Diversity, equity, and inclusion

Organizational framework concerning representation, equal opportunity, and participation

Diversity, equity, and inclusion

(2021) Poster

Abbreviation| DEI
Type| Institutional framework
Fields| Human resource management, education, public administration, nonprofit governance
Developed from| Equal employment opportunity, affirmative action, civil-rights-era anti-discrimination law
Early U.S. foundations| Executive Order 10925 (1961); Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964; Executive Order 11246 (1965)
Common components| Representation, equal opportunity, inclusion initiatives, training, recruitment, retention, institutional policy
Related terms| Diversity management, Equal opportunity, Woke, Critical race theory
Main areas of dispute| Hiring and promotion practices; training and speech norms; curriculum and school policy; gender identity policy; legal compliance and equal-treatment standards

Diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) is an umbrella term for policies, training programs, and administrative practices intended to broaden representation, reduce discriminatory barriers, and improve participation within workplaces, schools, nonprofit organizations, and government institutions. In the United States, the modern DEI framework developed from earlier federal anti-discrimination and affirmative-action measures adopted during the civil-rights era, beginning with anti-discrimination rules for federal employment and government contracting and later expanding through executive action and federal statute.[1][2][3]

The principal American foundations of this framework were established during the civil-rights era. In 1961, former President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925, establishing the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity and introducing the term affirmative action in the federal-contracting context. In 1965, former President Lyndon B. Johnson expanded that framework through Executive Order 11246, which required federal contractors to take affirmative action and prohibited discrimination in employment on the basis of race, creed, color, or national origin.[4] In 1967, the order was amended to add sex as a protected category.[5][6]. Meanwhile, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 had already made employment discrimination unlawful under federal statute on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.[7]

Supporters of DEI argue that such efforts can widen opportunity, improve institutional legitimacy, and reduce barriers affecting groups that have historically faced exclusion or underrepresentation. Critics argue that DEI programs can become ideological, bureaucratic, or unlawfully discriminatory when they rely on identity-based preferences, compelled training, or administrative mandates that depart from equal-treatment principles. By the mid-2020s, DEI had become a major legal and political controversy in the United States, with the second Trump administration moving to dismantle many DEI programs in the federal government and challenge certain DEI practices in schools and the private sector, while courts, civil-rights groups, educators, and employers contested how far such restrictions could lawfully go.[8][9][10]

## Contents

* 1 History and terminology
* 1.1 Nomenclature
* 2 Institutional use
* 2.1 DEI and the rise of “wokeness” as a political label
* 3 Research, effectiveness, and differing views
* 4 Political and legal disputes
* 5 See also
* 6 References

## History and terminology[edit | edit source]

The institutional background of DEI in the United States lies in the civil-rights reforms of the 1960s, when the federal government expanded anti-discrimination policy through executive action, statutory law, and administrative enforcement. Earlier equal-employment measures in federal service and government contracting were followed by President John F. Kennedy’s Executive Order 10925 in 1961, President Lyndon B. Johnson’s Executive Order 11246 in 1965, and Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Together, those measures helped establish the legal and administrative framework from which later diversity initiatives developed, especially in employment settings. Scholars tracing the history of workplace diversity initiatives have argued that the field did not begin as a separate management theory, but as a later outgrowth of efforts to prevent discrimination and widen access to employment under the civil-rights-era equal-opportunity framework.[1][2][3][4][11]

During the 1970s and 1980s, employers, consultants, and educational institutions increasingly moved from the narrower language of compliance and affirmative action toward the broader language of diversity. By the late 1980s and 1990s, this shift was often described as diversity management, a term that presented representation and workplace relations not only as matters of legal obligation but also as questions of organizational culture, leadership, and performance. This change made the subject easier to integrate into human-resources policy and corporate administration, but it also weakened the direct connection between such programs and the older legal problem of unlawful discrimination. Over time, the framework expanded to include a wider range of practices, including recruitment goals, mentoring programs, employee resource groups, supplier-diversity policies, bias training, and broader initiatives concerning workplace climate and inclusion.[11][12]

### Nomenclature[edit | edit source]

The phrase diversity, equity, and inclusion was not part of the original civil-rights-era legal vocabulary in the United States. Earlier federal law and executive action instead used terms such as equal employment opportunity and affirmative action to describe anti-discrimination obligations and remedial measures in employment and government contracting. The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has stated that DEI is a broad modern term and is not defined in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[8][1]</ref>

