Suffrage

Not to be confused with Universal suffrage.

"Right to vote", "Suffragist", and "The Franchise" redirect here. For the group, see Right to Vote. For the organisation, see National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies. For other uses, see The Franchise (disambiguation).

Right to vote in public and political elections

File:Suffrage universel 1848.jpg

Suffrage universel dédié à Ledru-Rollin, Frédéric Sorrieu, 1850

Suffrage, political franchise, or simply franchise, is the right to vote in public, political elections and referendums (although the term is sometimes used for any right to vote).[1][2][3] In some languages, and occasionally in English, the right to vote is called active suffrage, as distinct from passive suffrage, which is the right to stand for election.[4] The combination of active and passive suffrage is sometimes called full suffrage.[5]

In most democracies, eligible voters can vote in elections of representatives. Voting on issues by referendum may also be available. For example, in Switzerland, this is permitted at all levels of government. In the United States, some states such as California, Washington, and Wisconsin have exercised their shared sovereignty to offer citizens the opportunity to write, propose, and vote on referendums; other states and the federal government have not. Referendums in the United Kingdom are rare.

Suffrage is granted to everybody mentally capable, in most countries defined by voting age, and being citizen of the country. In some countries additional restrictions exist. In the Great Britain and United States a felon may not vote. As of 2022[update], Florida felons with court debts may not vote. In some countries being under guardianship may restrict the right to vote. Resident non-citizens can vote in some countries, which may be restricted to citizens of closely linked countries (e.g., Commonwealth citizens and European Union citizens) or to certain offices or questions.[6][7][8] Historically the right to vote was more restricted, for example by gender, race, or wealth.

## Contents

* 1 Etymology
* 2 Types
* 2.1 Universal suffrage
* 2.2 Women's suffrage
* 2.2.1 Anti-women's suffrage propaganda
* 2.3 Equal suffrage
* 2.4 Census suffrage
* 2.5 Compulsory suffrage
* 2.6 Business vote
* 3 Basis of exclusion from suffrage
* 3.1 Gender
* 3.2 Religion
* 3.3 Wealth, tax class, social class
* 3.4 Knowledge
* 3.5 Race
* 3.6 Age
* 3.7 Criminality
* 3.8 Residency
* 3.9 Nationality
* 3.10 Naturalization
* 3.11 Function
* 4 History around the world
* 4.1 Australia
* 4.2 Brazil
* 4.3 Canada
* 4.4 European Union
* 4.5 Finland
* 4.6 France
* 4.7 Germany
* 4.8 Kingdom of Hawai'i
* 4.9 Hong Kong
* 4.10 Hungary
* 4.11 India
* 4.12 Ireland
* 4.13 Isle of Man
* 4.14 Italy
* 4.15 Japan
* 4.16 New Zealand
* 4.17 Norway
* 4.18 Poland
* 4.19 Singapore
* 4.20 South Africa
* 4.21 Sweden
* 4.22 Turkey
* 4.23 United Kingdom
* 4.24 United States
* 4.25 Majority-Muslim countries
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 8 Bibliography
* 9 External links

## Etymology[edit | edit source]

The word suffrage comes from Latin suffragium, which initially meant "a voting-tablet", "a ballot", "a vote", or "the right to vote". Suffragium in the second century and later came to mean "political patronage, influence, interest, or support", and sometimes "popular acclaim" or "applause". By the fourth century the word was used for "an intercession", asking a patron for their influence with the Almighty. Suffragium was used in the fifth and sixth centuries with connection to buying influence or profiteering from appointing to office, and eventually the word referred to the bribe itself.[9] William Smith rejects the connection of suffragium to sub "under" + fragor "crash, din, shouts (as of approval)", related to frangere "to break"; Eduard Wunder writes that the word may be related to suffrago, signifying an ankle bone or knuckle bone.[10] In the 17th century the English suffrage regained the earlier meaning of the Latin suffragium, "a vote" or "the right to vote".[11]

## Types[edit | edit source]

### Universal suffrage[edit | edit source]

Main article: Universal suffrage

File:Peterloo Massacre.png

The Peterloo Massacre of 1819

Universal suffrage consists of the right to vote without restriction due to gender, race, religion, social status, education level, or wealth. It typically does not extend the right to vote to all residents of a region as distinctions are still frequently made in regard to citizenship, age, and occasionally mental capacity or criminal convictions.

The short-lived Corsican Republic (1755–1769) was the first country to grant limited universal suffrage to all citizens over the age of 25.

In 1819 60–80,000 men and women from 30 miles around Manchester assembled in the city's St. Peter's Square to protest their lack of any representation in the Houses of Parliament. Historian Robert Poole has called the Peterloo Massacre one of the defining moments of its age.[12] (The eponymous Peterloo film featured a scene of women suffragists planning their contribution to the protest.) At that time Manchester had a population of around 140,000 and the population totals of Greater Manchester were around 490,000.[13]

This was followed by other experiments in the Paris Commune of 1871 and the island republic of Franceville (1889). From 1840 to 1852, the Kingdom of Hawai'i granted universal suffrage without mention of sex. In 1893, when the Kingdom of Hawai'i was overthrown in a coup, New Zealand was the only independent country to practice universal (active) suffrage, and the Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.[14][15]

### Women's suffrage[edit | edit source]

File:SPD-Plakat 1919.jpg

German election poster from 1919: Equal rights – equal duties!

Main article: Women's suffrage

Women's suffrage is, by definition, the right of women to vote.[16] This was the goal of the suffragists, who believed in using legal means, as well as the suffragettes, who used extremist measures. Short-lived suffrage equity was drafted into provisions of the State of New Jersey's first, 1776 Constitution, which extended the Right to Vote to unwed female landholders and black land owners.

> "IV. That all inhabitants of this Colony, of full age, who are worth fifty pounds proclamation money, clear estate in the same, and have resided within the county in which they claim a vote for twelve months immediately preceding the election, shall be entitled to vote for Representatives in Council and Assembly; and also for all other public officers, that shall be elected by the people of the county at large." New Jersey 1776

However, the document did not specify an Amendment procedure, and the provision was subsequently replaced in 1844 by the adoption of the succeeding constitution, which reverted to "all white male" suffrage restrictions.[17]

Although the Kingdom of Hawai'i granted female suffrage in 1840, the right was rescinded in 1852. Limited voting rights were gained by some women in Sweden, Britain, and some western U.S. states in the 1860s. In 1893, the British colony of New Zealand became the first self-governing nation to extend the right to vote to all adult women.[18] In 1894, the women of South Australia achieved the right to both vote and stand for Parliament. The autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland in the Russian Empire was the first nation to allow all women to both vote and run for parliament.

#### Anti-women's suffrage propaganda[edit | edit source]

File:Anti Suffrage Postcard c.1908 03.jpg

A British postcard against women's suffrage postcard from c.1908. It shows unflattering caricatures of suffragettes in front of parliament and the caption: 'This is the house that man built' with a poem. From the People's History Museum, Manchester.

Those against the women's suffrage movement made public organizations to put down the political movement, with the main argument being that a woman's place was in the home, not polls. Political cartoons and public outrage over women's rights increased as the opposition to suffrage worked to organize legitimate groups campaigning against women's voting rights. The Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women was one organization that came out of the 1880s to put down the voting efforts.[19]

Many anti-suffrage propaganda poked fun at the idea of women in politics. Political cartoons displayed the most sentiment by portraying the issue of women's suffrage to be swapped with men's lives. Some mocked the popular suffrage hairstyle of full-upward combed hair. Others depicted young girls turning into suffragettes after a failure in life, such as not being married.[20]

### Equal suffrage[edit | edit source]

See also: Weighted voting

Equal suffrage is sometimes confused with Universal suffrage, although the meaning of the former is the removal of graded votes, wherein a voter could possess a number of votes in accordance with income, wealth or social status.[21]

### Census suffrage[edit | edit source]

Also known as "censitary suffrage", it is the opposite of equal suffrage, meaning that the votes cast by those eligible to vote are not equal, but weighed differently according to the person's income or rank in society (e.g., people who don't own property or whose income is lower than a given amount are barred from voting; or people with higher education have more votes than those with lower education; stockholders who have more shares in a given company have more votes than those with fewer shares). In many countries, census suffrage restricted who could vote and be elected: in the United States, until the Jacksonian reforms of the 1830's, only men who owned land of a specified acreage or monetary value could vote or participate in elections.[22] Similarly, in Brazil, the Constitution of 1824 established that, in order to vote, citizens would need to have an annual income of 200,000 Milreis and, to be voted, their minimum annual income would need to be 400,000 Milreis.[23]

### Compulsory suffrage[edit | edit source]

Main article: Compulsory suffrage

Where compulsory suffrage exists, those who are eligible to vote are required by law to do so. Thirty-two countries currently practise this form of suffrage.[24]

### Business vote[edit | edit source]

See also: Plural voting and Functional constituency (Hong Kong)

In local government in England and some of its ex-colonies, businesses formerly had, and in some places still have, a vote in the urban area in which they paid rates. This is an extension of the historical property-based franchise from natural persons to other legal persons.

