to determine the opening and closing of banks and authorized the Federal Reserve Banks to issue banknotes.[153] The "first 100 Days" of the 73rd United States Congress saw an unprecedented amount of legislation and set a benchmark against which future presidents have been compared.[154][155] When the banks reopened on Monday, March 15, stock prices rose by 15 percent and in the following weeks over $1 billion was returned to bank vaults, ending the bank panic.[152] On March 22, Roosevelt signed the Cullen–Harrison Act, which brought Prohibition to a close.[156]

File:FDR video montage.ogg

Collection of video clips of Roosevelt

Roosevelt saw the establishment of a number of agencies and measures designed to provide relief for the unemployed and others. The Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA), under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, distributed relief to state governments.[157] The Public Works Administration (PWA), under Secretary of the Interior Harold Ickes, oversaw the construction of large-scale public works such as dams, bridges, and schools.[157] The most popular of all New Deal agencies – and Roosevelt's favorite – was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), which hired 250,000 unemployed men to work in rural projects. Roosevelt also expanded Hoover's Reconstruction Finance Corporation, which financed railroads and industry. Congress gave the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) broad regulatory powers and provided mortgage relief to millions of farmers and homeowners. Roosevelt also set up the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA) to increase commodity prices, by paying farmers to leave land uncultivated and cut herds.[158] In many instances, crops were plowed under and livestock killed, while many Americans died of hunger and were ill-clothed; critics labeled such policies "utterly idiotic."[152] On the positive side, nothing did more to rescue the farm family from isolation than the Rural Electrification Administration (REA), which brought electricity for the first time to millions of rural homes and with it such conveniences as radios and washing machines."[152]

Reform of the economy was the goal of the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) of 1933. It sought to end cutthroat competition by forcing industries to establish rules such as minimum prices, agreements not to compete, and production restrictions. Industry leaders negotiated the rules with NIRA officials, who suspended antitrust laws in return for better wages. The Supreme Court in May 1935 declared NIRA unconstitutional by a unanimous decision, to Roosevelt's chagrin.[159] He reformed financial regulations with the Glass–Steagall Act, creating the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) to underwrite savings deposits. The act also limited affiliations between commercial banks and securities firms.[160] In 1934, the Securities and Exchange Commission was created to regulate the trading of securities, while the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) was established to regulate telecommunications.[161]

Recovery was sought through federal spending, as the NIRA included $3.3 billion (equivalent to $69.08 billion in 2021) of spending through the Public Works Administration.[162] Roosevelt worked with Senator Norris to create the largest government-owned industrial enterprise in American history—the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)—which built dams and power stations, controlled floods, and modernized agriculture and home conditions in the poverty-stricken Tennessee Valley. However, natives criticized the TVA for displacing thousands of people for these projects.[152] The Soil Conservation Service trained farmers in the proper methods of cultivation, and with the TVA, Roosevelt became the father of soil conservation.[152] Executive Order 6102 declared that all privately held gold of American citizens was to be sold to the U.S. Treasury and the price raised from $20 to $35 per ounce. The goal was to counter the deflation which was paralyzing the economy.[163]

Roosevelt tried to keep his campaign promise by cutting the federal budget. This included a reduction in military spending from $752 million in 1932 to $531 million in 1934 and a 40% cut in spending on veterans benefits. 500,000 veterans and widows were removed from the pension rolls, and benefits were reduced for the remainder. Federal salaries were cut and spending on research and education was reduced. The veterans were well organized and strongly protested, so most benefits were restored or increased by 1934.[164] Veterans groups such as the American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars won their campaign to transform their benefits from payments due in 1945 to immediate cash when Congress overrode the President's veto and passed the Bonus Act in January 1936.[165] It pumped sums equal to 2% of the GDP into the consumer economy and had a major stimulus effect.[166]

#### Second New Deal (1935–1936)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Second New Deal

File:Signing Of The Social Security Act.jpg

Roosevelt signs the Social Security Act into law, August 14, 1935

Roosevelt expected that his party would lose seats in the 1934 Congressional elections, as the president's party had done in most previous midterm elections. Unexpectedly the Democrats picked up seats in both houses of Congress. Empowered by the public's vote of confidence, the first item on Roosevelt's agenda in the 74th Congress was the creation of a social insurance program.[167] The Social Security Act established Social Security and promised economic security for the elderly, the poor, and the sick. Roosevelt insisted that it should be funded by payroll taxes rather than from the general fund, saying, "We put those payroll contributions there so as to give the contributors a legal, moral, and political right to collect their pensions and unemployment benefits. With those taxes in there, no damn politician can ever scrap my social security program."[168] Compared with the social security systems in western European countries, the Social Security Act of 1935 was rather conservative. But for the first time, the federal government took responsibility for the economic security of the aged, the temporarily unemployed, dependent children, and disabled people.[169] Against Roosevelt's original intention for universal coverage, the act excluded farmers, domestic workers, and other groups, which made up about forty percent of the labor force.[170]

Roosevelt consolidated the various relief organizations, though some, like the PWA, continued to exist. After winning Congressional authorization for further funding of relief efforts, he established the Works Progress Administration (WPA). Under the leadership of Harry Hopkins, the WPA employed over three million people in its first year of operations. It undertook numerous massive construction projects in cooperation with local governments. It also set up the National Youth Administration and arts organizations.[171]

File:1936 FDR "Don't Be Fooled by Figures" Re-election handbill.jpg

1936 re-election handbill for Roosevelt promoting his economic policy

The National Labor Relations Act guaranteed workers the right to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice. The act also established the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to facilitate wage agreements and suppress repeated labor disturbances. The act did not compel employers to reach an agreement with their employees, but it opened possibilities for American labor.[172] The result was a tremendous growth of membership in the labor unions, especially in the mass-production sector.[173] When the Flint sit-down strike threatened the production of General Motors, Roosevelt broke with the precedent set by many former presidents and refused to intervene; the strike ultimately led to the unionization of both General Motors and its rivals in the American automobile industry.[174]

While the First New Deal of 1933 had broad support from most sectors, the Second New Deal challenged the business community. Conservative Democrats, led by Al Smith, fought back with the American Liberty League, savagely attacking Roosevelt and equating him with socialism.[175] But Smith overplayed his hand, and his boisterous rhetoric let Roosevelt isolate his opponents and identify them with the wealthy vested interests that opposed the New Deal, strengthening Roosevelt for the 1936 landslide.[175] By contrast, labor unions, energized by labor legislation, signed up millions of new members and became a major backer of Roosevelt's re-elections in 1936, 1940, and 1944.[176]

Burns suggests that Roosevelt's policy decisions were guided more by pragmatism than ideology and that he "was like the general of a guerrilla army whose columns, fighting blindly in the mountains through dense ravines and thickets, suddenly converge, half by plan and half by coincidence, and debouch into the plain below."[177] Roosevelt argued that such apparently haphazard methodology was necessary. "The country needs and, unless I mistake its temper, the country demands bold, persistent experimentation," he wrote. "It is common sense to take a method and try it; if it fails, admit it frankly and try another. But above all, try something."[178]

#### Re-election, 1936[edit | edit source]

Main article: 1936 United States presidential election

File:ElectoralCollege1936.svg

1936 electoral vote results

Eight million workers remained unemployed in 1936, and though economic conditions had improved since 1932, they remained sluggish. By 1936, Roosevelt had lost the backing he once held in the business community because of his support for the NLRB and the Social Security Act.[132] The Republicans had few alternative candidates and nominated Kansas Governor Alf Landon, a little-known bland candidate whose chances were damaged by the public re-emergence of the still-unpopular Herbert Hoover.[179] While Roosevelt campaigned on his New Deal programs and continued to attack Hoover, Landon sought to win voters who approved of the goals of the New Deal but disagreed with its implementation.[180]

An attempt by Louisiana Senator Huey Long to organize a left-wing third party collapsed after Long's assassination in 1935. The remnants, helped by Father Charles Coughlin, supported William Lemke of the newly formed Union Party. [181] Roosevelt won re-nomination with little opposition at the 1936 Democratic National Convention, while his allies overcame Southern resistance to permanently abolish the long-established rule that had required Democratic presidential candidates to win the votes of two-thirds of the delegates rather than a simple majority.[e]

In the election against Landon and a third-party candidate, Roosevelt won 60.8% of the vote and carried every state except Maine and Vermont.[183] The Democratic ticket won the highest proportion of the popular vote.[f] Democrats also expanded their majorities in Congress, winning control of over three-quarters of the seats in each house. The election also saw the consolidation of the New Deal coalition; while the Democrats lost some of their traditional allies in big business, they were replaced by groups such as organized labor and African Americans, the latter of whom voted Democratic for the first time since the Civil War.[184] Roosevelt lost high-income voters, especially businessmen and professionals, but made major gains among the poor and minorities. He won 86 percent of the Jewish vote, 81 percent of Catholics, 80 percent of union members, 76 percent of Southerners, 76 percent of blacks in northern cities, and 75 percent of people on relief. Roosevelt carried 102 of the country's 106 cities with a population of 100,000 or more.[185]

#### Supreme Court fight and second term legislation[edit | edit source]

See also: Franklin D. Roosevelt Supreme Court candidates, Hughes Court, and Wiley Rutledge Supreme Court nomination

Supreme Court appointments by President Franklin D. Roosevelt[186]

Position| Name| Term
Chief Justice| Harlan Fiske Stone| 1941-1946
Associate Justice| Hugo Black| 1937-1971
Stanley Forman Reed| 1938-1957
Felix Frankfurter| 1939-1962
William O. Douglas| 1939-1975
Frank Murphy| 1940-1949
James F. Byrnes| 1941-1942
Robert H. Jackson| 1941-1954
Wiley Rutledge| 1943-1949

The Supreme Court became Roosevelt's primary domestic focus during his second term after the court overturned many of his programs, including NIRA. The more conservative members of the court upheld the principles of the Lochner era, which saw numerous economic regulations struck down on the basis of freedom of contract.[187] Roosevelt proposed the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, which would have allowed him to appoint an additional Justice for each incumbent Justice over the age of 70; in 1937, there were six Supreme Court Justices over the age of 70. The size of the Court had been set at nine since the passage of the Judiciary Act of 1869, and Congress had altered the number of Justices six other times throughout U.S. history.[188] Roosevelt's "court packing" plan ran into intense political opposition from his own party, led by Vice President Garner since it upset the separation of powers.[189] A bipartisan coalition of liberals and conservatives of both parties opposed the bill, and Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes broke with precedent by publicly advocating the defeat of the bill. Any chance of passing the bill ended with the death of Senate Majority Leader Joseph Taylor Robinson in July 1937.[190]

Starting with the 1937 case of West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, the court began to take a more favorable view of economic regulations. Historians have described this as, "the switch in time that saved nine."[152] That same year, Roosevelt appointed a Supreme Court Justice for the first time, and by 1941, seven of the nine Justices had been appointed by Roosevelt.[g][191] After Parish, the Court shifted its focus from judicial review of economic regulations to the protection of civil liberties.[192] Four of Roosevelt's Supreme Court appointees, Felix Frankfurter, Robert H. Jackson, Hugo Black, and William O. Douglas, were particularly influential in reshaping the jurisprudence of the Court.[193][194]

With Roosevelt's influence on the wane following the failure of the Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937, conservative Democrats joined with Republicans to block the implementation of further New Deal programs.[195] Roosevelt did manage to pass some legislation, including the Housing Act of 1937, a second Agricultural Adjustment Act, and the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) of 1938, which was the last major piece of New Deal legislation. The FLSA outlawed child labor, established a federal minimum wage, and required overtime pay for certain employees who work in excess of forty-hours per week.[196] He also won passage of the Reorganization Act of 1939 and subsequently created the Executive Office of the President, making it "the nerve center of the federal administrative system."[197] When the economy began to deteriorate again in mid-1937, during the onset of the recession of 1937–1938, Roosevelt launched a rhetorical campaign against big business and monopoly power in the United States, alleging that the recession was the result of a capital strike and even ordering the Federal Bureau of Investigation to look for a criminal conspiracy (of which they found none). He then asked Congress for $5 billion (equivalent to $94.25 billion in 2021) in relief and public works funding. This managed to eventually create as many as 3.3 million WPA jobs by 1938. Projects accomplished under the WPA ranged from new federal courthouses and post offices to facilities and infrastructure for national parks, bridges, and other infrastructure across the country, and architectural surveys and archaeological excavations—investments to construct facilities and preserve important resources. Beyond this, however, Roosevelt recommended to a special congressional session only a permanent national farm act, administrative reorganization, and regional planning measures, all of which were leftovers from a regular session. According to Burns, this attempt illustrated Roosevelt's inability to settle on a basic economic program.[198]

Determined to overcome the opposition of conservative Democrats in Congress, Roosevelt became involved in the 1938 Democratic primaries, actively campaigning for challengers who were more supportive of New Deal reform. Roosevelt failed badly, managing to defeat only one of the ten targeted, a conservative Democrat from New York City.[152] In the November 1938 elections, Democrats lost six Senate seats and 71 House seats, with losses concentrated among pro-New Deal Democrats. When Congress reconvened in 1939, Republicans under Senator Robert Taft formed a Conservative coalition with Southern Democrats, virtually ending Roosevelt's ability to enact his domestic proposals.[199] Despite their opposition to Roosevelt's domestic policies, many of these conservative Congressmen would provide crucial support for Roosevelt's foreign policy before and during World War II.[200]

#### Conservation and the environment[edit | edit source]

Roosevelt had a lifelong interest in the environment and conservation starting with his youthful interest in forestry on his family estate. Although he was never an outdoorsman or sportsman on Theodore Roosevelt's scale, his growth of the national systems was comparable.[9] When Franklin was Governor of New York, the Temporary Emergency Relief Administration was essentially a state-level predecessor of the federal Civilian Conservation Corps, with 10,000 or more men building fire trails, combating soil erosion and planting tree seedlings in marginal farmland in the state of New York.[201] As President, Roosevelt was active in expanding, funding, and promoting the National Park and National Forest systems.[202] Their popularity soared, from three million visitors a year at the start of the decade to 15.5 million in 1939.[203] The Civilian Conservation Corps enrolled 3.4 million young men and built 13,000 miles (21,000 kilometres) of trails, planted two billion trees, and upgraded 125,000 miles (201,000 kilometres) of dirt roads. Every state had its own state parks, and Roosevelt made sure that WPA and CCC projects were set up to upgrade them as well as the national systems.[204][205]