The terminology developed gradually as institutions moved away from the narrower language of legal compliance and adopted broader managerial and cultural frameworks. In workplace and educational settings, the language evolved from diversity to diversity and inclusion and later to diversity, equity, and inclusion, with some organizations adopting expanded variants such as DEIA, for diversity, equity, inclusion, and accessibility, or DEIB, for diversity, equity, inclusion, and belonging. This shift reflected an effort to move beyond representation alone and to emphasize access, participation, workplace climate, and institutional belonging.[11][13]

In the federal executive branch, the terminology was formalized at the presidential level in 2021 through President Joe Biden’s Executive Order 14035, titled Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in the Federal Workforce. That federal usage was later sharply reversed by President Donald Trump’s Executive Order 14173, Ending Illegal Discrimination and Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity, signed on 21 January 2025. That order directed agencies to terminate DEI-related programs and revoked Executive Order 11246, the long-standing directive associated with affirmative-action requirements for federal contractors. In that sense, DEI and DEIA became official federal terminology not only through formal adoption, but also through later formal repudiation.[14][15][16]

The term diversity, equity, and inclusion became more common in the early 21st century as institutions sought language that went beyond representation alone. In this usage, diversity generally referred to the presence of people from different backgrounds, equity referred to efforts to address barriers affecting access and advancement, and inclusion referred to whether individuals were able to participate fully and be treated as legitimate members of an institution. Not all programs described as DEI were alike, however. Some remained closely tied to nondiscrimination compliance and equal-opportunity law, while others were shaped by broader theories about historical disadvantage, group identity, systemic inequality, and institutional belonging. For that reason, the term became both widely adopted and heavily contested, especially as it spread beyond workplaces into universities, nonprofits, public agencies, medicine, and schools.[11][13][8]

## Institutional use[edit | edit source]

In practice, DEI is not a single policy but a broad category of institutional responses. Employers may use the term for recruitment outreach, training, complaints procedures, promotion reviews, mentoring, affinity groups, demographic reporting, leadership accountability, and efforts to improve retention. Universities often use the term for administrative offices, student-support programs, faculty hiring initiatives, curricular guidance, and campus-climate efforts, while professional associations, nonprofits, and grantmaking bodies have applied similar language to governance, membership, public reporting, and funding decisions. As these practices spread, DEI came to function not merely as a compliance framework but as a wider administrative model for how institutions evaluated representation, participation, and internal culture.[13][12]

Higher education played an important role in that expansion. Colleges and universities, including elite private institutions, helped normalize dedicated DEI offices, specialized staff positions, campus programming, and formal statements concerning equity and inclusion. In time, similar administrative models appeared in corporate human-resources departments, hospital systems, professional licensing environments, philanthropic organizations, and public agencies. As a result, DEI became embedded not only in hiring and training practices but also in broader institutional governance and public-facing policy.[13][12]

Supporters of these efforts generally argue that formal neutrality by itself does not always remove inherited barriers, informal exclusion, or unequal access to networks and advancement. On that view, DEI can help institutions identify where rules that appear neutral on paper produce unequal effects in practice. Survey research has also found that many workers associate DEI efforts with greater belonging, engagement, collaboration, and retention, even while fewer respondents say such programs clearly improve productivity.[13][17]

Scholars and commentators with differing views have argued that DEI programs can become diffuse, symbolic, or performative, especially when organizations prioritize statements, training, and branding over measurable institutional reform. Some have also argued that DEI has at times been used to justify intrusive workplace speech norms, ideological conformity, or identity-based preferences that sit uneasily with equal-treatment principles. Even some writers generally sympathetic to inclusion efforts have argued that a sizable portion of the DEI industry has overstated what popular interventions can accomplish and has not been held to rigorous outcome standards.[18][19]

### DEI and the rise of “wokeness” as a political label[edit | edit source]

Main article: Radicalization of education

Woke originated as a term in Black culture denoting awareness of injustice, especially racial injustice, but over time it evolved into a broader and contested political label. In 21st-century American debate, the term became increasingly associated with diversity, equity, and inclusion, critical race theory, school curriculum disputes, and institutional policies concerning race, sex, gender identity, and speech. As a result, DEI and “wokeness” were often linked in public argument even though they were not identical concepts.[20]