In the United Kingdom, the Corporation of the City of London has retained and even expanded business vote, following the passing of the City of London (Ward Elections) Act 2002. This has given business interests within the City of London, which is a major financial centre with few residents, the opportunity to apply the accumulated wealth of the corporation to the development of an effective lobby for UK policies.[25][26] This includes having the City Remembrancer, financed by the City's Cash, as a parliamentary agent, provided with a special seat in the House of Commons located in the under-gallery facing the Speaker's chair.[27] In a leaked document from 2012, an official report concerning the City's Cash revealed that the aim of major occasions such as set-piece sumptious banquets featuring national politicians was "to increase the emphasis on complementing hospitality with business meetings consistent with the City corporation's role in supporting the City as a financial centre".[28]

The first issue taken up by the Northern Ireland civil rights movement was the business vote, abolished in 1968 (a year before it was abolished in Great Britain outside the City of London).[29]

In the Republic of Ireland, commercial ratepayers[nb 1] can vote in local plebiscites, for changing the name of the locality or street,[33][nb 2] or delimiting a business improvement district.[36] From 1930 to 1935, 5 of 35 members of Dublin City Council were "commercial members".[37]

In cities in most Australian states, voting is optional for businesses but compulsory for individuals.[38][39]

## Basis of exclusion from suffrage[edit | edit source]

See also: Disenfranchisement

### Gender[edit | edit source]

Main article: Women's suffrage

File:1912 Ohio women Headquarters.jpg

Women's Suffrage Headquarters on Euclid Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio in 1912

In ancient Athens, often cited as the birthplace of democracy, only adult, male citizens who owned land were permitted to vote. Through subsequent centuries, Europe was generally ruled by monarchs, though various forms of parliament arose at different times. The high rank ascribed to abbesses within the Catholic Church permitted some women the right to sit and vote at national assemblies – as with various high-ranking abbesses in Medieval Germany, who were ranked among the independent princes of the empire. Their Protestant successors enjoyed the same privilege almost into modern times.[40]

Marie Guyart, a French nun who worked with the First Nations peoples of Canada during the seventeenth century, wrote in 1654 regarding the suffrage practices of Iroquois women, "These female chieftains are women of standing amongst the savages, and they have a deciding vote in the councils. They make decisions there like the men, and it is they who even delegated the first ambassadors to discuss peace."[41] The Iroquois, like many First Nations peoples in North America, had a matrilineal kinship system. Property and descent were passed through the female line. Women elders voted on hereditary male chiefs and could depose them.

The emergence of many modern democracies began with male citizens obtaining the right to vote in advance of female citizens, except in the Kingdom of Hawai'i, where universal suffrage without mention of age or sex was introduced in 1840; however, a constitutional amendment in 1852 rescinded female voting and put property qualifications on male voting.

Voting rights for women were introduced into international law by the United Nations' Human Rights Commission, whose elected chair was Eleanor Roosevelt. In 1948 the United Nations adopted the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; Article 21 stated: "(1) Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. (3) The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote or by equivalent free voting procedures."

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Political Rights of Women, which went into force in 1954, enshrining the equal rights of women to vote, hold office, and access public services as set out by national laws. One of the most recent jurisdictions to acknowledge women's full right to vote was Bhutan in 2008 (its first national elections).[42] Most recently, in 2011 King Abdullah of Saudi Arabia let women vote in the 2015 local elections (and from then on) and be appointed to the Consultative Assembly.

### Religion[edit | edit source]

In the aftermath of the Reformation it was common in European countries for people of disfavored religious denominations to be denied civil and political rights, often including the right to vote, to stand for election or to sit in parliament. In Great Britain and Ireland, Roman Catholics were denied the right to vote from 1728 to 1793, and the right to sit in parliament until 1829. The anti-Catholic policy was justified on the grounds that the loyalty of Catholics supposedly lay with the Pope rather than the national monarch.

In England and Ireland, several Acts practically disenfranchised non-Anglicans or non-Protestants by imposing an oath before admission to vote or to stand for office. The 1672 and 1678 Test Acts forbade non-Anglicans to hold public offices, and the 1727 Disenfranchising Act took away Catholics' voting rights in Ireland, which were restored only in 1788. Jews could not even be naturalized. An attempt was made to change this situation, but the Jewish Naturalization Act 1753 provoked such reactions that it was repealed the following year. Nonconformists (Methodists and Presbyterians) were only allowed to run for election to the British House of Commons starting in 1828, Catholics in 1829 (following the Catholic Relief Act 1829, which extended the Roman Catholic Relief Act 1791), and Jews in 1858 (with the Emancipation of the Jews in England). Benjamin Disraeli could only begin his political career in 1837 because he had been converted to Anglicanism at the age of 12.

In several states in the U.S. after the Declaration of Independence, Jews, Quakers or Catholics were denied voting rights and/or forbidden to run for office.[43] The Delaware Constitution of 1776 stated that "Every person who shall be chosen a member of either house, or appointed to any office or place of trust, before taking his seat, or entering upon the execution of his office, shall (…) also make and subscribe the following declaration, to wit: I, A B. do profess faith in God the Father, and in Jesus Christ His only Son, and in the Holy Ghost, one God, blessed for evermore; and I do acknowledge the holy scriptures of the Old and New Testament to be given by divine inspiration."[44] This was repealed by article I, section 2 of the 1792 Constitution: "No religious test shall be required as a qualification to any office, or public trust, under this State".[45] The 1778 Constitution of the State of South Carolina stated that "No person shall be eligible to sit in the house of representatives unless he be of the Protestant religion",[46] the 1777 Constitution of the State of Georgia (art. VI) that "The representatives shall be chosen out of the residents in each county (…) and they shall be of the Protestent (sic) religion".[47] In Maryland, voting rights and eligibility were extended to Jews in 1828.[48]

In Canada, several religious groups (Mennonites, Hutterites, Doukhobors) were disenfranchised by the wartime Elections Act of 1917, mainly because they opposed military service. This disenfranchisement ended with the closure of the First World War, but was renewed for Doukhobors from 1934 (via the Dominion Elections Act) to 1955.[49]

The first Constitution of modern Romania in 1866 provided in article 7 that only Christians could become Romanian citizens. Jews native to Romania were declared stateless persons. In 1879, under pressure from the Berlin Peace Conference, this article was amended, granting non-Christians the right to become Romanian citizens, but naturalization was granted on a case-by-case basis and was subject to Parliamentary approval. An application took over ten years to process. Only in 1923 was a new constitution adopted, whose article 133 extended Romanian citizenship to all Jewish residents and equality of rights to all Romanian citizens.[50]

### Wealth, tax class, social class[edit | edit source]

File:Manifestace za hlasovací právo 1905.jpg

Demonstration for universal right to vote, Prague, Austria-Hungary, 1905

Until the nineteenth century, many Western proto-democracies had property qualifications in their electoral laws; e.g. only landowners could vote (because the only tax for such countries was the property tax), or the voting rights were weighted according to the amount of taxes paid (as in the Prussian three-class franchise). Most countries abolished the property qualification for national elections in the late nineteenth century, but retained it for local government elections for several decades. Today these laws have largely been abolished, although the homeless may not be able to register because they lack regular addresses.