#### GNP and unemployment rates[edit | edit source]

See also: Great Depression in the United States § Roosevelt's New Deal

Unemployment rates[h] Year | Lebergott | Darby

|
|

1929 | 3.2 | 3.2
1932 | 23.6 | 22.9
1933 | 24.9 | 20.6
1934 | 21.7 | 16.0
1935 | 20.1 | 14.2
1936 | 16.9 | 9.9
1937 | 14.3 | 9.1
1938 | 19.0 | 12.5
1939 | 17.2 | 11.3
1940 | 14.6 | 9.5

Government spending increased from 8.0% of the gross national product (GNP) under Hoover in 1932 to 10.2% in 1936. The national debt as a percentage of the GNP had more than doubled under Hoover from 16% to 40% of the GNP in early 1933. It held steady at close to 40% as late as fall 1941, then grew rapidly during the war.[207] The GNP was 34% higher in 1936 than in 1932 and 58% higher in 1940 on the eve of war. That is, the economy grew 58% from 1932 to 1940 in eight years of peacetime, and then grew 56% from 1940 to 1945 in five years of wartime.[207] Unemployment fell dramatically during Roosevelt's first term. It increased in 1938 ("a depression within a depression") but continually declined after 1938.[206] Total employment during Roosevelt's term expanded by 18.31 million jobs, with an average annual increase in jobs during his administration of 5.3%.[208][209]

#### Foreign policy (1933–1941)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration

File:Vargas e Roosevelt.jpg

Roosevelt with Brazilian President Getúlio Vargas and other dignitaries in Brazil, 1936

The main foreign policy initiative of Roosevelt's first term was the Good Neighbor Policy, which was a re-evaluation of U.S. policy toward Latin America. The United States frequently intervened in Latin America following the promulgation of the Monroe Doctrine in 1823, and the United States occupied several Latin American nations in the Banana Wars that occurred following the Spanish–American War of 1898. After Roosevelt took office, he withdrew U.S. forces from Haiti and reached new treaties with Cuba and Panama, ending their status as U.S. protectorates. In December 1933, Roosevelt signed the Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, renouncing the right to intervene unilaterally in the affairs of Latin American countries.[210] Roosevelt also normalized relations with the Soviet Union, which the United States had refused to recognize since the 1920s.[211] He hoped to renegotiate the Russian debt from World War I and open trade relations, but no progress was made on either issue and "both nations were soon disillusioned by the accord."[212]

The rejection of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 marked the dominance of isolationism in American foreign policy. Despite Roosevelt's Wilsonian background, he and Secretary of State Cordell Hull acted with great care not to provoke isolationist sentiment. The isolationist movement was bolstered in the early to mid-1930s by Senator Gerald Nye and others who succeeded in their effort to stop the "merchants of death" in the U.S. from selling arms abroad.[213] This effort took the form of the Neutrality Acts; the president was refused a provision he requested giving him the discretion to allow the sale of arms to victims of aggression.[214] He largely acquiesced to Congress's non-interventionist policies in the early-to-mid 1930s.[215] In the interim, Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini proceeded to overcome Ethiopia, and the Italians joined Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler in supporting General Francisco Franco and the Nationalist cause in the Spanish Civil War.[216] As that conflict drew to a close in early 1939, Roosevelt expressed regret in not aiding the Spanish Republicans.[217] When Japan invaded China in 1937, isolationism limited Roosevelt's ability to aid China,[218] despite atrocities like the Nanking Massacre and the USS Panay incident.[219]

File:FDR-George-VI-Potomac-June-9-1939-2-detail-crop.jpg

The Roosevelts with King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, sailing from Washington, D.C., to Mount Vernon, Virginia, on the USS Potomac during the first U.S. visit of a reigning British monarch (June 9, 1939)

File:FDR foreign trips.svg

Foreign trips of Roosevelt during his presidency[220]

Germany annexed Austria in 1938, and soon turned its attention to its eastern neighbors.[221] Roosevelt made it clear that, in the event of German aggression against Czechoslovakia, the U.S. would remain neutral.[222] After completion of the Munich Agreement and the execution of Kristallnacht, American public opinion turned against Germany, and Roosevelt began preparing for a possible war with Germany.[223] Relying on an interventionist political coalition of Southern Democrats and business-oriented Republicans, Roosevelt oversaw the expansion of U.S. airpower and war production capacity.[224]

When World War II began in September 1939 with Germany's invasion of Poland and Britain and France's subsequent declaration of war upon Germany, Roosevelt sought ways to assist Britain and France militarily.[225] Isolationist leaders like Charles Lindbergh and Senator William Borah successfully mobilized opposition to Roosevelt's proposed repeal of the Neutrality Act, but Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the sale of arms on a cash-and-carry basis.[226] He also began a regular secret correspondence with Britain's First Lord of the Admiralty, Winston Churchill, in September 1939—the first of 1,700 letters and telegrams between them.[227] Roosevelt forged a close personal relationship with Churchill, who became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in May 1940.[228]

The Fall of France in June 1940 shocked the American public, and isolationist sentiment declined.[229] In July 1940, Roosevelt appointed two interventionist Republican leaders, Henry L. Stimson and Frank Knox, as Secretaries of War and the Navy, respectively. Both parties gave support to his plans for a rapid build-up of the American military, but the isolationists warned that Roosevelt would get the nation into an unnecessary war with Germany.[230] In July 1940, a group of Congressmen introduced a bill that would authorize the nation's first peacetime draft, and with the support of the Roosevelt administration, the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 passed in September. The size of the army increased from 189,000 men at the end of 1939 to 1.4 million men in mid-1941.[231] In September 1940, Roosevelt openly defied the Neutrality Acts by reaching the Destroyers for Bases Agreement, which, in exchange for military base rights in the British Caribbean Islands, gave 50 WWI American destroyers to Britain.[232]

### Election of 1940[edit | edit source]

Main article: 1940 United States presidential election

In the months prior to the July 1940 Democratic National Convention, there was much speculation as to whether Roosevelt would run for an unprecedented third term. The president was silent, and even his closest advisors were in the dark.[233] The two-term tradition, although not yet enshrined in the Constitution,[i] had been established by George Washington when he refused to run for a third term in the 1796 presidential election. Roosevelt refused to give a definitive statement as to his willingness to be a candidate again, and he even indicated to some ambitious Democrats, such as James Farley, that he would not run for a third term and that they could seek the Democratic nomination. Farley and Vice President John Garner were not pleased with Roosevelt's decision to break from Washington's precedent.[132] As Germany swept through Western Europe and menaced Britain in mid-1940, Roosevelt decided that only he had the necessary experience and skills to see the nation safely through the Nazi threat. He was aided by the party's political bosses, who feared that no Democrat except Roosevelt could defeat Wendell Willkie, the popular Republican nominee.[234]

File:ElectoralCollege1940.svg

1940 electoral vote results

At the July 1940 Democratic Convention in Chicago, Roosevelt easily swept aside challenges from Farley and Vice President Garner, who had turned against Roosevelt in his second term because of his liberal economic and social policies.[235] To replace Garner on the ticket, Roosevelt turned to Secretary of Agriculture Henry Wallace of Iowa, a former Republican who strongly supported the New Deal and was popular in farm states.[236] The choice was strenuously opposed by many of the party's conservatives, who felt Wallace was too radical and "eccentric" in his private life to be an effective running mate. But Roosevelt insisted that without Wallace on the ticket he would decline re-nomination, and Wallace won the vice-presidential nomination, defeating Speaker of the House William B. Bankhead and other candidates.[235]

A late August poll taken by Gallup found the race to be essentially tied, but Roosevelt's popularity surged in September following the announcement of the Destroyers for Bases Agreement.[237] Willkie supported much of the New Deal as well as rearmament and aid to Britain but warned that Roosevelt would drag the country into another European war.[238] Responding to Willkie's attacks, Roosevelt promised to keep the country out of the war.[239] Over its last month, the campaign degenerated into a series of outrageous accusations and mud-slinging, if not by the two candidates themselves then by their respective parties.[132] Roosevelt won the 1940 election with 55% of the popular vote, 38 of the 48 states, and almost 85% of the electoral vote.[240]

### Third and fourth terms (1941–1945)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt, third and fourth terms

Further information: Foreign policy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration

World War II dominated Roosevelt's attention, with far more time devoted to world affairs than ever before. Domestic politics and relations with Congress were largely shaped by his efforts to achieve total mobilization of the nation's economic, financial, and institutional resources for the war effort. Even relationships with Latin America and Canada were structured by wartime demands. Roosevelt maintained close personal control of all major diplomatic and military decisions, working closely with his generals and admirals, the war and Navy departments, the British, and even the Soviet Union. His key advisors on diplomacy were Harry Hopkins (who was based in the White House), Sumner Welles (based in the State Department), and Henry Morgenthau Jr. at Treasury. In military affairs, Roosevelt worked most closely with Secretary Henry L. Stimson at the War Department, Army Chief of Staff George Marshall, and Admiral William D. Leahy.[241][242][243]

#### Lead-up to the war[edit | edit source]

By late 1940, re-armament was in high gear, partly to expand and re-equip the Army and Navy and partly to become the "Arsenal of Democracy" for Britain and other countries.[244] With his Four Freedoms speech in January 1941, Roosevelt laid out the case for an Allied battle for basic rights throughout the world. Assisted by Willkie, Roosevelt won Congressional approval of the Lend-Lease program, which directed massive military and economic aid to Britain, and China.[245] In sharp contrast to the loans of World War I, there would be no repayment after the war.[246] As Roosevelt took a firmer stance against Japan, Germany, and Italy, American isolationists such as Charles Lindbergh and the America First Committee vehemently attacked Roosevelt as an irresponsible warmonger.[247] When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Roosevelt agreed to extend Lend-Lease to the Soviets. Thus, Roosevelt had committed the U.S. to the Allied side with a policy of "all aid short of war."[248] By July 1941, Roosevelt authorized the creation of the Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs (OCIAA) to counter perceived propaganda efforts in Latin America by Germany and Italy.[249][250]

In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill conducted a highly secret bilateral meeting in which they drafted the Atlantic Charter, conceptually outlining global wartime and postwar goals. This would be the first of several wartime conferences;[251] Churchill and Roosevelt would meet ten more times in person.[252] Though Churchill pressed for an American declaration of war against Germany, Roosevelt believed that Congress would reject any attempt to bring the United States into the war.[253] In September, a German submarine fired on the U.S. destroyer Greer, and Roosevelt declared that the U.S. Navy would assume an escort role for Allied convoys in the Atlantic as far east as Great Britain and would fire upon German ships or submarines (U-boats) of the Kriegsmarine if they entered the U.S. Navy zone. According to historian George Donelson Moss, Roosevelt "misled" Americans by reporting the Greer incident as if it would have been an unprovoked German attack on a peaceful American ship.[254] This "shoot on sight" policy effectively declared naval war on Germany and was favored by Americans by a margin of 2-to-1.[255]

#### Pearl Harbor and declarations of war[edit | edit source]

See also: Events leading to the attack on Pearl Harbor

File:Prince of Wales-5.jpg

Roosevelt and Winston Churchill aboard HMS Prince of Wales for 1941 Atlantic Charter meeting

After the German invasion of Poland, the primary concern of both Roosevelt and his top military staff was on the war in Europe, but Japan also presented foreign policy challenges. Relations with Japan had continually deteriorated since its invasion of Manchuria in 1931, and they had further worsened with Roosevelt's support of China.[256] With the war in Europe occupying the attention of the major colonial powers, Japanese leaders eyed vulnerable colonies such as the Dutch East Indies, French Indochina, and British Malaya.[257] After Roosevelt announced a $100 million loan (equivalent to $1.9 billion in 2021) to China in reaction to Japan's occupation of northern French Indochina, Japan signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy. The pact bound each country to defend the others against attack, and Germany, Japan, and Italy became known as the Axis powers.[258] Overcoming those who favored invading the Soviet Union, the Japanese Army high command successfully advocated for the conquest of Southeast Asia to ensure continued access to raw materials.[259] In July 1941, after Japan occupied the remainder of French Indochina, Roosevelt cut off the sale of oil to Japan, depriving Japan of more than 95 percent of its oil supply.[260] He also placed the Philippine military under American command and reinstated General Douglas MacArthur into active duty to command U.S. forces in the Philippines.[261]

File:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan.jpg

File:Franklin Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Germany.jpg

Roosevelt signing declaration of war against Japan (left) on December 8 and against Germany (right) on December 11, 1941

The Japanese were incensed by the embargo and Japanese leaders became determined to attack the United States unless it lifted the embargo. The Roosevelt administration was unwilling to reverse the policy, and Secretary of State Hull blocked a potential summit between Roosevelt and Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe.[j] After diplomatic efforts to end the embargo failed, the Privy Council of Japan authorized a strike against the United States.[263] The Japanese believed that the destruction of the United States Asiatic Fleet (stationed in the Philippines) and the United States Pacific Fleet (stationed at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii) was vital to the conquest of Southeast Asia.[264] On the morning of December 7, 1941, the Japanese struck the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor with a surprise attack, knocking out the main American battleship fleet and killing 2,403 American servicemen and civilians. At the same time, separate Japanese task forces attacked Thailand, British Hong Kong, the Philippines, and other targets. Roosevelt called for war in his "Infamy Speech" to Congress, in which he said: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941—a date which will live in infamy—the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan." In a nearly unanimous vote, Congress declared war on Japan.[265] After the Japanese attack at Pearl Harbor, antiwar sentiment in the United States largely evaporated overnight. On December 11, 1941, Hitler and Mussolini declared war on the United States, which responded in kind.[k][266]

A majority of scholars have rejected the conspiracy theories that Roosevelt, or any other high government officials, knew in advance about the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.[267] The Japanese had kept their secrets closely guarded. Senior American officials were aware that war was imminent, but they did not expect an attack on Pearl Harbor.[268] Roosevelt had expected that the Japanese would attack either the Dutch East Indies or Thailand.[269]

#### War plans[edit | edit source]

File:Ww2 allied axis 1942 jun.png

Territory controlled by the Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in June 1942

In late December 1941, Churchill and Roosevelt met at the Arcadia Conference, which established a joint strategy between the U.S. and Britain. Both agreed on a Europe first strategy that prioritized the defeat of Germany before Japan. The U.S. and Britain established the Combined Chiefs of Staff to coordinate military policy and the Combined Munitions Assignments Board to coordinate the allocation of supplies.[270] An agreement was also reached to establish a centralized command in the Pacific theater called ABDA, named for the American, British, Dutch, and Australian forces in the theater.[271] On January 1, 1942, the United States, Britain, China, the Soviet Union, and twenty-two other countries (the Allied Powers) issued the Declaration by United Nations, in which each nation pledged to defeat the Axis powers.[272]