In education, the term “woke” was frequently used by opponents to describe programs or teaching approaches that emphasized systemic racism, privilege, gender identity, affinity-group structures, anti-racist pedagogy, and related forms of ideological instruction. Universities and teacher-training programs became especially important in this dispute because they helped institutionalize administrative models, curricular frameworks, and professional expectations that later spread into public schools, nonprofits, corporations, and government agencies. A South Carolina Office of Inspector General document, Woke Schooling: A Toolkit for Concerned Parents, described anti-racism, affinity groups, and equity-based instruction as part of a broader educational shift, while a Fraser Institute commentary argued that parents should be able to opt out of schools that subordinate academic fundamentals to ideological activism.[21][22]

Supporters of DEI and related institutional reforms, by contrast, generally described such programs as efforts to address exclusion, improve representation, and respond to unequal treatment rather than as vehicles for political indoctrination. This disagreement over description became a central feature of the controversy itself. Measures presented by one side as inclusion, anti-bias education, or equal-opportunity reform were often presented by the other as ideological enforcement, compelled speech, or the replacement of civic and academic fundamentals with activist doctrine. For that reason, the dispute over DEI was never limited to hiring practices or workplace seminars alone, but became part of a broader conflict over curriculum, institutional authority, parental rights, and the moral and civic formation of students.[20][17][21]

By the mid-2020s, these disputes had expanded beyond schools and universities into federal policy, corporate governance, medicine, and professional regulation. Under President Donald Trump’s second administration, executive actions and agency measures moved to dismantle many federal DEI programs and to challenge related institutional practices, while courts, educators, employers, and civil-rights advocates contested the lawfulness and scope of those actions. As a result, DEI came to be treated in American public life not only as an administrative framework, but also as a symbol in a larger political struggle over “wokeness,” equality, discrimination, and the role of public and private institutions in shaping social values.[23][8][9][10]

## Research, effectiveness, and differing views[edit | edit source]

Empirical research on DEI-related programs does not support a simple success-or-failure narrative. A major meta-analysis of diversity training found overall positive effects, especially in reactions to training and cognitive learning, while attitudinal and behavioral effects were smaller and often weakened over time. The same research found better outcomes when training was integrated with broader diversity efforts, lasted longer than a one-time session, and included both awareness and skills development. This suggests that the effectiveness of DEI training depends heavily on institutional context rather than on slogans or one-off workshops alone.[24]

A later systematic review of DEI and antiracism training studies likewise found wide variation in curriculum, objectives, and evaluation methods. The review reported that rigorous randomized designs were uncommon and that many studies measured short-term outcomes rather than durable changes in organizational behavior. Its authors concluded that future work should move beyond isolated awareness sessions and toward longitudinal designs, skill-building, and stronger evaluation of actual behavioral and institutional change. Those findings have been used both by supporters who favor better-designed DEI work and by critics who argue that the evidence base for common training practices remains thinner than public rhetoric suggests.[13]

Research has also documented one reason why DEI efforts can provoke backlash. Experimental work has found that some members of higher-status groups may interpret explicit pro-diversity messaging as a threat to their own standing or as a signal of possible unfairness toward them. This does not establish that such fears are correct, but it helps explain why institutional diversity language often produces sharply different reactions across groups. In public debate, these dynamics have contributed to a recurring argument over whether DEI is best understood as equal-opportunity administration, social engineering, or a mixture of both.[17][18]

## Political and legal disputes[edit | edit source]

In the United States, debate over DEI intensified after the racial protests of 2020 and became still sharper after the Supreme Court’s 2023 decision in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard and Students for Fair Admissions v. University of North Carolina, which struck down race-conscious admissions policies in higher education. Although those rulings concerned admissions under different legal provisions than most workplace DEI programs, they broadened scrutiny of identity-conscious institutional policies and accelerated new litigation, rule changes, and administrative review. Federal equal-employment law has continued to prohibit discrimination against individuals of any race or sex, including in hiring, promotion, training, mentoring, networking, and other terms or conditions of employment.[8]

Under President Donald Trump’s second administration, the federal government adopted an openly adversarial posture toward DEI as a governing framework. Executive actions in 2025 directed agencies to end federal DEI programs and framed many such initiatives as unlawful preferencing or discrimination. The administration also moved against DEI-related practices in schools and among federal contractors. At the same time, teachers’ unions, civil-rights groups, and some educational institutions challenged those measures in court, and federal judges blocked parts of the administration’s school-funding enforcement efforts in 2025.[8][23][10]