In the United Kingdom, until the House of Lords Act 1999, peers who were members of the House of Lords were excluded from voting for the House of Commons as they were not commoners. Although there is nothing to prevent the monarch from voting, it is considered improper for the monarch to do so.[51]

Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, many nations made voters pay to elect officials, keeping impoverished people from being fully enfranchised. These laws were in effect in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela.[52]

### Knowledge[edit | edit source]

Sometimes the right to vote has been limited to people who had achieved a certain level of education or passed a certain test. In some US states, "literacy tests" were previously implemented to exclude those who were illiterate.[53] Black voters in the South were often deemed by election officials to have failed the test even when they did not.[54] Under the 1961 constitution of Rhodesia, voting on the "A" roll, which elected up to 50 of the 65 members of parliament, was restricted based on education requirements, which in practice led to an overwhelming white vote. Voting on the "B" roll had universal suffrage, but only appointed 15 members of parliament.[55][clarification needed]

In the 20th century, many countries other than the US placed voting restrictions on illiterate people, including: Bolivia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Ecuador, and Peru.[52]

### Race[edit | edit source]

Various countries, usually countries with a dominant race within a wider population, have historically denied the vote to people of particular races, or to all but the dominant race. This has been achieved in a number of ways:

* Official – laws and regulations passed specifically disenfranchising people of particular races (for example, the Antebellum United States, Boer republics, pre-apartheid and apartheid South Africa, or many colonial political systems, who provided suffrage only for white settlers and some privileged non-white groups). Canada and Australia denied suffrage for their indigenous populations until the 1960s.
* Indirect – nothing in law specifically prevents anyone from voting on account of their race, but other laws or regulations are used to exclude people of a particular race. In southern states of the United States of America before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, poll taxes, literacy and other tests were used to disenfranchise African-Americans.[53][56] Property qualifications have tended to disenfranchise a minority race, particularly if tribally owned land is not allowed to be taken into consideration. In some cases this was an unintended (but usually welcome) consequence.[citation needed] Many African colonies after World War II until decolonization had tough education and property qualifications which practically gave meaningful representation only for rich European minorities.
* Unofficial – nothing in law prevents anyone from voting on account of their race, but people of particular races are intimidated or otherwise prevented from exercising this right. This was a common tactic employed by white Southerners against Freedmen during the Reconstruction Era and the following period before more formal methods of disenfranchisement became entrenched. Unofficial discrimination could even manifest in ways which, while allowing the act of voting itself, effectively deprive it of any value – for example, in Israel, the country's Arab minority has maintained a party-system separate from that of the Jewish majority. In the run-up for the country's 2015 elections, the electoral threshold was raised from 2% to 3.25%, thus forcing the dominant Arab parties – Hadash, the United Arab List, Balad and Ta'al – either to run under one list or risk losing their parliamentary representation.

### Age[edit | edit source]

Youth rights

Activities

* Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
* Child Labor Deterrence Act
* Children's Online Privacy Protection Act
* Convention on the Rights of the Child
* Fair Labor Standards Act
* Hammer v. Dagenhart
* History of youth rights in the United States
* Morse v. Frederick
* Newsboys' strike of 1899
* Prez
* Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
* Wild in the Streets

Theory/concepts

* Adultcentrism
* Adultism
* Ageism
* Criminalization
* Democracy
* Ephebiphobia
* Fear of children
* Fear of youth
* Intergenerational equity
* Future generations
* Paternalism
* Social class
* Suffrage
* Taking Children Seriously
* Universal suffrage
* Unschooling
* Youth activism
* Youth detention center
* Youth empowerment
* Youth exclusion
* Youth suffrage
* Youth voice

Issues

* Adolescent sexuality
* Age of candidacy
* Age of consent
* Age of consent reform
* Age of majority
* Age of marriage
* Behavior modification facility
* Child labour
* Children in the military
* Child marriage
* Compulsory education
* Conscription
* Corporal punishment
* at home
* at school
* in law
* Curfew
* Child abuse
* Emancipation of minors
* Gambling age
* Homeschooling
* Human rights and youth sport
* In loco parentis
* Juvenile delinquency
* Juvenile court
* Juvenile law
* Legal drinking age (U.S. history)
* Legal working age
* Minimum driving age
* Marriageable age
* Minor (law)
* Minors and abortion
* Restavec
* School leaving age
* Smoking age (U.S. history)
* Status offense
* Underage drinking in the US
* Voting age
* Youth-adult partnership
* Youth participation
* Youth politics
* Youth unemployment
* Youth voting

Organizations

* United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
* Akt (charity)
* Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions
* Canadian Youth for Choice
* Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission
* Common Cents
* Community Alliance for the Ethical Treatment of Youth
* DoSomething
* Future Coalition
* Global Youth Action Network
* High School Democrats of America
* Indian Youth Climate Network
* International Falcon Movement – Socialist Educational International
* Mermaids (charity)
* National Union of Students LGBT+ Campaign
* National Youth Rights Association
* One World Youth Project
* Queer Youth Network
* Students for a Democratic Society
* Freechild Project
* Three O'Clock Lobby
* UK Youth Parliament
* Youth International Party
* Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor
* The Youth Cafe
* Young Communist League of Canada
* Young Democrats of America
* Young India Foundation

People

* Fletcher
* Hanson
* Henry
* Holt
* Koroknay-Palicz
* Duff
* Males
* Postman
* Yaco

Related

* Ages of consent in Asia
* Ages of consent in Europe
* Ages of consent in North America
* Ages of consent in Oceania
* Ages of consent in South America
* Ages of consent in the United States
* Animal rights
* Anti-racism
* Direct democracy
* Egalitarianism
* Feminism
* French petition against age of consent laws
* Legal status of tattooing in European countries
* Legal status of tattooing in the United States
* Libertarianism
* Students rights
* Youth Olympic Games
* Youth sports
* Youth wing

* File:HumanRightsLogo.svg Youth rights

* v
* t
* e

Main articles: Voting age and Age of candidacy

All modern democracies require voters to meet age qualifications to vote.[citation needed] Worldwide voting ages are not consistent, differing between countries and even within countries, though the range usually varies between 16 and 21 years. Demeny voting has been proposed as a form of proxy voting by parents on behalf of their children who are below the age of suffrage. The movement to lower the voting age is one aspect of the Youth rights movement.

### Criminality[edit | edit source]

Main article: Disfranchisement § Resulting from criminal conviction

Some countries restrict the voting rights of convicted criminals. Some countries, and some U.S. states, also deny the right to vote to those convicted of serious crimes even after they are released from prison. In some cases (e.g. in many U.S. states) the denial of the right to vote is automatic upon a felony conviction; in other cases (e.g. France and Germany) deprivation of the vote is meted out separately, and often limited to perpetrators of specific crimes such as those against the electoral system or corruption of public officials. In the Republic of Ireland, prisoners are allowed the right to vote, following the Hirst v UK (No2) ruling, which was granted in 2006. Canada allowed only prisoners serving a term of less than 2 years the right to vote, but this was found to be unconstitutional in 2002 by the Supreme Court of Canada in Sauvé v. Canada (Chief Electoral Officer), and all prisoners have been allowed to vote as of the 2004 Canadian federal election.

### Residency[edit | edit source]

Under certain electoral systems elections are held within subnational jurisdictions, thus preventing persons from voting who would otherwise be eligible on the basis that they do not reside within such a jurisdiction, or because they live in an area that cannot participate. In the United States, license plates in Washington, D.C. read "TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION," in reference to the district not holding a seat in either the House of Representatives or Senate, however residents can vote in presidential elections based on the Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution adopted in 1961. Residents of Puerto Rico enjoy neither.

Sometimes citizens become ineligible to vote because they are no longer resident in their country of citizenship. For example, Australian citizens who have been outside Australia for more than one and fewer than six years may excuse themselves from the requirement to vote in Australian elections while they remain outside Australia (voting in Australia is compulsory for resident citizens).[57] Danish citizens that reside permanently outside Denmark lose their right to vote.[58]

In some cases, a certain period of residence in a locality may required for the right to vote in that location. For example, in the United Kingdom up to 2001, each 15 February a new electoral register came into effect, based on registration as of the previous 10 October, with the effect of limiting voting to those resident five to seventeen months earlier depending on the timing of the election.

### Nationality[edit | edit source]

Main article: Right of foreigners to vote

In most countries, suffrage is limited to citizens and, in many cases, permanent residents of that country. However, some members of supra-national organisations such as the Commonwealth of Nations and the European Union have granted voting rights to citizens of all countries within that organisation. Until the mid-twentieth century, many Commonwealth countries gave the vote to all British citizens within the country, regardless of whether they were normally resident there. In most cases this was because there was no distinction between British and local citizenship. Several countries qualified this with restrictions preventing non-white British citizens such as Indians and British Africans from voting. Under European Union law, citizens of European Union countries can vote in each other's local and European Parliament elections on the same basis as citizens of the country in question, but usually not in national elections.

### Naturalization[edit | edit source]

In some countries, naturalized citizens do not have the right to vote or to be a candidate, either permanently or for a determined period.

Article 5 of the 1831 Belgian Constitution made a difference between ordinary naturalization, and grande naturalisation. Only (former) foreigners who had been granted grande naturalisation were entitled to vote, be a candidate for parliamentary elections, or be appointed minister. However, ordinary naturalized citizens could vote for municipal elections.[59] Ordinary naturalized citizens and citizens who had acquired Belgian nationality through marriage could vote, but not run as candidates for parliamentary elections in 1976. The concepts of ordinary and grande naturalization were suppressed from the Constitution in 1991.[60]

In France, the 1889 Nationality Law barred those who had acquired the French nationality by naturalization or marriage from voting, and from eligibility and access to several public jobs. In 1938 the delay was reduced to five years.[61] These instances of discrimination, as well as others against naturalized citizens, were gradually abolished in 1973 (9 January 1973 law) and 1983.