In 1942, Roosevelt formed a new body, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which made the final decisions on American military strategy. Admiral Ernest J. King as Chief of Naval Operations commanded the Navy and Marines, while General George C. Marshall led the Army and was in nominal control of the Air Force, which in practice was commanded by General Hap Arnold.[273] The Joint Chiefs were chaired by Admiral William D. Leahy, the most senior officer in the military.[274] Roosevelt avoided micromanaging the war and let his top military officers make most decisions.[275] Roosevelt's civilian appointees handled the draft and procurement of men and equipment, but no civilians – not even the secretaries of War or Navy – had a voice in strategy. Roosevelt avoided the State Department and conducted high-level diplomacy through his aides, especially Harry Hopkins, whose influence was bolstered by his control of the Lend Lease funds.[276]

#### Nuclear program[edit | edit source]

See also: History of nuclear weapons and Nuclear weapons of the United States

In August 1939, Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein sent the Einstein–Szilárd letter to Roosevelt, warning of the possibility of a German project to develop nuclear weapons. Szilard realized that the recently discovered process of nuclear fission could be used to create a nuclear chain reaction that could be used as a weapon of mass destruction.[277] Roosevelt feared the consequences of allowing Germany to have sole possession of the technology and authorized preliminary research into nuclear weapons.[l] After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the Roosevelt administration secured the funds needed to continue research and selected General Leslie Groves to oversee the Manhattan Project, which was charged with developing the first nuclear weapons. Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to jointly pursue the project, and Roosevelt helped ensure that American scientists cooperated with their British counterparts.[279]

#### Wartime conferences[edit | edit source]

See also: Diplomatic history of World War II

File:Cairo conference.jpg

Chiang Kai-shek, Roosevelt, and Winston Churchill at the Cairo Conference

File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg

Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin at the Yalta Conference, February 1945, two months before Roosevelt's death

Roosevelt coined the term "Four Policemen" to refer to the "Big Four" Allied powers of World War II, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China. The "Big Three" of Roosevelt, Winston Churchill, and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, together with Chinese Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek, cooperated informally on a plan in which American and British troops concentrated in the West; Soviet troops fought on the Eastern front; and Chinese, British and American troops fought in Asia and the Pacific. The United States also continued to send aid via the Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union and other countries. The Allies formulated strategy in a series of high-profile conferences as well as by contact through diplomatic and military channels.[280] Beginning in May 1942, the Soviets urged an Anglo-American invasion of German-occupied France in order to divert troops from the Eastern front.[281] Concerned that their forces were not yet ready for an invasion of France, Churchill and Roosevelt decided to delay such an invasion until at least 1943 and instead focus on a landing in North Africa, known as Operation Torch.[282]

In November 1943, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss strategy and post-war plans at the Tehran Conference, where Roosevelt met Stalin for the first time.[283] At the conference, Britain and the United States committed to opening a second front against Germany in 1944, while Stalin committed to entering the war against Japan at an unspecified date. Subsequent conferences at Bretton Woods and Dumbarton Oaks established the framework for the post-war international monetary system and the United Nations, an intergovernmental organization similar to the failed League of Nations.[284] Taking up the Wilsonian mantle, Roosevelt pushed as his highest postwar priority the establishment of the United Nations. Roosevelt expected it would be controlled by Washington, Moscow, London and Beijing, and would resolve all major world problems.[285].

Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met for a second time at the February 1945 Yalta Conference in Crimea. With the end of the war in Europe approaching, Roosevelt's primary focus was on convincing Stalin to enter the war against Japan; the Joint Chiefs had estimated that an American invasion of Japan would cause as many as one million American casualties. In return for the Soviet Union's entrance into the war against Japan, the Soviet Union was promised control of Asian territories such as Sakhalin Island. The three leaders agreed to hold a conference in 1945 to establish the United Nations, and they also agreed on the structure of the United Nations Security Council, which would be charged with ensuring international peace and security. Roosevelt did not push for the immediate evacuation of Soviet soldiers from Poland, but he won the issuance of the Declaration on Liberated Europe, which promised free elections in countries that had been occupied by Germany. Germany itself would not be dismembered but would be jointly occupied by the United States, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union.[286] Against Soviet pressure, Roosevelt and Churchill refused to consent to impose huge reparations and deindustrialization on Germany after the war.[287] Roosevelt's role in the Yalta Conference has been controversial; critics charge that he naively trusted the Soviet Union to allow free elections in Eastern Europe, while supporters argue that there was little more that Roosevelt could have done for the Eastern European countries given the Soviet occupation and the need for cooperation with the Soviet Union during and after the war.[288][289]

#### Course of the war[edit | edit source]

See also: Military history of the United States during World War II

The Allies invaded French North Africa in November 1942, securing the surrender of Vichy French forces within days of landing.[290] At the January 1943 Casablanca Conference, the Allies agreed to defeat Axis forces in North Africa and then launch an invasion of Sicily, with an attack on France to take place in 1944. At the conference, Roosevelt also announced that he would only accept the unconditional surrender of Germany, Japan, and Italy.[291] In February 1943, the Soviet Union won a major victory at the Battle of Stalingrad, and in May 1943, the Allies secured the surrender of over 250,000 German and Italian soldiers in North Africa, ending the North African Campaign.[292] The Allies launched an invasion of Sicily in July 1943, capturing the island by the end of the following month.[293] In September 1943, the Allies secured an armistice from Italian Prime Minister Pietro Badoglio, but Germany quickly restored Mussolini to power.[293] The Allied invasion of mainland Italy commenced in September 1943, but the Italian Campaign continued until 1945 as German and Italian troops resisted the Allied advance.[294]

File:Ww2 allied axis 1944 dec.png

The Allies (blue and red) and the Axis Powers (black) in December 1944

To command the invasion of France, Roosevelt chose General Dwight D. Eisenhower, who had successfully commanded a multinational coalition in North Africa and Sicily.[295] Eisenhower chose to launch Operation Overlord on June 6, 1944. Supported by 12,000 aircraft and the largest naval force ever assembled, the Allies successfully established a beachhead in Normandy and then advanced further into France.[275] Though reluctant to back an unelected government, Roosevelt recognized Charles de Gaulle's Provisional Government of the French Republic as the de facto government of France in July 1944. After most of France had been liberated from German occupation, Roosevelt granted formal recognition to de Gaulle's government in October 1944.[296] Over the following months, the Allies liberated more territory from Nazi occupation and began the invasion of Germany. By April 1945, Nazi resistance was crumbling in the face of advances by both the Western Allies and the Soviet Union.[297]

In the opening weeks of the war, Japan conquered the Philippines and the British and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia. The Japanese advance reached its maximum extent by June 1942, when the U.S. Navy scored a decisive victory at the Battle of Midway. American and Australian forces then began a slow and costly strategy called island hopping or leapfrogging through the Pacific Islands, with the objective of gaining bases from which strategic airpower could be brought to bear on Japan and from which Japan could ultimately be invaded. In contrast to Hitler, Roosevelt took no direct part in the tactical naval operations, though he approved strategic decisions.[298] Roosevelt gave way in part to insistent demands from the public and Congress that more effort be devoted against Japan, but he always insisted on Germany first. The strength of the Japanese navy was decimated in the Battle of Leyte Gulf, and by April 1945 the Allies had re-captured much of their lost territory in the Pacific.[299]

#### Home front[edit | edit source]

Main article: United States home front during World War II

The home front was subject to dynamic social changes throughout the war, though domestic issues were no longer Roosevelt's most urgent policy concern. The military buildup spurred economic growth. Unemployment fell in half from 7.7 million in spring 1940 to 3.4 million in fall 1941 and fell in half again to 1.5 million in fall 1942, out of a labor force of 54 million.[m] There was a growing labor shortage, accelerating the second wave of the Great Migration of African Americans, farmers and rural populations to manufacturing centers. African Americans from the South went to California and other West Coast states for new jobs in the defense industry. To pay for increased government spending, in 1941 Roosevelt proposed that Congress enact an income tax rate of 99.5% on all income over $100,000; when the proposal failed, he issued an executive order imposing an income tax of 100% on income over $25,000, which Congress rescinded.[301] The Revenue Act of 1942 instituted top tax rates as high as 94% (after accounting for the excess profits tax), greatly increased the tax base, and instituted the first federal withholding tax.[302] In 1944, Roosevelt requested that Congress enact legislation which would tax all "unreasonable" profits, both corporate and individual, and thereby support his declared need for over $10 billion in revenue for the war and other government measures. Congress overrode Roosevelt's veto to pass a smaller revenue bill raising $2 billion.[303]

In 1942, with the United States now in the conflict, war production increased dramatically but fell short of the goals established by the president, due in part to manpower shortages.[304] The effort was also hindered by numerous strikes, especially among union workers in the coal mining and railroad industries, which lasted well into 1944.[305][306] Nonetheless, between 1941 and 1945, the United States produced 2.4 million trucks, 300,000 military aircraft, 88,400 tanks, and 40 billion rounds of ammunition. The production capacity of the United States dwarfed that of other countries; for example, in 1944, the United States produced more military aircraft than the combined production of Germany, Japan, Britain, and the Soviet Union.[307] The White House became the ultimate site for labor mediation, conciliation or arbitration. One particular battle royale occurred between Vice President Wallace, who headed the Board of Economic Warfare, and Jesse H. Jones, in charge of the Reconstruction Finance Corporation; both agencies assumed responsibility for the acquisition of rubber supplies and came to loggerheads over funding. Roosevelt resolved the dispute by dissolving both agencies.[308] In 1943, Roosevelt established the Office of War Mobilization to oversee the home front; the agency was led by James F. Byrnes, who came to be known as the "assistant president" due to his influence.[293]

Error missing media source

Roosevelt announced the plan for a bill of social and economic rights in the State of the Union address broadcast on January 11, 1944. (excerpt)

Roosevelt's 1944 State of the Union Address advocated that Americans should think of basic economic rights as a Second Bill of Rights.[309] He stated that all Americans should have the right to "adequate medical care", "a good education", "a decent home", and a "useful and remunerative job".[310] In the most ambitious domestic proposal of his third term, Roosevelt proposed the G.I. Bill, which would create a massive benefits program for returning soldiers. Benefits included post-secondary education, medical care, unemployment insurance, job counseling, and low-cost loans for homes and businesses. The G.I. Bill passed unanimously in both houses of Congress and was signed into law in June 1944. Of the fifteen million Americans who served in World War II, more than half benefitted from the educational opportunities provided for in the G.I. Bill.[311]

#### Declining health[edit | edit source]

Roosevelt, a chain-smoker throughout his entire adult life,[312][313] had been in declining physical health since at least 1940. In March 1944, shortly after his 62nd birthday, he underwent testing at Bethesda Hospital and was found to have high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease causing angina pectoris, and congestive heart failure.[314][315][316]

Hospital physicians and two outside specialists ordered Roosevelt to rest. His personal physician, Admiral Ross McIntire, created a daily schedule that banned business guests for lunch and incorporated two hours of rest each day. During the 1944 re-election campaign, McIntire denied several times that Roosevelt's health was poor; on October 12, for example, he announced that "The President's health is perfectly OK. There are absolutely no organic difficulties at all."[317] Roosevelt realized that his declining health could eventually make it impossible for him to continue as president, and in 1945 he told a confidant that he might resign from the presidency following the end of the war.[318]

#### Election of 1944[edit | edit source]

Main articles: 1944 United States presidential election and 1944 Democratic Party vice presidential candidate selection

1944 electoral vote results

While some Democrats had opposed Roosevelt's nomination in 1940, the president faced little difficulty in securing his re-nomination at the 1944 Democratic National Convention. Roosevelt made it clear before the convention that he was seeking another term, and on the lone presidential ballot of the convention, Roosevelt won the vast majority of delegates, although a minority of Southern Democrats voted for Harry F. Byrd. Party leaders prevailed upon Roosevelt to drop Vice President Wallace from the ticket, believing him to be an electoral liability and a poor potential successor in case of Roosevelt's death. Roosevelt preferred Byrnes as Wallace's replacement but was convinced to support Senator Harry S. Truman of Missouri, who had earned renown for his investigation of war production inefficiency and was acceptable to the various factions of the party. On the second vice presidential ballot of the convention, Truman defeated Wallace to win the nomination.[319]

The Republicans nominated Thomas E. Dewey, the governor of New York, who had a reputation as a liberal in his party. They accused the Roosevelt administration of domestic corruption and bureaucratic inefficiency, but Dewey's most effective gambit was to raise discreetly the age issue. He assailed the President as a "tired old man" with "tired old men" in his cabinet, pointedly suggesting that the President's lack of vigor had produced a less than vigorous economic recovery.[132] Roosevelt, as most observers could see from his weight loss and haggard appearance, was a tired man in 1944. But upon entering the campaign in earnest in late September 1944, Roosevelt displayed enough passion and fight to allay most concerns and to deflect Republican attacks. With the war still raging, he urged voters not to "change horses in mid-stream."[132] Labor unions, which had grown rapidly in the war, fully supported Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Truman won the 1944 election by a comfortable margin, defeating Dewey and his running mate John W. Bricker with 53.4% of the popular vote and 432 out of the 531 electoral votes.[320] The president campaigned in favor of a strong United Nations, so his victory symbolized support for the nation's future participation in the international community.[321]

#### Final months and death[edit | edit source]

File:FDR-April-11-1945.jpg

Last photograph of Roosevelt, taken April 11, 1945, the day before his death

File:Franklin Roosevelt funeral procession 1945.jpg

Roosevelt's funeral procession in Washington, D.C., watched by 300,000 spectators (April 14, 1945)

When Roosevelt returned to the United States from the Yalta Conference, many were shocked to see how old, thin and frail he looked. He spoke while seated in the well of the House, an unprecedented concession to his physical incapacity.[322] During March 1945, he sent strongly worded messages to Stalin accusing him of breaking his Yalta commitments over Poland, Germany, prisoners of war and other issues. When Stalin accused the western Allies of plotting behind his back a separate peace with Hitler, Roosevelt replied: "I cannot avoid a feeling of bitter resentment towards your informers, whoever they are, for such vile misrepresentations of my actions or those of my trusted subordinates."[323] On March 29, 1945, Roosevelt went to the Little White House at Warm Springs, Georgia, to rest before his anticipated appearance at the founding conference of the United Nations.