Outside government, the backlash also affected corporations and universities. Reuters reported in 2025 that major U.S. companies were scaling back, revising, or renaming DEI policies under pressure from the new administration and from conservative activists, while a Texas Tribune review of the same period described the conflict in education as a fundamental dispute over whether such programs correct discrimination or reproduce it in a new form. The controversy thus turned DEI from a largely managerial term into a broader political symbol, one used by supporters to describe fairness and institutional inclusion, and by critics to describe coercive identity politics or unlawful preferences.[23][9][25]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Affirmative action
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Critical race theory
* Equal employment opportunity
* Identity politics
* Inclusion (education)
* Radicalization of education
* Woke

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ a b c "EEOC History: The Law". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
2. ^ a b "Executive Orders Disposition Tables: Kennedy 1961". National Archives. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
3. ^ a b "Civil Rights Act (1964)". National Archives. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
4. ^ a b "Executive Order No. 11246". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on 22 January 2026. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
5. ^ "Bending Toward Justice: 60 Years of Civil Rights Laws Protecting Workers in America". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on 17 February 2026. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
6. ^ "Executive Order No. 11246". US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on 1 January 2026. Retrieved 4 April 2026.
7. ^ "Women's Rights and the Civil Rights Act of 1964". National Archives. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
8. ^ a b c d e f "What You Should Know About DEI-Related Discrimination at Work". U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on 2 April 2026. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
9. ^ a b c "US companies scale back and modify diversity policies after Trump's order". Reuters. 28 February 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
10. ^ a b c "US judges block Trump's ability to withhold school funds over DEI". Reuters. 24 April 2025. Archived from the original on 14 March 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
11. ^ a b c d Portocarrero, Sandra; Carter, James T. (2022). "Diversity initiatives in the US workplace: A brief history, their intended and unintended consequences". Sociology Compass. 16 (7): e13001. doi:10.1111/soc4.13001. Archived from the original on 2 May 2024. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
12. ^ a b c Kalev, Alexandra; Dobbin, Frank; Kelly, Erin (2006). "Best Practices or Best Guesses? Assessing the Efficacy of Corporate Affirmative Action and Diversity Policies" (PDF). American Sociological Review. 71 (4): 589–617. doi:10.1177/000312240607100404. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
13. ^ a b c d e f Wang, Monica L.; Gomes, Alexis; Rosa, Marielis; Copeland, Phillipe; Santana, Victor Jose (2024). "A systematic review of diversity, equity, and inclusion and antiracism training studies: Findings and future directions". Translational Behavioral Medicine. 14 (3): 156–171. doi:10.1093/tbm/ibad061. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
14. ^ "Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, and Accessibility in the Federal Workforce". Federal Register. 30 June 2021. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
15. ^ "Ending Illegal Discrimination and Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity". Federal Register. 31 January 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
16. ^ "Ending Illegal Discrimination and Restoring Merit-Based Opportunity". The White House. 21 January 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
17. ^ a b c "Despite DEI Backlash, Nearly 60% of US Workers Support Current DEI Policies". The Conference Board. 30 October 2024. Archived from the original on 11 November 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
18. ^ a b Dover, Tessa L.; Major, Brenda; Kaiser, Cheryl R. (2016). "Members of high-status groups are threatened by pro-diversity organizational messages". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 62: 58–67. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2015.10.006. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
19. ^ Zheng, Lily (1 December 2022). "The Failure of the DEI-Industrial Complex". Harvard Business Review. Archived from the original on 29 November 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
20. ^ a b Paulson, Ken (23 May 2024). "The Woke Movement and Backlash". The First Amendment Encyclopedia, Middle Tennessee State University. Archived from the original on 17 November 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
21. ^ a b "Woke Schooling: A Toolkit for Concerned Parents" (PDF). South Carolina Office of Inspector General. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
22. ^ Marshall, Karen (10 October 2024). "Parents should be able to opt out of woke schools". Fraser Institute. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 March 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
23. ^ a b c "Ending Radical And Wasteful Government DEI Programs And Preferencing". The White House. 20 January 2025. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
24. ^ Bezrukova, Katerina; Spell, Chester S.; Perry, Jamie L.; Jehn, Karen A. (2016). "A meta-analytical integration of over 40 years of research on diversity training evaluation". Psychological Bulletin. 142 (11): 1227–1274. doi:10.1037/bul0000067. PMID 27618543. Retrieved 6 April 2026.
25. ^ "Texas' school DEI bans spur clashing views on discrimination". The Texas Tribune. 24 March 2025. Archived from the original on 2 March 2026. Retrieved 6 April 2026.