In Morocco, a former French protectorate, and in Guinea, a former French colony, naturalized citizens are prohibited from voting for five years following their naturalization.[62][63]

In the Federated States of Micronesia, one must be a Micronesian citizen for at least 15 years to run for parliament.[64]

In Nicaragua, Peru and the Philippines, only citizens by birth are eligible for being elected to the national legislature; naturalized citizens enjoy only voting rights.[65][66][67]

In Uruguay, naturalized citizens have the right of eligibility to the parliament after five years.[68]

In the United States, the President and Vice President must be natural-born citizens. All other governmental offices may be held by any citizen, although citizens may only run for Congress after an extended period of citizenship (seven years for the House of Representatives and nine for the Senate).

### Function[edit | edit source]

In France, an 1872 law, rescinded by a 1945 decree, prohibited all army personnel from voting.[69]

In Ireland, police (the Garda Síochána and, before 1925, the Dublin Metropolitan Police) were barred from voting in national elections, though not local elections, from 1923 to 1960.[70][71][72][73]

The 1876 Constitution of Texas (article VI, section 1) stated that "The following classes of persons shall not be allowed to vote in this State, to wit: (…) Fifth—All soldiers, marines and seamen, employed in the service of the army or navy of the United States."[74]

In many countries with a presidential system of government a person is forbidden to be a legislator and an official of the executive branch at the same time. Such provisions are found, for example, in Article I of the U.S. Constitution.

## History around the world[edit | edit source]

See also: Universal suffrage § Dates by country, Timeline of women's suffrage, Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States, and Voting age

File:Universal suffrage granted to women, OWID.svg

Countries with universal suffrage granted to women, 2017[75]

In 1840, the Kingdom of Hawai'i adopted full suffrage for all subjects without mention of sex, but the constitution of 1852 specified voting by male subjects over the age of 20. In 1902 the Commonwealth Franchise Act enabled women to vote federally in Australia and in the state of New South Wales. This legislation also allowed women to run for government, making Australia the first in the world to allow this. In 1906 Finland became the next nation in the world to give all adult citizens full suffrage, in other words the right to vote and to run for office. New Zealand granted all adult citizens the right to vote (in 1893), but women did not get the right to run for the New Zealand legislature until 1919.

### Australia[edit | edit source]

See also: Suffrage in Australia and Voting rights of Australian Aboriginals

* 1855 – South Australia is the first colony to allow all male suffrage to British subjects (later extended to Aboriginal Australians over the age of 21.
* 1894 – South Australian women eligible to vote.[76]
* 1896 – Tasmania becomes last colony to allow all male suffrage.
* 1899 – Western Australian women eligible to vote.[76]
* 1902 – The Commonwealth Franchise Act enables women to vote federally and in the state of New South Wales. This legislation also allows women to run for government, making Australia the first democratic state in the world to allow this.
* 1921 – Edith Cowan is elected to the West Australian Legislative Assembly as member for West Perth, the first woman elected to any Australian Parliament.[77]
* 1962 – Australian Aborigines guaranteed the right to vote in Commonwealth elections, however, in practice this right was dependent on Aboriginal voting rights having been granted by the individual's respective state.
* 1965 – Queensland is the last state to grant voting rights to Aboriginal Australians.
* 1973 - After South Australian Premier Don Dunstan introduced the Age of Majority (Reduction) Bill in October 1970, the voting age in South Australia was lowered to 18 years old in 1973. Consequently, the voting age for all federal elections was lowered from 21 to 18. The states had lowered the voting age to 18 by 1973, the first being Western Australia in 1970.

### Brazil[edit | edit source]

* 1824 – The first Brazilian constitution allows free men over the age of 25 to vote, even former slaves, but there are income restrictions. The Chamber of Deputies' representatives are chosen via electoral colleges.
* 1881 – The Saraiva Law implements direct voting, but there are literacy restrictions. Women and slaves do not have the right to vote.
* 1932 – Voting becomes obligatory for all adults over 21 years of age, regardless of gender or income.
* 1955 – Adoption of standardized voting ballots and further identification requirements to mitigate electoral frauds.
* 1964 – Military dictatorship established. From then on, presidents were elected by members of the congress, chosen by regular vote.
* 1989 – Reestablishment of universal suffrage for all citizens over 16 years of age. People considered illiterate are not obliged to vote, nor are people younger than 18 and older than 70 years of age. People under the obligation rule shall file a document to justify their absence should they not vote.
* 2000 – Brazil becomes the first country to fully adopt electronic ballots in their voting process.

### Canada[edit | edit source]

See also: The Famous Five (Canada)

* 1871 – One of the first acts of the new Province of British Columbia strips the franchise from First Nations, and ensures Chinese and Japanese people are prevented from voting.
* 1916 – Manitoba becomes the first province in which women have the right to vote in provincial elections.[78][79][citation needed]
* 1917 – Wartime Elections Act gives voting rights to women with relatives fighting overseas. Voting rights are stripped from all "enemy aliens" (those born in enemy countries who arrived in Canada after 1902; see also Ukrainian Canadian internment).[80] Military Voters Act gives the vote to all soldiers, even non-citizens, (with the exception of Indian and Metis veterans)[81] and to women serving as nurses or clerks for the armed forces, but the votes are not for specific candidates but simply for or against the government.
* 1918 – Women gain full voting rights in federal elections.[82]
* 1919 – Women gain the right to run for federal office.[82]
* 1940 – Quebec becomes the last province where women's right to vote is recognized. (see Canadian women during the world wars for more information on Canadian suffrage)
* 1947 – Racial exclusions against Chinese and Indo-Canadians lifted.
* 1948 – Racial exclusions against Japanese Canadians lifted.[83]
* 1955 – Religious exclusions are removed from election laws.[84]
* 1960 – Right to vote is extended unconditionally to First Nations peoples. (Previously they could vote only by giving up their status as First Nations people.)[85]
* 1960 – Right to vote in advance is extended to all electors willing to swear they would be absent on election day.[86][citation needed]
* 1965 – First Nations people granted the right to vote in Alberta provincial elections, starting with the 1967 Alberta general election.[85]
* 1969 – First Nations people granted the right to vote in Quebec provincial elections, starting with the 1970 Quebec general election.[85]
* 1970 – Voting age lowered from 21 to 18.[87]
* 1982 – Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees all adult citizens the right to vote.
* 1988 – Supreme Court of Canada rules mentally ill patients have the right to vote.[88]
* 1993[84][citation needed] – Any elector can vote in advance.
* 2000 – Legislation is introduced making it easier for people of no fixed address to vote.
* 2002 – Prisoners given the right to vote in the riding (voting district) where they were convicted. All adult Canadians except the Chief and Deputy Electoral Officers can now vote in Canada.[89]
* 2019 – The Supreme Court of Canada rules that portions of the Canada Elections Act which prevent citizens who have been living abroad for more than five years from voting by mail are in violation of Section 3 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and thus unconstitutional.[90]

### European Union[edit | edit source]

The European Union has given the right to vote in municipal elections to the citizen of another EU country by the Council Directive 94/80/EG from 19 December 1994.[91]

### Finland[edit | edit source]

* 1906 – Full suffrage for all citizens adults aged 24 or older at beginning of voting year.
* 1921 – Suppression of property-based number of votes on municipal level; equal vote for everybody.
* 1944 – Voting age lowered to 21 years.
* 1969 – Voting age lowered to 20 years.
* 1972 – Voting age lowered to 18 years.
* 1981 – Voting and eligibility rights were granted to Nordic Passport Union country citizens without residency condition for municipal elections.
* 1991 – Voting and eligibility rights were extended to all foreign residents in 1991 with a two-year residency condition for municipal elections.
* 1995 – Residency requirement abolished for EU residents, in conformity with European legislation (Law 365/95, confirmed by Electoral Law 714/1998).
* 1996 – Voting age lowered to 18 years at date of voting.
* 2000 – Section 14, al. 2 of the 2000 Constitution of Finland states that "Every Finnish citizen and every foreigner permanently resident in Finland, having attained eighteen years of age, has the right to vote in municipal elections and municipal referendums, as provided by an Act. Provisions on the right to otherwise participate in municipal government are laid down by an Act."[92]

### France[edit | edit source]

* 11 August 1792 : Introduction of universal suffrage (men only)
* 1795 : Universal suffrage for men is replaced with indirect Census suffrage
* 13 December 1799: The French Consulate re-establishes male universal suffrage increased from 246,000 to over 9 million.
* In 1850 (31 May): The number of people eligible to vote is reduced by 30% by excluding criminals and the homeless.
* Napoleon III calls a referendum in 1851 (21 December), all men aged 21 and over are allowed to vote. Male universal suffrage is established thereafter.
* As of 21 April 1944 the franchise is extended to women over 21.
* On 5 July 1974 the minimum age to vote is reduced to 18 years old.