In the afternoon of April 12, 1945, in Warm Springs, Georgia, while sitting for a portrait, Roosevelt said "I have a terrific headache."[324][325] He then slumped forward in his chair, unconscious, and was carried into his bedroom. The president's attending cardiologist, Dr. Howard Bruenn, diagnosed the medical emergency as a massive intracerebral hemorrhage.[326] At 3:35 p.m. that day, Roosevelt died at the age of 63.[327]

The following morning, Roosevelt's body was placed in a flag-draped coffin and loaded onto the presidential train for the trip back to Washington. Along the route, thousands flocked to the tracks to pay their respects. After a White House funeral on April 14, Roosevelt was transported by train from Washington, D.C., to his place of birth at Hyde Park. On April 15 he was buried, per his wish, in the rose garden of his Springwood estate.[328]

Roosevelt's declining physical health had been kept secret from the public. His death was met with shock and grief across the world.[329] Germany surrendered during the 30-day mourning period, but Harry Truman (who had succeeded Roosevelt as president) ordered flags to remain at half-staff; he also dedicated Victory in Europe Day and its celebrations to Roosevelt's memory.[330] World War II finally ended with the signed surrender of Japan in September.[331]

## Civil rights, repatriation, internment, and the Jews[edit | edit source]

Further information: Franklin D. Roosevelt's record on civil rights

File:Franklin Roosevelt - Presidential portrait.jpg

Official portrait of President Roosevelt by Frank O. Salisbury, c. 1947

Roosevelt was viewed as a hero by many African Americans, Catholics, and Jews, and he was highly successful in attracting large majorities of these voters into his New Deal coalition.[332] Roosevelt won strong support from Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans, but not Japanese Americans, as he presided over their internment during World War II.[333] African Americans and Native Americans fared well in two New Deal relief programs, the Civilian Conservation Corps and the Indian Reorganization Act, respectively. Sitkoff reports that the WPA "provided an economic floor for the whole black community in the 1930s, rivaling both agriculture and domestic service as the chief source" of income.[334]

### Mexicans[edit | edit source]

The Mexican Repatriation policies that began under Hoover as a result of the Great Depression continued with Roosevelt as president. During the 1930s, between 355,000 and one million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were repatriated or deported to Mexico; an estimated forty to sixty percent of whom were birthright citizens – overwhelmingly children.[335][336][337] While supported by the federal government, actual deportations and repatriations were mostly organized and encouraged by city and state governments, often with support from local private entities. Voluntary repatriation was far more common than formal deportation. The rate of repatriations fell for all immigrants, especially for Mexicans, after Roosevelt became president, who also instituted more lenient policies towards immigrants, especially for well-settled ones. The rate of repatriation to Mexico fell dramatically by 50%. The vast majority of formal deportations during the 1930s occurred during Hoover's presidency.[336][335]

Error creating thumbnail:

Eleanor Roosevelt and Mary McLeod Bethune, a member of Roosevelt's Black Cabinet (a key advisory group on race relations)

### Lynching[edit | edit source]

Roosevelt stopped short of joining NAACP leaders in pushing for federal anti-lynching legislation, as he believed that such legislation was unlikely to pass and that his support for it would alienate Southern congressmen. He did, however, appoint a "Black Cabinet" of African American advisers to advise on race relations and African American issues, and he publicly denounced lynching as "murder".[338] First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt vocally supported efforts designed to aid the African American community, including the Fair Labor Standards Act, which helped boost wages for nonwhite workers in the South.[339] In 1941, Roosevelt established the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) to implement Executive Order 8802, which prohibited racial and religious discrimination in employment among defense contractors. The FEPC was the first national program directed against employment discrimination, and it played a major role in opening up new employment opportunities to non-white workers. During World War II, the proportion of African American men employed in manufacturing positions rose significantly.[340] In response to Roosevelt's policies, African Americans increasingly defected from the Republican Party during the 1930s and 1940s, becoming an important Democratic voting bloc in several Northern states.[338]

### Japanese-Americans[edit | edit source]

The attack on Pearl Harbor raised concerns in the public regarding the possibility of sabotage by Japanese Americans. This suspicion was fed by long-standing racism against Japanese immigrants, as well as the findings of the Roberts Commission, which concluded that the attack on Pearl Harbor had been assisted by Japanese spies. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, which relocated 110,000 Japanese-American citizens and immigrants, most of whom lived on the Pacific Coast.[152] They were forced to liquidate their properties and businesses and interned in hastily built camps in interior, harsh locations. Distracted by other issues, Roosevelt had delegated the decision for internment to Secretary of War Stimson, who in turn relied on the judgment of Assistant Secretary of War John J. McCloy. The Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the executive order in the 1944 case of Korematsu v. United States.[341] Many German and Italian citizens were also arrested or placed into internment camps.[342]

### Jews[edit | edit source]

There is controversy among historians about Roosevelt's attitude to Jews and the Holocaust. Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. says Roosevelt "did what he could do" to help Jews; David Wyman says Roosevelt's record on Jewish refugees and their rescue is "very poor" and one of the worst failures of his presidency.[343] In 1923, as a member of the Harvard board of directors, Roosevelt decided there were too many Jewish students at Harvard University and helped institute a quota to limit the number of Jews admitted to Harvard.[344] After Kristallnacht in 1938, Roosevelt did not loosen immigration quotas and his State Department took steps to prevent Jews and other refugees from entering the country.[345] However, he was prevented from accepting further Jewish immigrants, particularly refugees, by the restrictive Immigration Act of 1924, and antisemitism among voters.[346][dubious - discuss] According to Rafael Medoff, the US president could have saved 190,000 Jewish lives by telling his State Department to fill immigration quotas to the legal limit, but his administration discouraged and disqualified Jewish refugees based on its prohibitive requirements that left less than 25% of the quotas filled.[344] Hitler chose to implement the "Final Solution"—the extermination of the European Jewish population—by January 1942, and American officials learned of the scale of the Nazi extermination campaign in the following months. Against the objections of the State Department, Roosevelt convinced the other Allied leaders to jointly issue the Joint Declaration by Members of the United Nations, which condemned the ongoing Holocaust and warned to try its perpetrators as war criminals. In 1943, Roosevelt told U.S. government officials that there should be limits on Jews in various professions to "eliminate the specific and understandable complaints which the Germans bore towards the Jews in Germany."[344] The same year, Roosevelt was personally briefed by Polish Home Army intelligence agent Jan Karski who was an eyewitness of the Holocaust; pleading for action, Karski told him that 1.8 million Jews had already been exterminated.[347][348] Karski recalled that in response, Roosevelt "did not ask one question about the Jews."[349] In January 1944, Roosevelt established the War Refugee Board to aid Jews and other victims of Axis atrocities. Aside from these actions, Roosevelt believed that the best way to help the persecuted populations of Europe was to end the war as quickly as possible. Top military leaders and War Department leaders rejected any campaign to bomb the extermination camps or the rail lines leading to the camps, fearing it would be a diversion from the war effort. According to biographer Jean Edward Smith, there is no evidence that anyone ever proposed such a campaign to Roosevelt.[350]

## Legacy[edit | edit source]

### Historical reputation[edit | edit source]

File:FDR-Memorial-Grosvenor-Square.jpg

FDR Memorial in Grosvenor Square, London (1948)

File:FDR Memorial wall.jpg

The Four Freedoms engraved on a wall at the Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial in Washington, D.C. (1997)

File:1 Dime (United States).jpg

U.S. Dime (1989) with a portrait of Roosevelt; popularly known as the Roosevelt dime

Roosevelt is widely considered to be one of the most important figures in the history of the United States,[351] as well as one of the most influential figures of the 20th century.[352] Historians and political scientists consistently rank Roosevelt, George Washington, and Abraham Lincoln as the three greatest presidents, although the order varies.[353][354][355][356] Reflecting on Roosevelt's presidency, "which brought the United States through the Great Depression and World War II to a prosperous future", biographer Jean Edward Smith said in 2007, "He lifted himself from a wheelchair to lift the nation from its knees."[357]

His commitment to the working class and unemployed in need of relief in the nation's longest recession made him a favorite of the blue collar workers, labor unions, and ethnic minorities.[358] The rapid expansion of government programs that occurred during Roosevelt's term redefined the role of the government in the United States, and Roosevelt's advocacy of government social programs was instrumental in redefining liberalism for coming generations.[359] Roosevelt firmly established the United States' leadership role on the world stage, with his role in shaping and financing World War II. His isolationist critics faded away, and even the Republicans joined in his overall policies.[360] He also created a new understanding of the presidency, permanently increasing the power of the president at the expense of Congress.[361]

His Second Bill of Rights became, according to historian Joshua Zeitz. was, "the basis of the Democratic Party's aspirations for the better part of four decades."[310] After his death, his widow, Eleanor, continued to be a forceful presence in U.S. and world politics, serving as delegate to the conference which established the United Nations and championing civil rights and liberalism generally. Some junior New Dealers played leading roles in the presidencies of Truman, John Kennedy, and Lyndon Johnson. Kennedy came from a Roosevelt-hating family. Historian William Leuchtenburg says that before 1960, "Kennedy showed a conspicuous lack of inclination to identify himself as a New Deal liberal." He adds, as president, "Kennedy never wholly embraced the Roosevelt tradition and at times he deliberately severed himself from it."[362] By contrast, young Lyndon Johnson had been an enthusiastic New Dealer and a favorite of Roosevelt. Johnson modelled his presidency on Roosevelt's and relied heavily on New Deal lawyer Abe Fortas, as well as James H. Rowe, Anna M. Rosenberg, Thomas Gardiner Corcoran, and Benjamin V. Cohen.[363][364]

During his presidency, and continuing to a lesser extent afterwards, there has been much criticism of Roosevelt, some of it intense. Critics have questioned not only his policies, positions, and the consolidation of power that occurred due to his responses to the crises of the Depression and World War II but also his breaking with tradition by running for a third term as president.[365] Long after his death, new lines of attack criticized Roosevelt's policies regarding helping the Jews of Europe,[366] incarcerating the Japanese on the West Coast,[367] and opposing anti-lynching legislation.[368]

### Memorials[edit | edit source]

Main article: List of memorials to Franklin D. Roosevelt

Roosevelt's home in Hyde Park is now a National Historic Site and home to his Presidential library. Washington, D.C., hosts two memorials to the former president. The largest, the 7+1⁄2-acre (3-hectare) Roosevelt Memorial, is located next to the Jefferson Memorial on the Tidal Basin.[369] A more modest memorial, a block of marble in front of the National Archives building suggested by Roosevelt himself, was erected in 1965.[370] Roosevelt's leadership in the March of Dimes is one reason he is commemorated on the American dime.[371] Roosevelt has also appeared on several U.S. Postage stamps.[372] On April 29, 1945, seventeen days after Roosevelt's death, the carrier USS Franklin D. Roosevelt was launched and served from 1945 to 1977.[373] London's Westminster Abbey also has a stone tablet memorial to President Roosevelt that was unveiled by Attlee and Churchill in 1948.[374] Roosevelt Island was renamed after Roosevelt in September 1973.[375]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Cultural depictions of Franklin D. Roosevelt
* August Adolph Gennerich – his bodyguard
* List of Allied World War II conferences
* List of federal political sex scandals in the United States
* Sunshine Special (automobile) – Roosevelt's limousine
* Air Mail scandal

## Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ^ It was common for boys to wear what was considered "gender-neutral" clothing, thus boys wore dresses up until they were 6 or 7.[6]
2. ^ In 2008, Columbia awarded Roosevelt a posthumous Juris Doctor degree.[29]
3. ^ State legislatures elected United States Senators prior to the ratification of the Seventeenth Amendment in 1913.
4. ^ Roosevelt was the last President inaugurated on March 4. The Twentieth Amendment changed presidential inaugurations to January 20, from 1937.
5. ^ Biographer Jean Edward Smith notes that "the significance of the repeal of the two-thirds rule...is difficult to overstate. Not only did the power of the South in the Democratic party diminish, but without the repeal, it is open to question whether FDR could have been renominated in 1940."[182]
6. ^ The 1964 Democratic ticket of Lyndon B. Johnson and Hubert Humphrey would later set a new record, taking 61.1% of the popular vote
7. ^ The two Justices who Roosevelt did not originally appoint to the Court were Harlan Fiske Stone and Owen Roberts. However, in 1941, Roosevelt elevated Stone to the position of Chief Justice.
8. ^ This table shows the estimated unemployment related as calculated by two economists. Michael Darby's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as employed, while Stanley Lebergott's estimate counts individuals on work relief programs as unemployed[206]
9. ^ The Twenty-second Amendment ratified in 1951, would bar any individual from winning more than two presidential elections.
10. ^ Hull and others in the administration were unwilling to recognize the Japanese conquest of China and feared that an American accommodation with Japan would leave the Soviet Union vulnerable to a two-front war.[262]
11. ^ The United States would also declare war on Bulgaria, Hungary, and Romania, all of which had joined the Axis bloc.
12. ^ The Germans stopped research on nuclear weapons in 1942, choosing to focus on other projects. Japan gave up its own program in 1943.[278]
13. ^ WPA workers were counted as unemployed by this set of statistics.[300]

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351. ^ Appleby, Joyce; Brands, H.W.; Dallek, Robert; Fitzpatrick, Ellen; Goodwin, Doris Kearns; Gordon, John Steele; Kennedy, David M.; McDougall, Walter; Noll, Mark; Wood, Gordon S. (December 2006). "The 100 Most Influential Figures in American History". The Atlantic. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
352. ^ Walsh, Kenneth T. (April 10, 2015). "FDR: The President Who Made America Into a Superpower". U.S. News & World Report. Retrieved October 13, 2017.
353. ^ "Presidential Historians Survey 2017". C-SPAN Survey of Presidential Leadership. C-SPAN.
354. ^ "Presidential Leadership – The Rankings". Wall Street Journal. September 12, 2005. Archived from the original on November 2, 2005. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
355. ^ Rottinghaus, Brandon; Vaughn, Justin (February 16, 2015). "New ranking of U.S. presidents puts Lincoln at No. 1, Obama at 18; Kennedy judged most overrated". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 4, 2015.
356. ^ Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr. (Summer 1997). "Ranking the Presidents: From Washington to Clinton". Political Science Quarterly. 112 (2): 179–190. doi:10.2307/2657937. JSTOR 2657937.
357. ^ Smith 2007, p. ix.
358. ^ Greenstein, F I (2009). The Presidential Difference Leadership Style from FDR to Barack Obama Third Edition. United Kingdom: Princeton University Press. p. 14\. ISBN 9780691143835.
359. ^ Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr (2007) [1963], "Liberalism in America: A Note for Europeans", The Politics of Hope, Riverside Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13475-8
360. ^ Black 2005, pp. 1126–27.
361. ^ Leuchtenburg 2015, pp. 174–75.
362. ^ Leuchtenburg, William E. (2001), In the Shadow of FDR: From Harry Truman to George W. Bush, Cornell University Press, pp. 128, 178, ISBN 978-0-8014-8737-8
363. ^ Leuchtenburg, pp. 208, 218, 226.
364. ^ John Massaro, "LBJ and the Fortas Nomination for Chief Justice." Political Science Quarterly 97.4 (1982): 603–621.
365. ^ Dallek 2017, pp. 624–25.
366. ^ Wyman 1984.
367. ^ Robinson 2001.
368. ^ Dallek 2017, p. 626.
369. ^ "Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial". National Park Service. Retrieved January 19, 2018.
370. ^ jessiekratz (April 10, 2015). "The other FDR Memorial". Pieces of History. National Archives. Retrieved June 19, 2017.
371. ^ "Conservatives want Reagan to replace FDR on U.S. dimes". USA Today. Associated Press. December 5, 2003. Retrieved January 22, 2018.
372. ^ "Franklin Delano Roosevelt Issues". Smithsonian National Postal Museum. Retrieved May 11, 2021.
373. ^ "FDR Library – USS Roosevelt". docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu. Retrieved September 25, 2021.
374. ^ "Franklin Delano Roosevelt". Westminster Abbey. Retrieved April 16, 2022.
375. ^ "COMING TO LIGHT: The Louis I. Kahn Monument to Franklin D. Roosevelt". archweb.cooper.edu. Retrieved September 25, 2021.

### Works cited[edit | edit source]

* Alter, Jonathan (2006), The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope (popular history), Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-7432-4600-2
* Black, Conrad (2005) [2003]. Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Champion of Freedom (interpretive detailed biography). PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1-58648-282-4..
* Brands, H. W. (2009). Traitor to His Class: The Privileged Life and Radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-307-27794-7.
* Brinkley, Douglas (2016). Rightful Heritage: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Land of America. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-208923-6.
* Burns, James MacGregor (1956). Roosevelt: The Lion and the Fox. Easton Press. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0.
* 

 (1970). Roosevelt: The Soldier of Freedom. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. hdl:2027/heb.00626. ISBN 978-0-15-678870-0.
* Campbell, James E. (2006). "Party Systems and Realignments in the United States, 1868–2004". Social Science History. 30 (3): 359–386. doi:10.1215/01455532-2006-002. JSTOR 40267912.
* Caro, Robert (1974). The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-48076-3. OCLC 834874.
* Churchill, Winston (1977). The Grand Alliance. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-395-41057-8.
* Dallek, Robert (1995). Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. Oxford University. ISBN 978-0-19-509732-0. online free to borrow
* 

 (2017). Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Political Life. Viking. ISBN 978-0-69-818172-4.
* Dighe, Ranjit S. "Saving private capitalism: The US bank holiday of 1933." Essays in Economic & Business History 29 (2011) online
* Doenecke, Justus D; Stoler, Mark A (2005), Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's Foreign Policies, 1933–1945, Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-8476-9415-0
* Freidel, Frank (1952–1973), Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 4 volumes, Little, Brown and Co., OCLC 459748221
* Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Apprenticeship (vol 1 1952) to 1918, online
* Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Ordeal (1954), covers 1919 to 1928, online
* Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt The Triumph (1956) covers 1929–32, online
* Frank Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt Launching the New Deal (1973).
* Fried, Albert (2001). FDR and His Enemies: A History. St. Martin's Press. pp. 120–23. ISBN 978-1-250-10659-9.
* Goldman, Armond S.; Goldman, Daniel A. (2017). Prisoners of Time: The Misdiagnosis of FDR's 1921 Illness. EHDP Press. ISBN 978-1-939-82403-5.
* Goodwin, Doris Kearns (1995). No Ordinary Time: Franklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-80448-4.
* Gunther, John (1950). Roosevelt in Retrospect. Harper & Brothers.
* Hawley, Ellis (1995). The New Deal and the Problem of Monopoly. Fordham University Press. ISBN 978-0-8232-1609-3.
* Herman, Arthur (2012). Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II. Random House. ISBN 978-0-679-60463-1.
* Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
* Jordan, David M (2011), FDR, Dewey, and the Election of 1944, Indiana University Press, ISBN 978-0-253-35683-3.
* Kennedy, David M (1999), Freedom From Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 (wide-ranging survey of national affairs by leading scholar; Pulitzer Prize), Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-503834-7.
* Lash, Joseph P (1971). Eleanor and Franklin: The Story of Their Relationship, Based on Eleanor Roosevelt's Private Papers. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-07459-8.
* Leuchtenburg, William (2015). The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517616-2.
* Leuchtenburg, William E. (1963). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the New Deal, 1932–1940. Harpers. ISBN 978-0-06-133025-4.
* McJimsey, George (2000). The Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1012-9. online free to borrow
* Morgan, Ted (1985), FDR: A Biography (popular biography), Simon & Schuster, ISBN 978-0-671-45495-1.
* Norton, Mary Beth (2009). A People and a Nation: A History of the United States. Since 1865. Cengage. ISBN 978-0-547-17560-7.
* Robinson, Greg (2001), By Order of the President: FDR and the Internment of Japanese Americans, ISBN 978-1-5226-7771-0
* Roosevelt, Franklin; Roosevelt, Elliott (1970). F.D.R.: His Personal Letters, 1928-1945. Vol. 1\. Duell, Sloan, and Pearce.
* Rowley, Hazel (2010). Franklin and Eleanor: An Extraordinary Marriage. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. ISBN 978-0-374-15857-6.
* Sainsbury, Keith (1994). Churchill and Roosevelt at War: The War They Fought and the Peace They Hoped to Make. New York University Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-7991-0.
* Savage, Sean J. (1991). Roosevelt, the Party Leader, 1932–1945. University Press of Kentucky. ISBN 978-0-8131-3079-8.
* Schweikart, Larry; Allen, Michael (2004). A Patriot's History of the United States: From Columbus's Great Discovery to the War on Terror. Penguin Group US. ISBN 978-1-101-21778-8.
* Smith, Jean Edward (2007). FDR. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6121-1.
* Sternsher, Bernard (Summer 1975), "The Emergence of the New Deal Party System: A Problem in Historical Analysis of Voter Behavior", Journal of Interdisciplinary History, 6 (1): 127–49, doi:10.2307/202828, JSTOR 202828
* Tobin, James (2013). The Man He Became: How FDR Defied Polio to Win the Presidency. Simon and Schuster. pp. 4–7. ISBN 978-1-4516-9867-1.
* Tully, Grace (2005). Franklin Delano Roosevelt, My Boss. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4179-8926-3.
* Underwood, Jeffery S. (1991). The Wings of Democracy: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933–1941. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-388-3.
* Ward, Geoffrey C.; Burns, Ken (2014). The Roosevelts: An Intimate History. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-385-35306-9.
* Winkler, Allan M. (2006). Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Making of Modern America. Longman. ISBN 978-0-321-41285-0.
* Wyman, David S (1984), The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945, Pantheon Books, ISBN 978-0-394-42813-0.

## Further reading[edit | edit source]

Main article: Bibliography of Franklin D. Roosevelt

### Biographical[edit | edit source]

* Daniels, Roger (2015). Franklin D. Roosevelt: Road to the New Deal, 1882–1939. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03951-5..
* 

 (2016). Franklin D. Roosevelt: The War Years, 1939–1945. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-03952-2.
* Freidel, Frank (1990), Franklin D. Roosevelt: A Rendezvous with Destiny (scholarly biography), vol. one volume, ISBN 978-0-316-29260-3; covers entire life' online free to borrow
* Graham, Otis L. and Meghan Robinson Wander, eds. Franklin D. Roosevelt: His Life and Times. (1985). An encyclopedic reference. online
* Jenkins, Roy (2003), Franklin Delano Roosevelt (short bio from British perspective), ISBN 978-0-8050-6959-4.
* Pederson, William D., ed. (2011). A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-9517-4.; 35 essays by scholars. online
* Riccards, Michael P., and Cheryl A. Flagg eds. Party Politics in the Age of Roosevelt: The Making of Modern America (2022) excerpt emphasis on FDR and his Democratic party

* Ward, Geoffrey C (1985), Before The Trumpet: Young Franklin Roosevelt, 1882–1905, ISBN 978-0-06-015451-6
* 

 (1992), A First-Class Temperament: The Emergence of Franklin Roosevelt (popular biography), ISBN 978-0-06-016066-1: covers 1905–32.

### Scholarly topical studies[edit | edit source]

* Badger, Anthony (2008), FDR: The First Hundred Days, ISBN 978-0-8090-4441-2 200 pp; overview by leading British scholar.
* Collins, Robert M. (2002). More: The Politics of Economic Growth in Postwar America. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-515263-0.
* Leuchtenburg, William E (2005), "Showdown on the Court", Smithsonian, 36 (2): 106–13, ISSN 0037-7333.
* McMahon, Kevin J (2004), Reconsidering Roosevelt on Race: How the Presidency Paved the Road to Brown, ISBN 978-0-226-50088-1.
* Miscamble, Wilson D. (2007). From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86244-8.
* Pederson, William D (2011), A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt, Wiley-Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4443-3016-8, 768 pages; essays by scholars covering major historiographical themes. online
* Rauchway, Eric (2008), The Great Depression and The New Deal; A Very Short Introduction, ISBN 978-0-19-532634-5, balanced summary
* Ritchie, Donald A (2007), Electing FDR: The New Deal Campaign of 1932, ISBN 978-0-7006-1687-9.
* Rosen, Elliot A (2005), Roosevelt, the Great Depression, and the Economics of Recovery, ISBN 978-0-8139-2368-0.
* Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr (1957–1960), The Age of Roosevelt, vol. 3 volumes, OCLC 466716, the classic narrative history. Strongly supports FDR.
* Shaw, Stephen K; Pederson, William D; Williams, Frank J, eds. (2004), Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Transformation of the Supreme Court, ISBN 978-0-7656-1033-1.
* Sitkoff, Harvard, ed. (1985), Fifty Years Later: The New Deal Evaluated (essays by scholars), ISBN 978-0-394-33548-3.

### Foreign policy and World War II[edit | edit source]

* Berthon, Simon; Potts, Joanna (2007). Warlords: An Extraordinary Re-creation of World War II through the Eyes and Minds of Hitler, Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin. Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81650-5.
* Beschloss, Michael (2002). The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman, and the destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941–1945. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-81027-0.
* Cole, Wayne S (Mar 1957), "American Entry into World War II: A Historiographical Appraisal", The Mississippi Valley Historical Review, 43 (4): 595–617, doi:10.2307/1902275, JSTOR 1902275, S2CID 165593382.
* Feis, Herbert. Churchill-Roosevelt-Stalin: The War they waged and the Peace they sought (1953).
* Fenby, Jonathan. Alliance: the inside story of how Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill won one war and began another (2015).
* Glantz, Mary E (2005), FDR and the Soviet Union: The President's Battles over Foreign Policy, U. Press of Kansas, ISBN 978-0-7006-1365-6, 253 pp.
* Hamilton, Nigel (2014), The Mantle of Command: FDR at War, 1941–1942, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt 514 pp.
* Kaiser, David. No End Save Victory: How FDR Led the Nation into War (2014) ISBN 046501982X
* Lacey, James. The Washington War: FDR's Inner Circle and the Politics of Power That Won World War II (2019)
* Langer, William; Gleason, S Everett (1952), The Challenge to Isolation, 1937–1940, OCLC 1448535. The Undeclared War, 1940–1941 (1953) OCLC 404227. highly detailed and influential two-volume semi-official history
* Mayers, David. (2013) FDR's Ambassadors and the Diplomacy of Crisis: From the Rise of Hitler to the End of World War II.
* Larrabee, Eric (2004), Commander in Chief: Franklin Delano Roosevelt, His Lieutenants, and Their War, ISBN 978-0-06-039050-1.
* Reynolds, David (2006), From World War to Cold War: Churchill, Roosevelt, and the International History of the 1940s, ISBN 978-0-19-928411-5
* Reynolds, David, and Vladimir Pechatnov, eds.  The Kremlin Letters: Stalin's Wartime Correspondence with Churchill and Roosevelt (2019)
* Sherwood, Robert E (1949) [1950], Roosevelt and Hopkins: an Intimate History, Harper, hdl:2027/heb.00749, ISBN 9780060138455, Pulitzer Prize.
* Weinberg, Gerhard L (1994), A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II, Cambridge University Press, hdl:2027/heb.00331, ISBN 978-0-521-44317-3. Overall history of the war; strong on diplomacy of FDR and other main leaders.

### Criticism[edit | edit source]

* Barnes, Harry Elmer (1953), Perpetual War for Perpetual Peace: A Critical Examination of the Foreign Policy of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Its Aftermath, OCLC 457149. A revisionist blames FDR for inciting Japan to attack.
* Best, Gary Dean (1991), Pride, Prejudice, and Politics: Roosevelt Versus Recovery, 1933–1938, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-93524-5; summarizes newspaper editorials.
* 

 (2002), The Retreat from Liberalism: Collectivists versus Progressives in the New Deal Years, Praeger, ISBN 978-0-275-94656-2; criticizes intellectuals who supported FDR.
* Breitman, Richard; Lichtman, Allan J (2013), FDR and the Jews, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-05026-6, OCLC 812248674, 433 pp.
* Russett, Bruce M (1997), No Clear and Present Danger: A Skeptical View of the United States Entry into World War II (2nd ed.), says US should have let USSR and Germany destroy each other.
* Plaud, Joseph J (2005), Historical Perspectives on Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Foreign Policy, and the Holocaust, The FDR American Heritage Center Museum, archived from the original on January 12, 2014.
* Powell, Jim (2003), FDR's Folly: How Roosevelt and His New Deal Prolonged the Great Depression, ISBN 978-0-7615-0165-7.
* Schivelbusch, Wolfgang (2006), Three New Deals: Reflections on Roosevelt's America, Mussolini's Italy, and Hitler's Germany, 1933–1939.
* Shlaes, Amity (2007), The Forgotten Man: A New History of the Great Depression (A critical evaluation of the effect of the New Deal's policies on the Depression)
* Smiley, Gene (1993), Rethinking the Great Depression (short essay) by libertarian economist who blames both Hoover and FDR.