### Germany[edit | edit source]

* 1848 – male citizens (citizens of state in German Confederation), adult and "independent" got voting rights, male voting population - 85%,[93][94]
* 1849 – male citizens above 25, not disfranchised, not declared legally incapable, didn't claim pauper relief a year before the election, not a bankrupt nor in bankruptcy proceedings, not convicted of electoral fraud,[95]
* 1866 – male citizens above 25 (citizen for at least 3 years), not disfranchised, not declared legally incapable, didn't claim pauper relief a year before the election, enrolled on the electoral roll, inhabitant of the electoral district,[96]
* 1869 – male citizens above 25 (citizens of state in North German Confederation), not disfranchised, not a bankrupt nor in bankruptcy proceedings, not serving soldier, didn't claim pauper relief a year before the election, inhabitant of the electoral district, not in prison, not declared legally incapable,[97]
* 1918 - full suffrage for all citizens above 20[98]
* 1970 - full suffrage for all citizens above 18[99]
* 2019 - suffrage for citizens with insanity defense, and persons under guardianship.[100]

### Kingdom of Hawai'i[edit | edit source]

In 1840, the king of Hawai'i issued a constitution that granted universal suffrage without mention of sex or age, but later amendments added restrictions, as the influence of Caucasian settlers increased:

* 1852 – Women lost the right to vote, and the minimum voting age was specified as 20.
* 1864 – Voting was restricted on the basis of new qualifications—literacy and either a certain level of income or property ownership.
* 1887 – Citizens of Hawai'i with Asian descent were disqualified. There was an increase in the minimum value of income or owned property.

Hawai'i lost its independence in 1893.

### Hong Kong[edit | edit source]

Minimum age to vote was reduced from 21 to 18 years in 1995. The Basic Law, the constitution of the territory since 1997, stipulates that all permanent residents (a status conferred by birth or by seven years of residence) have the right to vote. The right of permanent residents who have right of abode in other countries to stand in election is, however, restricted to 12 functional constituencies by the Legislative Council Ordinance of 1997.

The right to vote and the right to stand in elections are not equal. Fewer than 250,000 of the electorate are eligible to run in the 30 functional constituencies, of which 23 are elected by fewer than 80,000 of the electorate, and in the 2008 Legislative Council election 14 members were elected unopposed from these functional constituencies. The size of the electorates of some constituencies is fewer than 200. Only persons who can demonstrate a connection to the sector are eligible to run in a functional constituency.

The Legislative Council (Amendment) Bill 2012, if passed, amends the Legislative Council Ordinance to restrict the right to stand in Legislative Council by-elections in geographical constituencies and the District Council (Second) functional constituency. In addition to those persons who are mentally disabled, bankrupt, or imprisoned, members who resign their seats will not have the right to stand for six months' time from their resignation. The bill is currently passing through the committee stage.

### Hungary[edit | edit source]

* 1848 - The parliament of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 introduced voting rights to men over 20 who met certain criteria as part of the legislative package known as the April Laws.
* 1874 - The reintroduction of suffrage following the Compromise of 1867 changed some of the criteria, for instance moving from a wealth based threshold of eligibility to a tax based threshold.
* 1918 - Universal suffrage for those over 24 who can read and write. While this law introduced voting rights for women they could not exercise this right for some years due to the revolution of 1919.

### India[edit | edit source]

Since the very first Indian general election held in 1951–52, universal suffrage for all adult citizens aged 21 or older was established under Article 326 of the Constitution of India. The minimum voting age was reduced to 18 years by the 61st Amendment, effective 28 March 1989.

### Ireland[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of the franchise in Ireland

### Isle of Man[edit | edit source]

* 1866 – The House of Keys Election Act makes the House of Keys an elected body. The vote is given to men over the age of 21 who own property worth at least £8 a year or rent property worth at least £12 a year. Candidates must be male, with real estate of an annual value of £100, or of £50 along with a personal estate producing an annual income of £100.
* 1881 – The House of Keys Election Act is amended so that the property qualification is reduced to a net annual value of not less than £4. Most significantly, the Act is also amended to extend the franchise to unmarried women and widows over the age of 21 who own property, making the Isle of Man the first place to give some women the vote in a national election. The property qualification for candidates is modified to allow the alternative of personal property producing a year income of £150.
* 1892 – The franchise is extended to unmarried women and widows over the age of 21 who rent property worth a net annual value of at least £4, as well as to male lodgers. The property qualification for candidates is removed.
* 1903 – A residency qualification is introduced in addition to the property qualification for voters. The time between elections is reduced from 7 to 5 years.
* 1919 – Universal adult suffrage based on residency is introduced: all male and female residents over the age of 21 may vote. The entire electorate (with the exception of clergy and holders of office of profit) becomes eligible to stand for election.
* 1970 – Voting age lowered to 18.
* 2006 – Voting age lowered to 16. The age of eligibility for candidates remains at 18.

### Italy[edit | edit source]

The Supreme Court states that "the rules derogating from the passive electoral law must be strictly interpreted".[101]

### Japan[edit | edit source]

Main article: Suffrage in Japan

* 1889 – Male taxpayers above 25 that paid at least 15 JPY of tax got voting rights,[102] the voting population were 450,000 (1,1% of Japan population),[103]
* 1900 – Male taxpayers above 25 that paid at least 10 JPY of tax got voting rights, the voting population were 980,000 (2,2% of Japan population),[103]
* 1919 – Male taxpayers above 25 that paid at least 3 JPY of tax got voting rights, the voting population were 3,070,000 (5,5% of Japan population)[104]
* 1925 – Male above 25 got voting rights, the voting population were 12,410,000 (20% of Japan population),[103]
* 1945 – Japan citizens above 20 got voting rights, the voting population were 36,880,000 (48,7% of Japan population),[104]
* 2015 – Japan citizens above 18 got voting rights, voting population - 83,3% of Japan population.[105]

### New Zealand[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of voting in New Zealand

* 1853 – British government passes the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852, granting limited self-rule, including a bicameral parliament, to the colony. The vote was limited to male British subjects aged 21 or over who owned or rented sufficient property and were not imprisoned for a serious offence. Communally owned land was excluded from the property qualification, thus disenfranchising most Māori (indigenous) men.
* 1860 – Franchise extended to holders of miner's licenses who met all voting qualifications except that of property.
* 1867 – Māori seats established, giving Māori four reserved seats in the lower house. There was no property qualification; thus Māori men gained universal suffrage before other New Zealanders. The number of seats did not reflect the size of the Māori population, but Māori men who met the property requirement for general electorates were able to vote in them or in the Māori electorates but not both.
* 1879 – Property requirement abolished.
* 1893 – Women won equal voting rights with men, making New Zealand the first nation in the world to allow women to vote.
* 1969 – Voting age lowered to 20.
* 1974 – Voting age lowered to 18.
* 1975 – Franchise extended to permanent residents of New Zealand, regardless of whether they have citizenship.
* 1996 – Number of Māori seats increased to reflect Māori population.
* 2010 – Prisoners imprisoned for one year or more denied voting rights while serving the sentence.

### Norway[edit | edit source]

* 1814 – The Norwegian constitution gave male landowners or officials above the age of 25 full voting rights.[106]
* 1885 – Male taxpayers that paid at least 500 NOK of tax (800 NOK in towns) got voting rights.
* 1900 – Universal suffrage for men over 25.
* 1901 – Women, over 25, paying tax or having common household with a man paying tax, got the right to vote in local elections.
* 1909 – Women, over 25, paying tax or having common household with a man paying tax, got full voting rights.
* 1913 – Universal suffrage for all over 25, applying from the election in 1915.
* 1920 – Voting age lowered to 23.[107]
* 1946 – Voting age lowered to 21.
* 1967 – Voting age lowered to 20.
* 1978 – Voting age lowered to 18.

### Poland[edit | edit source]

* 1918 – In its first days of independence in 1918, after 123 years of partition, voting rights were granted to both men and women. Eight women were elected to the Sejm in 1919.
* 1952 – Voting age lowered to 18.