### Rhetoric[edit | edit source]

* Buhite, Russell D; Levy, David W, eds. (1993), FDR's Fireside Chats.
* Craig, Douglas B (2005), Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920–1940.
* Crowell, Laura (1952), "Building the 'Four Freedoms' Speech", Communication Monographs, 22 (5): 266–83, doi:10.1080/03637755509375153.
* Houck, Davis W (2001), Rhetoric as Currency: Hoover, Roosevelt, and the Great Depression, Texas A&M University Press.
* 

 (2002), FDR and Fear Itself: The First Inaugural Address, Texas A&M University Press.
* Roosevelt, Franklin D. (2005), My Friends: Twenty Eight History Making Speeches, Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4179-9610-0
* 

 (1988), Franklin D. Roosevelt's Rhetorical Presidency, Greenwood Press.
* Harvey J. Kaye (2020), FDR on Democracy: The Greatest Speeches and Writings of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Simon & Schuster, New York, ISBN 978-1-5107-5216-0.

### Historiography[edit | edit source]

* Hendrickson, Jr., Kenneth E. "FDR Biographies," in William D. Pederson, ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) pp 1–14 online
* Provizer, Norman W. "Eleanor Roosevelt Biographies," in William D. Pederson, ed. A Companion to Franklin D. Roosevelt (2011) pp 15–33 online

### Primary sources[edit | edit source]

* Cantril, Hadley; Strunk, Mildred, eds. (1951), Public Opinion, 1935–1946, massive compilation of many public opinion polls from the US.
* Loewenheim, Francis L; Langley, Harold D, eds. (1975), Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence.
* Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (1945) [1938], Rosenman, Samuel Irving (ed.), The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, vol. 13 volumes.
* 

 (1946), Zevin, BD (ed.), Nothing to Fear: The Selected Addresses of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, 1932–1945.
* 

 (2005) [1947], Taylor, Myron C (ed.), Wartime Correspondence Between President Roosevelt and Pope Pius XII (reprint), Kessinger Publishing, ISBN 978-1-4191-6654-9.
* Roosevelt, Franklin. Franklin D. Roosevelt and foreign affairs (FDR Library, 1969) 14 vol. online free to borrow; covers Jan 1933 to Aug 1939; 9 volumes are online
* Nixon, Edgar B, ed. (1969), Franklin D Roosevelt and Foreign Affairs (3 vol), covers 1933–37. 2nd series 1937–39 available on microfiche and in a 14 vol print edition at some academic libraries.

## External links[edit | edit source]

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Information about
Franklin D. Roosevelt

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* Full text and audio of a number of Roosevelt's speeches – Miller Center of Public Affairs
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt collected news and commentary at The New York Times
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt: A Resource Guide from the Library of Congress
* Appearances on C-SPAN
* "Life Portrait of Franklin D. Roosevelt", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, October 11, 1999
* The Presidents: FDR – an American Experience documentary
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt: Selections from His Writings
* Works by Franklin Delano Roosevelt at Project Gutenberg
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* Works by or about Franklin D. Roosevelt at Internet Archive

* v
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Franklin D. Roosevelt

* 32nd President of the United States (1933–1945)
* 44th Governor of New York (1929–1932)
* Assistant Secretary of the Navy (1913–1920)
* New York State Senator (1911–1913)

Presidency|

* Transition
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* War Relocation Authority
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* Cabinet
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* Official car
* Criticism
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Presidential
Foreign policy|

* Banana Wars
* U.S. occupation of Nicaragua, 1912–1933
* U.S. occupation of Haiti, 1915–1934
* Good Neighbor Policy (1933–1945)
* Montevideo Convention (1933)
* Second London Naval Treaty (1936)
* ABCD line (1940)
* Export Control Act
* Four Policemen
* Lend-Lease
* 1940 Selective Service Act
* Hull note
* Atlantic Charter (1941)
* Military history of the United States during World War II
* Home front during World War II
* Combined Munitions Assignments Board
* War Production Board
* Declaration by United Nations (1942)
* Dumbarton Oaks Conference
* World War II conferences
* Quebec Agreement
* Europe first
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Presidential
speeches|

* 1932 Acceptance speech
* Commonwealth Club Address
* Madison Square Garden speech
* "Four Freedoms"
* Day of Infamy speech
* Arsenal of Democracy
* "...is fear itself"
* Fireside chats
* "Look to Norway"
* Quarantine Speech
* "The More Abundant Life"
* Second Bill of Rights
* State of the Union Address (1934
* 1938
* 1939
* 1940
* 1941
* 1945)

Other events|

* Early life, education, career
* Warm Springs Institute
* Governorship of New York
* Business Plot
* Assassination attempt

Elections|

* 1928 New York state election
* 1930
* Democratic National Convention, 1920
* 1924
* 1932
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944
* 1920 United States presidential election
* 1932
* theme song
* 1936
* 1940
* 1944

Life and homes|

* Early life and education
* Groton School
* Springwood birthplace, home, and gravesite
* Campobello home
* Paralytic illness
* Top Cottage
* Little White House, Warm Springs, Georgia

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Roosevelt Institute
* Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Memorial
* Roosevelt Island
* Four Freedoms Park
* White House Roosevelt Room
* Roosevelt Institute for American Studies
* USS Franklin D. Roosevelt
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* Four Freedoms Award
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* Unfinished portrait
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* Roosevelt dime
* I'd Rather Be Right 1937 musical
* Films
* The Roosevelt Story 1947
* Sunrise at Campobello 1960
* Eleanor and Franklin 1976, The White House Years 1977
* Backstairs at the White House 1979 miniseries
* World War II: When Lions Roared 1997 miniseries
* Warm Springs 2005
* Hyde Park on Hudson 2012
* The Roosevelts 2014 documentary
* The First Lady 2022 miniseries
* Other namesakes

Roosevelt family
Delano family|

* Eleanor Roosevelt (wife)
* Anna Roosevelt Halsted (daughter)
* James Roosevelt II (son)
* Elliott Roosevelt (son)
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt Jr. (son)
* John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (son)
* Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves (granddaughter)
* Curtis Roosevelt (grandson)
* William Donner Roosevelt (grandson)
* Sara Delano Roosevelt (granddaughter)
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson)
* John Roosevelt Boettiger (grandson)
* James Roosevelt III (grandson)
* James Roosevelt I (father)
* Sara Ann Delano (mother)
* James Roosevelt Roosevelt (half-brother)
* Isaac Roosevelt (grandfather)
* Warren Delano Jr. (grandfather)
* Jacobus Roosevelt (great-grandfather)
* Fala (family dog)
* Major (family dog)

* ← Herbert Hoover
* Harry S. Truman →

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New Deal

Causes and legacy|

* Great Depression
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Second New Deal|

* Works Progress Administration (WPA)
* Federal Project Number One
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* Rural Electrification Act
* Rural Electrification Administration
* Social Security
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Individuals|

* Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Harold L. Ickes
* Frances Perkins
* Harry Hopkins
* Henry Morgenthau Jr.
* Huey Long
* Herbert Hoover
* Francis Townsend
* Robert F. Wagner

* Category
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* v
* t
* e

Eleanor Roosevelt

* Chairwoman, Presidential Commission on the Status of Women (1961–1962)
* 34th First Lady of the United States (1933–1945)

United Nations|

* United States delegate, United Nations General Assembly (1946–1952)
* United Nations Commission on Human Rights (1947–1953, Chairperson 1946–1951)
* Universal Declaration of Human Rights
* Drafting committee
* Human Rights Day

First Lady of
the United States|

* "My Day" daily newspaper column, 1935–1962
* Co-Chair, Office of Civilian Defense
* Marian Anderson Lincoln Memorial Concert
* Tuskegee Airmen flight
* Arthurdale and Eleanor, West Virginia
* American Youth Congress
* National Youth Administration
* Black Cabinet
* 1940 Democratic National Convention speech
* Women in Defense
* Freedom House

Other events|

* First Lady of New York
* Presidential Commission on the Status of Women
* National Organization for Women
* Encampment for Citizenship

Life and homes|

* Val-Kill National Historic Site
* Val-Kill Industries
* Campobello home
* Franklin D. Roosevelt's paralytic illness
* Hyde Park home and gravesite

Legacy|

* Roosevelt Institute
* Roosevelt Institute Campus Network
* Roosevelt Study Center
* Eleanor Roosevelt Monument
* Eleanor Roosevelt Award for Human Rights
* Statue at the Franklin Roosevelt Memorial
* Eleanor Roosevelt College
* USS Roosevelt
* Marian Anderson: the Lincoln Memorial Concert (1939 film)
* Sunrise at Campobello (1958 play, 1960 film)
* The Eleanor Roosevelt Story (1965 film)
* Eleanor and Franklin (1971 biography)
* Eleanor: The Years Alone (1972 biography)
* Eleanor and Franklin (1976 film)
* Eleanor and Franklin: The White House Years (1977 film)
* Backstairs at the White House (1979 miniseries)
* The Roosevelts (2014 documentary)
* The First Lady (2022 TV series)

Related|

* United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights
* International Bill of Human Rights
* International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
* International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
* Morgenthau Plan
* Lorena Hickok

Roosevelt family|

* Franklin D. Roosevelt (husband
* presidency 1933–1941
* presidency 1941–1945)
* Anna Eleanor Roosevelt (daughter)
* James Roosevelt II (son)
* Elliott Roosevelt (son)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt Jr. (son)
* John Roosevelt II (son)
* Eleanor Roosevelt Seagraves (granddaughter)
* Curtis Roosevelt (grandson)
* Sara Delano Roosevelt (granddaughter)
* Franklin Delano Roosevelt III (grandson)
* John Roosevelt Boettiger (grandson)
* James Roosevelt III (grandson)
* Elliott Bulloch Roosevelt (father)
* Anna Hall Roosevelt (mother)
* Hall Roosevelt (brother)
* Theodore Roosevelt Sr. (grandfather)
* Martha Stewart Bulloch (grandmother)
* Theodore Roosevelt (uncle
* presidency)
* Bamie Roosevelt (aunt)
* Fala (family dog)

Offices and distinctions

| New York State Senate

Preceded by

John F. Schlosser

|  Member of the New York Senate
from the 26th district
1911–1913  | Succeeded by

James E. Towner

Political offices
Preceded by

Beekman Winthrop

|  Assistant Secretary of the Navy
1913–1920  | Succeeded by

Gordon Woodbury

Preceded by

Al Smith

|  Governor of New York
1929–1932  | Succeeded by

Herbert H. Lehman

Preceded by

Herbert Hoover

|  President of the United States
1933–1945  | Succeeded by

Harry S. Truman

Party political offices
Preceded by

Thomas R. Marshall

|  Democratic nominee for Vice President of the United States
1920 | Succeeded by

Charles W. Bryan

Preceded by

Al Smith

|  Democratic nominee for Governor of New York
1928, 1930 | Succeeded by

Herbert H. Lehman

Democratic nominee for President of the United States
1932, 1936, 1940, 1944 | Succeeded by

Harry S. Truman

Awards and achievements
Preceded by

René Viviani

|  Cover of Time
May 28, 1923  | Succeeded by

John L. Lewis

Preceded by

Donald Wills Douglas Sr.

|  Cover of Time
November 29, 1943  | Succeeded by

Claire Lee Chennault

Other articles related to Franklin D. Roosevelt

* v
* t
* e

Presidents of the United States

Presidents and
presidencies|

1. George Washington (1789–1797)
2. John Adams (1797–1801)
3. Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)
4. James Madison (1809–1817)
5. James Monroe (1817–1825)
6. John Quincy Adams (1825–1829)
7. Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)
8. Martin Van Buren (1837–1841)
9. William Henry Harrison (1841)
10. John Tyler (1841–1845)
11. James K. Polk (1845–1849)
12. Zachary Taylor (1849–1850)
13. Millard Fillmore (1850–1853)
14. Franklin Pierce (1853–1857)
15. James Buchanan (1857–1861)
16. Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865)
17. Andrew Johnson (1865–1869)
18. Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877)
19. Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881)
20. James A. Garfield (1881)
21. Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885)
22. Grover Cleveland (1885–1889)
23. Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893)
24. Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)
25. William McKinley (1897–1901)
26. Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)
27. William Howard Taft (1909–1913)
28. Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921)
29. Warren G. Harding (1921–1923)
30. Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929)
31. Herbert Hoover (1929–1933)
32. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945)
33. Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
34. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961)
35. John F. Kennedy (1961–1963)
36. Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969)
37. Richard Nixon (1969–1974)
38. Gerald Ford (1974–1977)
39. Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)
40. Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)
41. George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)
42. Bill Clinton (1993–2001)
43. George W. Bush (2001–2009)
44. Barack Obama (2009–2017)
45. Donald Trump (2017–2021)
46. Joe Biden (2021–present)

Presidency
timelines|

* Washington
* McKinley
* T. Roosevelt
* Taft
* Wilson
* Harding
* Coolidge
* Hoover
* F. D. Roosevelt
* Truman
* Eisenhower
* Kennedy
* L. B. Johnson
* Nixon
* Ford
* Carter
* Reagan
* G. H. W. Bush
* Clinton
* G. W. Bush
* Obama
* Trump
* Biden

* Category
* Commons
* List

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945)

Vice President|

* John Nance Garner (1933–1941)
* Henry A. Wallace (1941–1945)
* Harry S. Truman (1945)

Secretary of State|

* Cordell Hull (1933–1944)
* Edward Stettinius Jr. (1944–1945)

Secretary of the Treasury|

* William H. Woodin (1933)
* Henry Morgenthau Jr. (1934–1945)

Secretary of War|

* George Dern (1933–1936)
* Harry Hines Woodring (1936–1940)
* Henry L. Stimson (1940–1945)

Attorney General|

* Homer Stille Cummings (1933–1939)
* Frank Murphy (1939–1940)
* Robert H. Jackson (1940–1941)
* Francis Biddle (1941–1945)

Postmaster General|

* James Farley (1933–1940)
* Frank C. Walker (1940–1945)

Secretary of the Navy|

* Claude A. Swanson (1933–1939)
* Charles Edison (1939–1940)
* Frank Knox (1940–1944)
* James Forrestal (1944–1945)

Secretary of the Interior|

* Harold L. Ickes (1933–1945)

Secretary of Agriculture|

* Henry A. Wallace (1933–1940)
* Claude R. Wickard (1940–1945)

Secretary of Commerce|

* Daniel C. Roper (1933–1938)
* Harry Hopkins (1938–1940)
* Jesse H. Jones (1940–1945)
* Henry A. Wallace (1945)

Secretary of Labor|

* Frances Perkins (1933–1945)

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1916) 1920 United States presidential election (-> 1924)

Republican Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Warren G. Harding
* Vice President: Calvin Coolidge

|

Other candidates|

* Leonard Wood
* Frank Orren Lowden
* Hiram Johnson
* William Cameron Sproul
* Nicholas Murray Butler
* Calvin Coolidge
* Robert M. La Follette
* Jeter Connelly Pritchard
* Miles Poindexter
* Howard Sutherland
* Herbert Hoover

Democratic Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: James M. Cox
* Vice President: Franklin D. Roosevelt

|

Other candidates|

* William Gibbs McAdoo
* A. Mitchell Palmer
* Al Smith
* John W. Davis
* Edward I. Edwards
* Woodrow Wilson (incumbent)
* Robert Latham Owen

Third party and independent candidates

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Eugene V. Debs
* VP nominee: Seymour Stedman

Farmer–Labor Party|

* Nominee: Parley P. Christensen
* VP nominee: Max S. Hayes

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: Aaron S. Watkins
* VP nominee: D. Leigh Colvin

American Party|

* Nominee: James E. Ferguson
* VP nominee: William J. Hough

Socialist Labor Party|

* Nominee: William Wesley Cox
* VP nominee: August Gillhaus

Single Tax|

* Nominee: Robert Colvin Macauley
* VP nominee: Richard C. Barnum

* Other 1920 elections: House
* Senate

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1928) 1932 United States presidential election (-> 1936)

Democratic Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Vice President: John Nance Garner

|

Other candidates|

* John Nance Garner
* William H. Murray
* James A. Reed
* Albert Ritchie
* Al Smith (campaign)

Republican Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Herbert Hoover (incumbent)
* Vice President: Charles Curtis (incumbent)

|

Other candidates|

* John J. Blaine
* Calvin Coolidge
* Joseph I. France
* James W. Wadsworth

Third party and independent candidates

Communist Party|

* Nominee: William Z. Foster
* VP nominee: James W. Ford

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: William David Upshaw

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Norman Thomas
* VP nominee: James H. Maurer

Socialist Labor Party|

* Nominee: Verne L. Reynolds
* VP nominee: John W. Aiken

Independents|

* James Renshaw Cox
* William Hope Harvey

* Other 1932 elections: House
* Senate

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1932) 1936 United States presidential election (-> 1940)

Democratic Party|

* Convention
* Primaries

Candidates|

* Incumbent nominee: Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Incumbent VP nominee: John Nance Garner

* Other candidates: Henry S. Breckinridge

Republican Party|

* Convention
* Primaries

Candidates|

* Nominee: Alf Landon
* VP nominee: Frank Knox

* Other candidates: William Borah
* Stephen A. Day
* Lester J. Dickinson
* Warren Green
* Frank Knox
* Earl Warren
* Frederick Steiwer

Third party and independent candidates

Communist Party|

* Nominee: Earl Browder
* VP nominee: James W. Ford

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: D. Leigh Colvin
* VP nominee: Claude A. Watson

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Norman Thomas
* VP nominee: George A. Nelson

Union Party|

* Nominee: William Lemke
* VP nominee: Thomas C. O'Brien

Socialist Labor Party|

* Nominee: John W. Aiken
* VP nominee: Emil F. Teichert

Christian Party|

* Nominee: William Dudley Pelley
* VP nominee: Willard Kemp

* Other 1936 elections: House
* Senate

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1936) 1940 United States presidential election (-> 1944)

Democratic Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Franklin D. Roosevelt (incumbent)
* Vice President: Henry A. Wallace

|

Other candidates|

* James Farley
* John Nance Garner
* Cordell Hull
* Millard Tydings

Republican Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Wendell Willkie
* Vice President: Charles L. McNary

|

Other candidates|

* Styles Bridges
* Thomas Dewey
* Frank Gannett
* Arthur James
* Robert Taft
* Arthur Vandenberg

Third party and independent candidates

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: Roger Babson

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Norman Thomas
* VP nominee: Maynard C. Krueger

Socialist Labor Party|

* Nominee: John W. Aiken
* VP nominee: Aaron M. Orange

Independents|

* Gracie Allen

* Other 1940 elections: House
* Senate

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1940) 1944 United States presidential election (-> 1948)

Democratic Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Vice President: Harry Truman

|

Other candidates|

* Harry F. Byrd
* James Farley

Republican Party
(Convention)|

| Nominees|

* President: Thomas E. Dewey
* Vice President: John W. Bricker

|

Other candidates|

* Riley A. Bender
* Everett Dirksen
* Douglas MacArthur
* Harold Stassen
* Robert A. Taft
* Wendell Willkie

Third party and independent candidates

America First Party|

* Nominee: Gerald L. K. Smith

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: Claude A. Watson

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Norman Thomas
* VP nominee: Darlington Hoopes

* Other 1944 elections: House
* Senate

* v
* t
* e

Governors and lieutenant governors of New York

Governors|

* G. Clinton
* Jay
* G. Clinton
* Lewis
* Tompkins
* Tayler
* D. Clinton
* Yates
* D. Clinton
* Pitcher
* Van Buren
* Throop
* Marcy
* Seward
* Bouck
* Wright
* Young
* Fish
* Hunt
* Seymour
* Clark
* King
* Morgan
* Seymour
* Fenton
* Hoffman
* J. Adams Dix
* Tilden
* Robinson
* Cornell
* Cleveland
* Hill
* Flower
* Morton
* Black
* T. Roosevelt
* Odell
* Higgins
* Hughes
* White
* J. Alden Dix
* Sulzer
* Glynn
* Whitman
* Smith
* Miller
* Smith
* F. Roosevelt
* Lehman
* Poletti
* Dewey
* Harriman
* Rockefeller
* Wilson
* Carey
* M. Cuomo
* Pataki
* Spitzer
* Paterson
* A. Cuomo
* Hochul

File:Flag of the Governor of New York.svg

Lieutenant
governors|

* Van Cortlandt
* S. Van Rensselaer
* J. Van Rensselaer
* Broome
* Tayler
* Clinton
* Tayler
* Swift
* Tayler
* Root
* Tallmadge
* Pitcher
* P. Livingston
* Dayan
* Throop
* Stebbins
* Oliver
* E. Livingston
* Tracy
* Bradish
* Dickinson
* Gardiner
* Lester
* Fish
* Patterson
* Church
* Raymond
* Selden
* Campbell
* Floyd-Jones
* Alvord
* Woodford
* Beach
* Robinson
* Dorsheimer
* Hoskins
* Hill
* McCarthy
* Jones
* Sheehan
* Saxton
* Woodruff
* Higgins
* Bruce
* Raines
* Chanler
* White
* Cobb
* Conway
* Glynn
* Wagner
* Schoeneck
* Walker
* Wood
* Lusk
* Lunn
* Lowman
* Corning
* Lehman
* Bray
* Poletti
* Hanley
* Wallace
* Hanley
* Moore
* Wicks
* Mahoney
* DeLuca
* Wilson
* Anderson
* Krupsak
* M. Cuomo
* DelBello
* Anderson
* Lundine
* McCaughey
* Donohue
* Paterson
* Bruno
* Skelos
* Smith
* Espada
* Ravitch
* Duffy
* Hochul
* Stewart-Cousins
* Benjamin
* Stewart-Cousins
* Delgado

* Italics indicate acting officeholders

* v
* t
* e

United States Secretaries of the Navy

Secretaries|

| Cabinet-level|

* Stoddert
* Smith
* Hamilton
* Jones
* Crowninshield
* S Thompson
* Southard
* Branch
* L. Woodbury
* Dickerson
* Paulding
* Badger
* Upshur
* Henshaw
* Gilmer
* Mason
* Bancroft
* Mason
* Preston
* Graham
* Kennedy
* Dobbin
* Toucey
* Welles
* Borie
* Robeson
* R Thompson
* Goff
* Hunt
* Chandler
* Whitney
* Tracy
* Herbert
* Long
* Moody
* Morton
* Bonaparte
* Metcalf
* Newberry
* Meyer
* Daniels
* Denby
* Wilbur
* Adams
* Swanson
* Edison
* Knox
* Forrestal

|

Dept. of Defense|

* Sullivan
* Matthews
* Kimball
* Anderson
* Thomas
* T. Gates
* Franke
* Connally
* Korth
* Nitze
* Ignatius
* Chafee
* Warner
* Middendorf
* Claytor
* Hidalgo
* Lehman
* Webb
* Ball
* Garrett
* O'Keefe
* Dalton
* Danzig
* England
* Winter
* Mabus
* Spencer
* Braithwaite
* Del Toro

File:Flag of the United States Secretary of the Navy.svg

File:US-UnderSecretaryOfTheNavy-Flag.svg

File:US-AssistantSecretaryOfTheNavy-Flag.svg

Under
Secretaries|

* Forrestal
* Bard
* A. Gates
* Sullivan
* Kenney
* Kimball
* Whitehair
* Thomas
* T. Gates
* Franke
* Bantz
* Fay
* BeLieu
* Baldwin
* Baird
* Warner
* Sanders
* Middendorf
* Potter
* Macdonald
* Woolsey
* Murray
* Goodrich
* Garrett
* Howard
* Danzig
* Hultin
* Pirie
* Livingstone
* Aviles
* Work
* Davidson
* Modly
* Raven

Assistant
Secretaries|

| Pre–1954|

* Fox
* Faxon
* Soley
* McAdoo
* T. Roosevelt Sr.
* Allen
* Hackett
* Darling
* Newberry
* Satterlee
* Winthrop
* F. Roosevelt
* G. Woodbury
* T. Roosevelt Jr.
* Robinson
* Jahncke
* H. Roosevelt
* Edison
* Compton
* Bard
* Hensel
* Kenney
* Andrews
* Koehler
* Askins
* Fogler

|

Post–1954|

* Financial Management and Comptroller
* Installations and Environment
* Manpower and Reserve Affairs
* Research, Development and Acquisitions
* General Counsel of the Navy
* defunct:
* Air
* Installations and Logistics
* Material
* Research and Development
* Research, Engineering and Systems
* Shipbuilding and Logistics

* v
* t
* e

Unsuccessful major party candidates for Vice President of the United States

1. George Clinton (1792)
2. Thomas Pinckney (1796)
3. Aaron Burr (1796)
4. Charles C. Pinckney (1800)
5. Rufus King (1804, 1808)
6. Jared Ingersoll (1812)
7. John E. Howard (1816)
8. Nathan Sanford (1824)
9. Nathaniel Macon (1824)
10. Richard Rush (1828)
11. John Sergeant (1832)
12. Francis Granger (1836)
13. John Tyler (1836)
14. Richard M. Johnson (1840)
15. Theodore Frelinghuysen (1844)
16. William O. Butler (1848)
17. William A. Graham (1852)
18. William L. Dayton (1856)
19. Herschel V. Johnson (1860)
20. George H. Pendleton (1864)
21. Francis P. Blair Jr. (1868)
22. Benjamin G. Brown (1872)
23. Thomas A. Hendricks (1876)
24. William H. English (1880)
25. John A. Logan (1884)
26. Allen G. Thurman (1888)
27. Whitelaw Reid (1892)
28. Arthur Sewall (1896)
29. Adlai Stevenson I (1900)
30. Henry G. Davis (1904)
31. John W. Kern (1908)
32. James S. Sherman (1912)
33. Charles W. Fairbanks (1916)
34. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1920)
35. Charles W. Bryan (1924)
36. Joseph T. Robinson (1928)
37. Charles Curtis (1932)
38. Frank Knox (1936)
39. Charles L. McNary (1940)
40. John W. Bricker (1944)
41. Earl Warren (1948)
42. John Sparkman (1952)
43. Estes Kefauver (1956)
44. Henry Cabot Lodge Jr. (1960)
45. William E. Miller (1964)
46. Edmund Muskie (1968)
47. Sargent Shriver (1972)
48. Bob Dole (1976)
49. Walter Mondale (1980)
50. Geraldine Ferraro (1984)
51. Lloyd Bentsen (1988)
52. Dan Quayle (1992)
53. Jack Kemp (1996)
54. Joe Lieberman (2000)
55. John Edwards (2004)
56. Sarah Palin (2008)
57. Paul Ryan (2012)
58. Tim Kaine (2016)
59. Mike Pence (2020)

* All vice presidential candidates
* Vice presidents

* v
* t
* e

Democratic Party

* History
* Second Party System
* Third Party System
* Fourth Party System
* Fifth Party System
* Sixth Party System

National
conventions
and
presidential
tickets|

* 1828 (None): Jackson/Calhoun
* 1832 (Baltimore): Jackson/Van Buren
* 1835 (Baltimore): Van Buren/R. Johnson
* 1840 (Baltimore): Van Buren/None
* 1844 (Baltimore): Polk/Dallas
* 1848 (Baltimore): Cass/Butler
* 1852 (Baltimore): Pierce/King
* 1856 (Cincinnati): Buchanan/Breckinridge
* 1860 (Charleston/Baltimore): Douglas/H. Johnson (Breckinridge/Lane, SD)
* 1864 (Chicago): McClellan/Pendleton
* 1868 (New York): Seymour/Blair
* 1872 (Baltimore): Greeley/Brown
* 1876 (Saint Louis): Tilden/Hendricks
* 1880 (Cincinnati): Hancock/English
* 1884 (Chicago): Cleveland/Hendricks
* 1888 (Saint Louis): Cleveland/Thurman
* 1892 (Chicago): Cleveland/Stevenson I
* 1896 (Chicago): W. Bryan/Sewall
* 1900 (Kansas City): W. Bryan/Stevenson I
* 1904 (Saint Louis): Parker/H. Davis
* 1908 (Denver): W. Bryan/Kern
* 1912 (Baltimore): Wilson/Marshall
* 1916 (Saint Louis): Wilson/Marshall
* 1920 (San Francisco): Cox/Roosevelt
* 1924 (New York): J. Davis/C. Bryan
* 1928 (Houston): Smith/Robinson
* 1932 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Garner
* 1936 (Philadelphia): Roosevelt/Garner
* 1940 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Wallace
* 1944 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Truman
* 1948 (Philadelphia): Truman/Barkley
* 1952 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Sparkman
* 1956 (Chicago): Stevenson II/Kefauver
* 1960 (Los Angeles): Kennedy/L. Johnson
* 1964 (Atlantic City): L. Johnson/Humphrey
* 1968 (Chicago): Humphrey/Muskie
* 1972 (Miami Beach): McGovern/(Eagleton, Shriver)
* 1976 (New York): Carter/Mondale
* 1980 (New York): Carter/Mondale
* 1984 (San Francisco): Mondale/Ferraro
* 1988 (Atlanta): Dukakis/Bentsen
* 1992 (New York): B. Clinton/Gore
* 1996 (Chicago): B. Clinton/Gore
* 2000 (Los Angeles): Gore/Lieberman
* 2004 (Boston): Kerry/Edwards
* 2008 (Denver): Obama/Biden
* 2012 (Charlotte): Obama/Biden
* 2016 (Philadelphia): H. Clinton/Kaine
* 2020 (Milwaukee/other locations): Biden/Harris