### Singapore[edit | edit source]

See also: Voting rights in Singapore

### South Africa[edit | edit source]

* 1910 – The Union of South Africa is established by the South Africa Act 1909. The House of Assembly is elected by first-past-the-post voting in single-member constituencies. The franchise qualifications are the same as those previously existing for elections of the legislatures of the colonies that comprised the Union. In the Transvaal and the Orange Free State the franchise is limited to white men. In Natal the franchise is limited to men meeting property and literacy qualifications; it was theoretically colour-blind but in practise nearly all non-white men were excluded. The traditional "Cape Qualified Franchise" of the Cape Province is limited to men meeting property and literacy qualifications and is colour-blind; nonetheless 85% of voters are white. The rights of non-white voters in the Cape Province are protected by an entrenched clause in the South Africa Act requiring a two-thirds vote in a joint sitting of both Houses of Parliament.
* 1930 – The Women's Enfranchisement Act, 1930 extends the right to vote to all white women over the age of 21.
* 1931 – The Franchise Laws Amendment Act, 1931 removes the property and literacy qualifications for all white men over the age of 21, but they are retained for non-white voters.
* 1936 – The Representation of Natives Act, 1936 removes black voters in the Cape Province from the common voters' roll and instead allows them to elect three "Native Representative Members" to the House of Assembly. Four Senators are to be indirectly elected by chiefs and local authorities to represent black South Africans throughout the country. The act is passed with the necessary two-thirds majority in a joint sitting.
* 1951 – The Separate Representation of Voters Act, 1951 is passed by Parliament by an ordinary majority in separate sittings. It purports to remove coloured voters in the Cape Province from the common voters' roll and instead allow them to elect four "Coloured Representative Members" to the House of Assembly.
* 1952 – In Harris v Minister of the Interior the Separate Representation of Voters Act is annulled by the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court because it was not passed with the necessary two-thirds majority in a joint sitting. Parliament passes the High Court of Parliament Act, 1952, purporting to allow it to reverse this decision, but the Appellate Division annuls it as well.
* 1956 – By packing the Senate and the Appellate Division, the government passes the South Africa Act Amendment Act, 1956, reversing the annulment of the Separate Representation of Voters Act and giving it the force of law.
* 1958 – The Electoral Law Amendment Act, 1958 reduces the voting age for white voters from 21 to 18.
* 1959 – The Promotion of Bantu Self-government Act, 1959 repeals the Representation of Natives Act, removing all representation of black people in Parliament.
* 1968 – The Separate Representation of Voters Amendment Act, 1968 repeals the Separate Representation of Voters Act, removing all representation of coloured people in Parliament.
* 1969 – The first election of the Coloured Persons Representative Council (CPRC), which has limited legislative powers, is held. Every Coloured citizen over the age of 21 can vote for its members, in first-past-the-post elections in single-member constituencies.
* 1978 – The voting age for the CPRC is reduced from 21 to 18.
* 1981 – The first election of the South African Indian Council (SAIC), which has limited legislative powers, is held. Every Indian South African citizen over the age of 18 can vote for its members, in first-past-the-post elections in single-member constituencies.
* 1984 – The Constitution of 1983 establishes the Tricameral Parliament. Two new Houses of Parliament are created, the House of Representatives to represent coloured citizens and the House of Delegates to represent Indian citizens. Every coloured and Indian citizen over the age of 18 can vote in elections for the relevant house. As with the House of Assembly, the members are elected by first-past-the-post voting in single-member constituencies. The CPRC and SAIC are abolished.
* 1994 – With the end of apartheid, the Interim Constitution of 1993 abolishes the Tricameral Parliament and all racial discrimination in voting rights. A new National Assembly is created, and every South African citizen over the age of 18 has the right to vote for the assembly. The right to vote is also extended to long term residents. It is estimated the 500 000 foreign nationals voted in the 1994 national and provincial elections. Elections of the assembly are based on party-list proportional representation. The right to vote is enshrined in the Bill of Rights.
* 1999 – In August and Another v Electoral Commission and Others the Constitutional Court rules that prisoners cannot be denied the right to vote without a law that explicitly does so.
* 2003 – The Electoral Laws Amendment Act, 2003 purports to prohibit convicted prisoners from voting.
* 2004 – In Minister of Home Affairs v NICRO and Others the Constitutional Court rules that prisoners cannot be denied the right to vote, and invalidates the laws that do so.
* 2009 – In Richter v Minister for Home Affairs and Others the Constitutional Court rules that South African citizens outside the country cannot be denied the right to vote.

### Sweden[edit | edit source]

* 1809 – New constitution adopted and separation of powers outlined in the Instrument of Government.
* 1810 – The Riksdag Act, setting out the procedures of functioning of the Riksdag, is introduced.
* 1862 – Under the municipal laws of 1862, some women were entitled to vote in local elections.
* 1865 – Parliament of Four Estates abolished and replaced by a bicameral legislature. The members of the First Chamber were elected indirectly by the county councils and the municipal assemblies in the larger towns and cities.
* 1909 – All men who had done their military service and who paid tax were granted suffrage.
* 1918 – Universal, and equal suffrage were introduced for local elections.
* 1919 – Universal, equal, and women's suffrage granted for general elections.
* 1921 – First general election with universal, equal, and women's suffrage enacted, although some groups were still unable to vote.
* 1922 – Requirement that men had to have completed national military service to be able to vote abolished.
* 1937 – Interns in prisons and institutions granted suffrage.
* 1945 – Individuals who had gone into bankruptcy or were dependent on welfare granted suffrage.
* 1970 – Indirectly elected upper chamber dismantled.[108][relevant?]
* 1974 – Instrument of Government stopped being enforced.[needs context].
* 1989 – The final limitations on suffrage abolished along with the Riksdag's decision to abolish the 'declaration of legal incompetency'.[109]

### Turkey[edit | edit source]

Main article: Women in Turkish politics

* 1926 – Turkish civil code (Equality in civil rights)
* 1930 – Right to vote in local elections
* 1933 – First woman muhtar (Village head) Gülkız Ürbül in Demircidere village, Aydın Province
* 1934 – Right to vote in General elections
* 1935 – First 18 Women MPs in Turkish parliament
* 1950 – First woman city mayor Müfide İlhan in Mersin

### United Kingdom[edit | edit source]

See also: Elections in the United Kingdom § History, Parliamentary franchise in the United Kingdom 1885–1918, and Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom

File:The national convention. As it met on Monday the 4th of February, 1839, at the British Coffee House ca. 1839 LCCN2004669356.jpg

The Chartists' National Convention at the British Coffee House in February 1839

From 1265, a few percent of the adult male population in the Kingdom of England (of which Wales was a full and equal member from 1542) were able to vote in parliamentary elections that occurred at irregular intervals to the Parliament of England.[110][111] The franchise for the Parliament of Scotland developed separately. King Henry VI of England established in 1432 that only owners of property worth at least forty shillings, a significant sum, were entitled to vote in an English county constituency. The franchise was restricted to males by custom rather than statute.[112] Changes were made to the details of the system, but there was no major reform until the Reform Act 1832.[nb 3] A series of Reform Acts and Representation of the People Acts followed. In 1918, all men over 21 and some women over 30 won the right to vote, and in 1928 all women over 21 won the right to vote resulting in universal suffrage.[114]

* The Laws in Wales Acts 1535 – Legislation provides for Welsh representatives in the House of Commons[115]
* The Acts of Union 1707 – Scotland allocated 45 seats in the House of Commons[115]
* 1729 – Bribery Act passed to address corruption in elections[115]
* Acts of Union 1800 – Ireland allocated 100 seats in the House of Commons[115]
* Reform Act 1832 – extended voting rights to adult males who rented propertied land of a certain value, so allowing 1 in 7 males in the UK voting rights.
* Reform Act 1867 – extended the franchise to men in urban areas who met a property qualification, so increasing male suffrage.
* Reform Act 1884 – addressed imbalances between the boroughs and the countryside; this brought the voting population to 5,500,000, although 40% of males were still disenfranchised because of the property qualification.
* Between 1885 and 1918 moves were made by the women's suffrage movement to ensure votes for women. However, the duration of the First World War stopped this reform movement.
* Representation of the People Act 1918 – the consequences of World War I persuaded the government to expand the right to vote, not only for the many men who fought in the war who were disenfranchised, but also for the women who worked in factories, agriculture and elsewhere as part of the war effort, often substituting for enlisted men and including dangerous work such as in munitions factories. All men aged 21 and over were given the right to vote. Property restrictions for voting were lifted for men. The local government franchise was extended to include all women over 21, on the same terms as men. Parliamentary Votes were given to 40% of women, with property restrictions and limited to those over 30 years old. This increased the electorate from 7.7 million to 21.4 million with women making up 8.5 million of the electorate. Seven percent of the electorate had more than one vote, either because they owned business property or because they were university graduates. The first election with this system was the 1918 general election.
* Representation of the People Act 1928 – equal suffrage for women and men, with voting possible at 21 with no property restrictions.
* Representation of the People Act 1948 – removed plural voting in parliamentary elections for university graduates and business owners.
* Representation of the People Act 1969 – extension of suffrage to those 18 and older, and abolition of plural voting in local government elections.

### United States[edit | edit source]

Main article: Voting rights in the United States

The Constitution did not originally define who was eligible to vote, allowing each state to decide this status. In the early history of the U.S., most states allowed only white male adult property owners to vote (about 6% of the population).[116][117] By 1856 property ownership requirements were eliminated in all states, giving suffrage to most white men. However, tax-paying requirements remained in five states until 1860 and in two states until the 20th century.[118][119]

After the Civil War, five amendments to the Constitution were expressly addressed to the "right to vote"; these amendments limit the basis upon which the right to vote in any U.S. state or other jurisdiction may be abridged or denied.[nb 4]

* 15th Amendment (1870): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
* 19th Amendment (1920): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."
* 23rd Amendment (1961): provides that residents of the District of Columbia can vote for the President and Vice President.
* 24th Amendment (1964): "The right of citizens of the United States to vote in any primary or other election for President or Vice President, for electors for President or Vice President, or for Senator or Representative in Congress, shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State by reason of failure to pay any poll tax or other tax."
* 26th Amendment (1971): "The right of citizens of the United States, who are eighteen years of age or older, to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of age."

Full removal of racial disenfranchisement of citizens was not secured until the Voting Rights Act of 1965 gained passage through Congress following the Civil Rights Movement. For state elections, it was not until the U.S. Supreme Court ruled 6–3 in Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections (1966) that all state poll taxes were declared unconstitutional as violating the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This removed a burden on the poor, including some poor whites who had been disenfranchised.[120][121]

### Majority-Muslim countries[edit | edit source]

Main article: Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Constituency
* Democracy
* Direct democracy
* Disenfranchisement
* List of suffragists and suffragettes
* Voting system
* Youth suffrage
* Anti-suffragism
* Women's suffrage

## Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ^ Strictly speaking, all ratepayers; however, domestic rates were abolished after the 1977 election.[30][31][32]
2. ^ For example South Dublin County Council produced lists of addresses of residences[34] and ratepayers[35] within Palmerstown for the 2014 plebiscite on changing the district's spelling.
3. ^ Until this Act specified 'male persons', a few women had been able to vote in parliamentary elections through property ownership, although this was rare.[113]
4. ^ The 14th Amendment (1868) altered the way each state is represented in the House of Representatives. It counted all residents for apportionment including former slaves, overriding the three-fifths compromise of the original Constitution; it also reduced a state's apportionment if it wrongfully denied the right to vote to males over age 21. However, this sanction was not enforced in practice.

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ "suffrage". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins.
2. ^ "Definition of "suffrage" – Collins English Dictionary". Retrieved 28 July 2015.
3. ^ "suffrage – definition of suffrage in English from the Oxford dictionary". Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 28 July 2015.
4. ^ "Deprivation of the Right to Vote". ACE Electoral Knowledge Network. Aceproject.org.
5. ^ Gianoulis, Tina (2015). "Women's Suffrage Movement" (PDF). glbtq. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 March 2019.
6. ^ "Who is eligible to vote at a UK general election?". The Electoral Commission. Archived from the original on 19 April 2014. Retrieved 9 February 2016
7. ^ "Can I vote?". European Parliament Information Office in the United Kingdom
8. ^ "Why Can Commonwealth Citizens Vote in the U.K.? An Expat Asks". The Wall Street Journal. 27 April 2015. Retrieved 9 February 2016.
9. ^ G. E. M. de Ste. Croix (March 1954), "Suffragium: From Vote to Patronage", The British Journal of Sociology, The London School of Economics and Political Science, 5 (1): 33–48, doi:10.2307/588044, JSTOR 588044
10. ^ "LacusCurtius • Voting in Ancient Rome – Suffragium (Smith's Dictionary, 1875)". Penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
11. ^ "Suffrage". Merriam-webster.com. 31 August 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
12. ^ Poole, Robert (April 2006). "'By the Law or the Sword': Peterloo Revisited". History. 2 (302): 254–276. doi:10.1111/j.1468-229X.2006.00366.x. JSTOR 24427836.
13. ^ A Vision of Britain through time. "Greater Manchester Met.C: Total Population". Retrieved 6 April 2007.
14. ^ Nohlen, Dieter, e al. (2001). Elections in Asia and the Pacific: South East Asia, East Asia, and the South Pacific. p. 14\. Oxford University Press, 2001
15. ^ A. Kulinski, K. Pawlowski. The Atlantic Community – The Titanic of the XXI Century. p. 96\. WSB-NLU. 2010
16. ^ "Definition of SUFFRAGE". www.merriam-webster.com. Retrieved 1 July 2019.
17. ^ "The New Jersey Constitution of 1776". Retrieved 17 December 2006.
18. ^ "Votes for Women". Electoral Commission of New Zealand. Archived from the original on 19 August 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
19. ^ "Opposition to Suffrage". History of U.S. Woman's Suffrage. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
20. ^ "12 Cruel Anti-Suffragette Cartoons". mentalfloss.com. 21 June 2015. Retrieved 4 April 2019.
21. ^ "Definition: suffrage". Websters Dictionary. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 24 October 2011.
22. ^ Alexander Keyssar, "'The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States'" (2nd ed. 2009) p 5 - https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/keyssar_-_part_1.pdf
23. ^ Constitution of the Empire of Brazil https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Empire_of_Brazil
24. ^ "CIA:The World Factbook". Archived from the original on 9 January 2008. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
25. ^ Johal, Sukhdev; Moran, Michael; Williams, Karel (2012). "The future has been postponed: The Great Financial Crisis and British politics". British Politics. 7 (1): 69–81. doi:10.1057/bp.2011.30. ISSN 1746-918X. S2CID 153648412.
26. ^ Leaver, Adam. "Banking's groundhog day". www.redpepper.org.uk. Red Pepper. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
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47. ^ Constitution of Georgia, The Avalon Project at Yale Law School, 5 February 1777, archived from the original on 13 December 2007, retrieved 7 December 2007
48. ^ An Act for the relief of Jews in Maryland, passed 26 February 1825, vol. 3183, Archives of Maryland, 26 February 1825, p. 1670, retrieved 5 December 2007
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62. ^ Nadia Bernoussi, L'évolution du processus électoral au Maroc, 22 December 2005 Archived 25 November 2012 at the Wayback Machine
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## Bibliography[edit | edit source]

See also: List of suffragists and suffragettes § Women's suffrage publications

* Atkinson, Neill. Adventures in Democracy: A History of the Vote in New Zealand (Dunedin: University of Otago Press, 2003).
* Edwards, Louise P. and Mina Roces, eds. Women's Suffrage in Asia: Gender, Nationalism, and Democracy (Routledge, 2004).
* Haas, Michael. Racial Harmony Is Achievable: Lessons from the Kingdom of Hawai'i (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2017), pp. 70–72.
* Keyssar, Alexander. The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States (New York: Basic Books, 2000). ISBN 0-465-02968-X.
* Lichtman, Allan J. The Embattled Vote in America: From the Founding to the Present (Harvard UP. 2018)
* Towns, Ann. "Global Patterns and Debates in the Granting of Women’s Suffrage." in The Palgrave Handbook of Women’s Political Rights (Palgrave Macmillan, London, 2019) pp. 3–19.
* U.S. Commission on Civil Rights: Reports on Voting (2005) ISBN 978-0-8377-3103-2.
* Willis, Justin, Gabrielle Lynch, and Nic Cheeseman. "Voting, Nationhood, and Citizenship in late-colonial Africa." Historical Journal 61.4 (2018): 1113–1135. online
* "Smallest State in the World", The New York Times, 19 June 1896, p. 6
* A History of the Vote in Canada, Chief Electoral Officer of Canada, 2007.

## External links[edit | edit source]

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Scholia has a topic profile for [[:toolforge:scholia/topic/Script error: No such module "WikidataIB".|Suffrage]].

* Suffrage in Canada
* Women's suffrage in Germany—19 January 1919—first suffrage (active and passive) for women in Germany
* "Suffrage" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
* "Who Gets to Vote? Teaching About the Struggle for Voting Rights in the United States" by Ursula Wolfe-Rocca, The Zinn Education Project, 2020.

* v
* t
* e

Suffrage

Basic topics|

* Universal suffrage
* Women
* Men
* Black
* Youth
* Resident foreigners
* Expatriates in country of origin
* Voting age
* Demeny voting
* Suffragette
* Compulsory voting
* Disfranchisement
* Women's liberation movement

By country|

* Austria
* Australia
* 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act
* aboriginal
* women
* Canada
* Chile
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* Hong Kong
* India
* Japan
* Kuwait
* Liechtenstein
* Mexico
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* laws
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* United States
* women
* African Americans
* Native Americans
* felons
* foreigners
* District of Columbia
* Puerto Rico
* states
* Constitutional amendments: 15th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, 26th
* 1965 Voting Rights Act

Events|

* International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences
* 1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* Hong Kong 1 July marches
* 2014 Hong Kong protests
* 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests

UK|

* WSPU march (1906)
* Mud March (1907)
* Women's Sunday (1908)
* Black Friday (1910)
* Battle of Downing Street (1910)
* Women's Coronation Procession (1911)
* Great Pilgrimage (1913)
* Open Christmas Letter (1914)

US|

* Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
* Declaration of Sentiments (1848)
* Rochester Convention (1848)
* Ohio Women's Convention (1850)
* National Women's Rights Convention (1850–1869)
* Trial of Susan B. Anthony (1872–1873)
* Suffrage Hikes (1912–1914)
* Woman Suffrage Procession (1913)
* Suffrage Torch
* Suffrage Special (1916)
* Silent Sentinels (1917–1919)
* Night of Terror
* Prison Special
* 1920 United States presidential election
* "Give Us the Ballot" (1957)
* Freedom Summer (1964)
* Selma to Montgomery marches (1965)

Women
(memorials)|

* List of suffragists and suffragettes
* Timeline of women's suffrage
* US
* in majority-Muslim countries
* Historiography of the Suffragettes
* Women's suffrage organizations and publications
* Women's rights activists
* Leser v. Garnett
* Belmont–Paul Monument
* Emmeline Pankhurst statue
* Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton statue
* Suffragette Memorial
* Portrait Monument
* Women's Rights Pioneers Monument
* Forward statue
* Kate Sheppard National Memorial
* Millicent Fawcett statue
* Great Petition (2008 sculpture)
* Centenary of Women's Suffrage Commemorative Fountain
* Resilience
* Turning Point Suffragist Memorial
* Eagle House
* Pankhurst Centre
* Paulsdale
* Suffragette Handkerchief
* Holloway brooch
* Hunger Strike Medal
* Justice Bell
* Suffrage jewellery
* Suffragette penny
* Suffragette Oak
* Women's Rights National Historical Park
* Women's Suffrage National Monument
* International Women's Day
* Susan B. Anthony Day
* Women's Equality Day

Related|

* Age of candidacy
* National Voting Rights Museum (US)
* Umbrella Movement

Popular
culture|

* "The Women's Marseillaise"
* "The March of the Women" (1910 song)
* The Mother of Us All (1947 opera)
* "Sister Suffragette" (1964 song)
* Suffrage plays
* Women's suffrage in film
* Votes for Women (1912 film)
* Shoulder to Shoulder (1974 series)
* Not for Ourselves Alone (1999 documentary)
* Iron Jawed Angels (2004 film)
* Up the Women (2013 sitcom)
* Selma (2014 film)
* Suffragette (2015 film)
* Sylvia (2018 musical)
* Suffs (2022 musical)
* Susan B. Anthony dollar
* New Zealand ten-dollar note
* 2020 US ten-dollar bill

* v
* t
* e

Human rights

* Humans
* Children
* Intersex people
* Women

Fundamental concepts
and philosophies

* Natural law
* Positive law
* Sovereignty
* Universal jurisdiction

Distinctions|

* Claim rights and liberty rights
* Individual and group rights
* Natural rights and legal rights
* Negative and positive rights

Aspects|

* Corporal punishment

Organizations|

* List of human rights organisations
* National human rights institutions

By continent|

* Africa
*   * Asia
* Europe
* North America
* Oceania
* South America

Related|

* History of human rights
* List of human rights articles by country
* List of human rights awards
* Universal Declaration of Human Rights
* United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights

* v
* t
* e

Discrimination

Forms|

* Institutional
* Structural

Attributes|

* Age
* Caste
* Class
* Dialect
* Disability
* Genetic
* Hair texture
* Height
* Language
* Looks
* Mental disorder
* Race / Ethnicity
* Skin color
* Rank
* Sex
* Sexual orientation
* Species
* Size
* Viewpoint

Social|

* Acephobia
* Adultism
* Anti-albinism
* Anti-autism
* Anti-homelessness
* Anti-drug addicts
* Anti-intellectualism
* Anti-intersex
* Anti-left handedness
* Anti-Masonry
* Antisemitism
* Aporophobia
* Audism
* Biphobia
* Clannism
* Cronyism
* Elitism
* Ephebiphobia
* Fatphobia
* Gayphobia
* Gerontophobia
* Heterosexism
* HIV/AIDS stigma
* Homophobia
* Leprosy stigma
* Lesbophobia
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Nepotism
* Pedophobia
* Perpetual foreigner
* Pregnancy
* Reverse
* Sectarianism
* Supremacism
* Black
* White
* Transphobia
* Non-binary
* Transmisogyny
* Vegaphobia
* Xenophobia

Religious|

* Ahmadiyya
* Atheism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Catholicism
* Christianity
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Judaism
* Persecution
* LDS or Mormon
* Neopaganism
* Eastern Orthodox
* Oriental Orthodox
* Protestantism
* Rastafari
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Zoroastrianism

Ethnic/National|

* African
* Albanian
* Arab
* Armenian
* Asian
* France
* United States
* South Africa
* Azerbaijani
* Black people
* African Americans
* China
* South Africa
* Bengali
* Catalan
* Chechen
* Chinese
* Croat
* Filipino
* Finnish
* Georgian
* Greek
* Haitian
* Hazara
* Hispanic
* Hungarian
* Igbo
* Indian
* Indigenous people
* Australia
* Canada
* United States
* Iranian
* Irish
* Israeli
* Italian
* Japanese
* Jewish
* Korean
* Kurdish
* Malay
* Mexican
* Middle Eastern
* Mongolian
* Pakistani
* Palestinians
* Pashtun
* Polish
* Quebec
* Romani
* Romanian
* Russian
* Serb
* Slavic
* Somali
* Tatar
* Thai
* Turkish
* Ukrainian
* Uyghur
* Uyghur genocide
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese

Manifestations|

* Blood libel
* Bullying
* Cancel culture
* Compulsory sterilization
* Corrective rape
* Counter-jihad
* Cultural genocide
* Defamation
* Democide
* Disability hate crime
* Dog whistle
* Economic
* Education
* Employment
* Eliminationism
* Enemy of the people
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnocide
* Forced conversion
* Freak show
* Gay bashing
* Gendercide
* Genital modification and mutilation
* Genocide
* examples
* Glass ceiling
* Hate crime
* LGBT
* Hate group
* Hate speech
* Homeless dumping
* Housing
* Indian rolling
* Intersectionality
* Lavender scare
* Lynching
* Mortgage
* Murder music
* Native American mascot controversy
* Occupational segregation
* Persecution
* Pogrom
* Political repression
* Purge
* Religious persecution
* Religious terrorism
* Religious violence
* Religious war
* Scapegoating
* Segregation academy
* Sex-selective abortion
* Slut-shaming
* Trans bashing
* Victimisation
* Violence against women
* White flight
* Wife selling
* Witch-hunt

Discriminatory
policies|

* Age of candidacy
* Blood purity
* Blood quantum
* Crime of apartheid
* Disabilities
* Catholic
* Jewish
* Gender pay gap
* Gender roles
* Gerontocracy
* Gerrymandering
* Ghetto benches
* Internment
* Jewish quota
* Law for Protection of the Nation
* MSM blood donation restrictions
* Nonpersons
* Numerus clausus (as religious or racial quota)
* One-drop rule
* Racial quota
* Racial segregation
* Jim Crow laws
* Nuremberg Laws
* Racial steering
* Redlining
* Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)
* Segregation
* age
* racial
* religious
* sexual
* Social exclusion
* Sodomy law
* State atheism
* State religion
* Ugly law
* Voter suppression

Countermeasures|

* Affirmative action
* Anti-discrimination law
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural pluralism
* Diversity training
* Empowerment
* Fat acceptance movement
* Feminism
* Fighting Discrimination
* Hate speech laws by country
* Human rights
* Intersex human rights
* LGBT rights
* Masculism
* Multiculturalism
* Nonviolence
* Racial integration
* Reappropriation
* Self-determination
* Social integration
* Toleration

Related topics|

* Allophilia
* Amatonormativity
* Anti-cultural, anti-national, and anti-ethnic terms
* Bias
* Christian privilege
* Civil liberties
* Dehumanization
* Diversity
* Ethnic penalty
* Eugenics
* Heteronormativity
* Internalized oppression
* Intersectionality
* Male privilege
* Masculism
* Medical model of disability
* autism
* Multiculturalism
* Net bias
* Neurodiversity
* Oikophobia
* Oppression
* Police brutality
* Political correctness
* Polyculturalism
* Power distance
* Prejudice
* Prisoner abuse
* Racial bias in criminal news in the United States
* Racism by country
* Religious intolerance
* Second-generation gender bias
* Snobbery
* Social exclusion
* Social model of disability
* Social stigma
* Speciesism
* Stereotype
* threat
* The talk
* White privilege

* Category
* Commons

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