Presidential
administrations|

* Jackson (1829–1837)
* Van Buren (1837–1841)
* Polk (1845–1849)
* Pierce (1853–1857)
* Buchanan (1857–1861)
* A. Johnson (1868–1869)
* Cleveland (1885–1889; 1893–1897)
* Wilson (1913–1921)
* Roosevelt (1933–1941; 1941–1945)
* Truman (1945–1953)
* Kennedy (1961–1963)
* L. B. Johnson (1963–1969)
* Carter (1977–1981)
* Clinton (1993–2001)
* Obama (2009–2017)
* Biden (2021–present)

U.S. House
leaders
and
caucus
chairs|

* A. Stevenson (1827–1834)
* Bell (1834–1835)
* Polk (1835–1839)
* J. W. Jones (1843–1845)
* Davis (1845–1847)
* Cobb (1849–1851)
* Boyd (1851–1855)
* G. W. Jones (1855–1857)
* Orr (1857–1859)
* Houston (1859–1861)
* Niblack/Randall (1869–1871)
* Niblack (1873–1875)
* Kerr (1875–1876)
* Randall (1876–1881)
* Carlisle (1883–1889)
* Holman (1889–1891)
* Crisp (1891–1895)
* D. B. Culberson (1895–1897)
* Richardson (1897–1903)
* Williams (1903–1909)
* Clark (1909–1921)
* Kitchin (1921–1923)
* Garrett (1923–1929)
* Garner (1929–1933)
* Rainey (1933–1934)
* Byrns (1935–1936)
* Bankhead (1936–1940)
* Rayburn (1940–1961)
* McCormack (1962–1971)
* Albert (1971–1977)
* O'Neill (1977–1987)
* Wright (1987–1989)
* Foley (1989–1995)
* Gephardt (1995–2003)
* Pelosi (2003–present)

U.S. Senate
leaders
and
caucus
chairs|

* J. W. Stevenson (1873–1877)
* Wallace (1877–1881)
* Pendleton (1881–1885)
* Beck (1885–1890)
* Gorman (1890–1898)
* Turpie (1898–1899)
* J. K. Jones (1899–1903)
* Gorman (1903–1906)
* Blackburn (1906–1907)
* C. A. Culberson (1907–1909)
* Money (1909–1911)
* Martin (1911–1913)
* Kern (1913–1917)
* Martin (1917–1919)
* Hitchcock (1919–1920)
* Underwood (1920–1923)
* Robinson (1923–1937)
* Barkley (1937–1949)
* Lucas (1949–1951)
* McFarland (1951–1953)
* Johnson (1953–1961)
* Mansfield (1961–1977)
* Byrd (1977–1989)
* Mitchell (1989–1995)
* Daschle (1995–2005)
* Reid (2005–2017)
* Schumer (2017–present)

Chairs of
the DNC|

* Hallett
* McLane
* Smalley
* Belmont
* Schell
* Hewitt
* Barnum
* Brice
* Harrity
* Jones
* Taggart
* Mack
* McCombs
* McCormick
* Cummings
* White
* Hull
* Shaver
* Raskob
* Farley
* Flynn
* Walker
* Hannegan
* McGrath
* Boyle
* McKinney
* Mitchell
* Butler
* Jackson
* Bailey
* O'Brien
* Harris
* O'Brien
* Westwood
* Strauss
* Curtis
* White
* Manatt
* Kirk
* Brown
* Wilhelm
* DeLee
* Dodd/Fowler
* Romer/Grossman
* Rendell/Andrew
* McAuliffe
* Dean
* Kaine
* Wasserman Schultz
* Perez
* Harrison

State and
territorial
parties|

* Alabama
* Alaska
* Arizona
* Arkansas
* California
* Colorado
* Connecticut
* Delaware
* Florida
* Georgia
* Hawaii
* Idaho
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Louisiana
* Maine
* Maryland
* Massachusetts
* Michigan
* Minnesota
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Montana
* Nebraska
* Nevada
* New Hampshire
* New Jersey
* New Mexico
* New York
* North Carolina
* North Dakota
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Rhode Island
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Vermont
* Virginia
* Washington
* West Virginia
* Wisconsin
* Wyoming
* American Samoa
* District of Columbia
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Puerto Rico
* Virgin Islands
* Democrats Abroad

Affiliated
groups|

| Congress|

* Senate Caucus
* Policy Committee
* Steering and Outreach Committee
* United States Senate Democratic Conference Secretary
* House Caucus

|

Fundraising|

* Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee
* Democratic Governors Association
* Democratic Legislative Campaign Committee
* Democratic Senatorial Campaign Committee
* National Conference of Democratic Mayors
* National Democratic Redistricting Committee

Sectional|

* College Democrats of America
* Democrats Abroad
* National Federation of Democratic Women
* Stonewall Democrats
* Stonewall Young Democrats
* Young Democrats of America
* High School Democrats of America

Related|

* Primaries
* Presidential candidates
* Debates
* Party factions
* Superdelegate
* 2005 chairmanship election
* 2017 chairmanship election
* 2006 House Caucus leadership election
* 2018 House Caucus leadership election
* Weekly Democratic Address

* v
* t
* e

New York State Democratic Committee

Chairpersons|

* Schell
* Fowler
* Bingham
* Richmond
* Tilden
* Beach
* Magone
* Purcell
* Faulkner
* Manning
* O'Brien
* Walker
* Murphy
* Hinckley
* Danforth
* Campbell
* Meyer
* Conners
* Dix
* Huppuch
* Mack
* Palmer
* Osborn
* Harris
* Kellogg
* Farley
* Pell
* Corning
* Bray
* Farley
* Fitzpatrick
* Lynch
* Balch
* Prendergrast
* McKeon
* Burns
* Crangle
* Cunningham
* Baranello
* Hennessy
* Kirwan
* Marino
* Gordon
* Hope
* Farrell
* O'Neill
* Paterson
* Jacobs
* Wright
* Brown

Gubernatorial tickets|

* Smith/Fitts (1920)
* Smith/Lunn (1922, 1924)
* Smith/Corning 1st (1926)
* Roosevelt/Lehman (1928, 1930)
* Lehman/Bray (1932, 1934, 1936)
* Lehman/Poletti (1938)
* Bennett/Poletti (1942)
* Mead/Corning 2nd (1946)
* Lynch/Balch (1950)
* Harriman/DeLuca (1956, 1958)
* Morgenthau/Burns (1962)
* O'Connor/Samuels (1966)
* Goldberg/Paterson (1970)
* Carey/Krupsak (1974)
* Carey/M. Cuomo (1978)
* M. Cuomo/DelBello (1982)
* M. Cuomo/Lundine (1986, 1990, 1994)
* Vallone/Frankel (1998)
* McCall/Mehiel (2002)
* Spitzer/Paterson (2006)
* A. Cuomo/Duffy (2010)
* A. Cuomo/Hochul (2014, 2018)
* Hochul/Delgado (2022)

* v
* t
* e

Time Persons of the Year

1927–1950|

* Charles Lindbergh (1927)
* Walter Chrysler (1928)
* Owen D. Young (1929)
* Mohandas Gandhi (1930)
* Pierre Laval (1931)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932)
* Hugh S. Johnson (1933)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934)
* Haile Selassie (1935)
* Wallis Simpson (1936)
* Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937)
* Adolf Hitler (1938)
* Joseph Stalin (1939)
* Winston Churchill (1940)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941)
* Joseph Stalin (1942)
* George Marshall (1943)
* Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944)
* Harry S. Truman (1945)
* James F. Byrnes (1946)
* George Marshall (1947)
* Harry S. Truman (1948)
* Winston Churchill (1949)
* The American Fighting-Man (1950)

1951–1975|

* Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951)
* Elizabeth II  (1952)
* Konrad Adenauer (1953)
* John Foster Dulles (1954)
* Harlow Curtice (1955)
* Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956)
* Nikita Khrushchev (1957)
* Charles de Gaulle (1958)
* Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959)
* U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960)
* John F. Kennedy (1961)
* Pope John XXIII (1962)
* Martin Luther King Jr. (1963)
* Lyndon B. Johnson (1964)
* William Westmoreland (1965)
* The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966)
* Lyndon B. Johnson (1967)
* The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968)
* The Middle Americans (1969)
* Willy Brandt (1970)
* Richard Nixon (1971)
* Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972)
* John Sirica (1973)
* King Faisal (1974)
* American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975)

1976–2000|

* Jimmy Carter (1976)
* Anwar Sadat (1977)
* Deng Xiaoping (1978)
* Ayatollah Khomeini (1979)
* Ronald Reagan (1980)
* Lech Wałęsa (1981)
* The Computer (1982)
* Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983)
* Peter Ueberroth (1984)
* Deng Xiaoping (1985)
* Corazon Aquino (1986)
* Mikhail Gorbachev (1987)
* The Endangered Earth (1988)
* Mikhail Gorbachev (1989)
* George H. W. Bush (1990)
* Ted Turner (1991)
* Bill Clinton (1992)
* The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993)
* Pope John Paul II (1994)
* Newt Gingrich (1995)
* David Ho (1996)
* Andrew Grove (1997)
* Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998)
* Jeff Bezos (1999)
* George W. Bush (2000)

2001–present|

* Rudolph Giuliani (2001)
* The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002)
* The American Soldier (2003)
* George W. Bush (2004)
* The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005)
* You (2006)
* Vladimir Putin (2007)
* Barack Obama (2008)
* Ben Bernanke (2009)
* Mark Zuckerberg (2010)
* The Protester (2011)
* Barack Obama (2012)
* Pope Francis (2013)
* Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014)
* Angela Merkel (2015)
* Donald Trump (2016)
* The Silence Breakers (2017)
* The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018)
* Greta Thunberg (2019)
* Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020)
* Elon Musk (2021)

* v
* t
* e

Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees

* John Adams
* John Quincy Adams
* Jane Addams
* Louis Agassiz
* Susan B. Anthony
* John James Audubon
* George Bancroft
* Clara Barton
* Henry Ward Beecher
* Alexander Graham Bell
* Daniel Boone
* Edwin Booth
* Louis Brandeis
* Phillips Brooks
* William Cullen Bryant
* Luther Burbank
* Andrew Carnegie
* George Washington Carver
* William Ellery Channing
* Rufus Choate
* Henry Clay
* Grover Cleveland
* James Fenimore Cooper
* Peter Cooper
* Charlotte Cushman
* James Buchanan Eads
* Thomas Alva Edison
* Jonathan Edwards
* Ralph Waldo Emerson
* David Farragut
* Stephen Foster
* Benjamin Franklin
* Robert Fulton
* Josiah W. Gibbs
* William C. Gorgas
* Ulysses S. Grant
* Asa Gray
* Alexander Hamilton
* Nathaniel Hawthorne
* Joseph Henry
* Patrick Henry
* Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
* Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
* Mark Hopkins
* Elias Howe
* Washington Irving
* Andrew Jackson
* Thomas J. Jackson
* Thomas Jefferson
* John Paul Jones
* James Kent
* Sidney Lanier
* Robert E. Lee
* Abraham Lincoln
* Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
* James Russell Lowell
* Mary Lyon
* Edward MacDowell
* James Madison
* Horace Mann
* John Marshall
* Matthew Fontaine Maury
* Albert A. Michelson
* Maria Mitchell
* James Monroe
* Samuel F. B. Morse
* William T. G. Morton
* John Lothrop Motley
* Simon Newcomb
* Thomas Paine
* Alice Freeman Palmer
* Francis Parkman
* George Peabody
* William Penn
* Edgar Allan Poe
* Walter Reed
* Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Theodore Roosevelt
* Augustus Saint-Gaudens
* William Tecumseh Sherman
* John Philip Sousa
* Joseph Story
* Harriet Beecher Stowe
* Gilbert Stuart
* Sylvanus Thayer
* Henry David Thoreau
* Mark Twain
* Lillian Wald
* Booker T. Washington
* George Washington
* Daniel Webster
* George Westinghouse
* James McNeill Whistler
* Walt Whitman
* Eli Whitney
* John Greenleaf Whittier
* Emma Willard
* Frances Willard
* Roger Williams
* Woodrow Wilson
* Orville Wright
* Wilbur Wright

* v
* t
* e

File:PHL Legion of Honor - Legionnaire BAR.png Philippine Legion of Honor recipients File:PHL Legion of Honor - Legionnaire BAR.png

Chief Commander
(Punong Komandante)|

* Emilio Aguinaldo
* Hassanal Bolkiah
* Chiang Kai-shek
* Dwight D. Eisenhower
* Leonardo Espina
* Francisco Franco
* José P. Laurel
* Douglas MacArthur
* Ferdinand Marcos
* Imelda Marcos
* Sergio Osmeña
* Jesse Robredo
* Chino Roces
* Franklin D. Roosevelt
* Jaime Sin
* Achmad Sukarno
* Lorenzo Tañada
* Maxwell D. Taylor
* Claudio Teehankee

Grand Commander
(Marangal na Komandante)|

* Gilbert Teodoro
* Emilio Yap
* Fernando Zóbel de Ayala
* Jaime Zóbel de Ayala
* Jaime Augusto Zóbel de Ayala II
* Napoleon G. Rama

Grand Officer
(Marangal na Pinuno)|

* Teodoro Locsín Jr.

Commander (Komandante)|

* Benigno Aquino Jr.
* Eulogio Balao
* Sotero B. Cabahug
* Alfredo Montelibano Sr.

Officer (Pinuno)|

* Benigno Aquino Jr.
* Manny Pacquiao

Legionnaire
(Lehiyonaryo)|

* Escuadrón 201
* Teodoro Locsin Sr.
* Geronima Pecson
* Edith Nourse Rogers
* Richard Sakakida

*[m.]: married
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa