Environmental movement

Movement for addressing environmental issues

See also: Environmentalism

File:Merge-arrows.svg

It has been suggested that this article be merged with Environmentalism. (Discuss) Proposed since October 2022.

|

File:StRolloxChemical 1831.jpg

Levels of air pollution rose during the Industrial Revolution, sparking the first modern environmental laws to be passed in the mid-19th century

Part of a series on

Green politics
Sunflower symbol

Core topics

* Green politics
* Green party
* List of topics

Four pillars

* Ecological wisdom
* Social justice
* Grassroots democracy
* Nonviolence

Perspectives

* Bright green environmentalism
* Deep ecology
* Ecoauthoritarianism
* Eco-capitalism
* Ecofascism
* Ecofeminism
* Eco-nationalism
* Eco-socialism
* Green anarchism
* Green conservatism
* Green left
* Green liberalism
* Green libertarianism
* Green Zionism
* Social ecology
* Queer ecology

Organizations

* Asia Pacific Greens Federation
* European Green Party
* Federation of Green Parties of Africa
* Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas
* Federation of Young European Greens
* Global Greens
* Global Young Greens

Related topics

* Carbon fee and dividend
* Carbon tax
* Circular economy
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate finance
* Climate justice
* Conservation movement
* Degrowth
* Ecocentrism
* Eco-investing
* Ecological economics
* Ecological modernization
* Ecomodernism
* Eco-tariff
* Ecotax
* Eco-terrorism
* Environmental issues
* Environmental finance
* Environmental justice
* Environmental movement
* Environmental planning
* Environmental pricing reform
* Environmental racism
* Environmental technology
* Environmentalism
* opposition
* Stewardship
* in music
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Green Alliance
* Green development
* Green economy
* Green growth
* Green Imperialism
* Green industrial policy
* Green infrastructure
* Green job
* Green New Deal
* Green recovery
* Green retrofit
* Green state
* Green theory
* Green transport hierarchy
* Green vehicle
* Greening
* Localism
* Low-carbon economy
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable design
* Sustainable development
* Sustainable energy
* Sustainable engineering
* Sustainable refurbishment
* Sustainable transport

* v
* t
* e

The environmental movement (sometimes referred to as the ecology movement), also including conservation and green politics, is a diverse philosophical, social, and political movement for addressing environmental issues. Environmentalists advocate the just and sustainable management of resources and stewardship of the environment through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in (not enemy of) ecosystems, the movement is centered on ecology, health, and human rights.

The environmental movement is an international movement, represented by a range of organizations, from enterprises to grassroots and varies from country to country. Due to its large membership, varying and strong beliefs, and occasionally speculative nature, the environmental movement is not always united in its goals. The movement also encompasses some other movements with a more specific focus, such as the climate movement. At its broadest, the movement includes private citizens, professionals, religious devotees, politicians, scientists, nonprofit organizations, and individual advocates.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 1.1 Early awareness
* 1.2 Conservation movement
* 1.3 Formation of environmental protection societies
* 1.4 20th century
* 2 21st century
* 3 United States
* 3.1 Timeline of US environmental history
* 4 Latin America
* 4.1 Brazil
* 5 Europe
* 6 Asia
* 6.1 Middle East
* 6.2 South Korea and Taiwan
* 6.3 China
* 6.4 India
* 6.5 Bangladesh
* 7 Africa
* 7.1 South Africa
* 8 Oceania
* 8.1 Australia
* 8.2 New Zealand
* 9 Scope of the movement
* 9.1 Primary focus points
* 10 Environmental law and theory
* 10.1 Property rights
* 10.2 Citizens' rights
* 10.3 Nature's rights
* 11 Environmental reactivism
* 12 Environmentalism today
* 13 Radical environmentalism
* 14 Criticisms
* 15 See also
* 16 References
* 17 Further reading

## History[edit | edit source]

### Early awareness[edit | edit source]

Early interest in the environment was a feature of the Romantic movement in the early 19th century. The poet William Wordsworth had travelled extensively in England's Lake District and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".[1]

The origins of the environmental movement lay in response to increasing levels of smoke pollution in the atmosphere during the Industrial Revolution. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in coal consumption gave rise to an unprecedented level of air pollution in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.[2] Under increasing political pressure from the urban middle-class, the first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's Alkali Acts, passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution (gaseous hydrochloric acid) given off by the Leblanc process, used to produce soda ash.[3]

### Conservation movement[edit | edit source]

Main article: Conservation movement

File:Sir William Schlich07.jpg

Students from the forestry school at Oxford, on a visit to the forests of Saxony in the year 1892

The modern conservation movement was first manifested in the forests of India, with the practical application of scientific conservation principles. The conservation ethic that began to evolve included three core principles: that the human activity damaged the environment, that there was a civic duty to maintain the environment for future generations, and that scientific, empirically based methods should be applied to ensure this duty was carried out. James Ranald Martin was prominent in promoting this ideology, publishing many medico-topographical reports that demonstrated the scale of damage wrought through large-scale deforestation and desiccation, and lobbying extensively for the institutionalization of forest conservation activities in British India through the establishment of Forest Departments.[4]

The Madras Board of Revenue started local conservation efforts in 1842, headed by Alexander Gibson, a professional botanist who systematically adopted a forest conservation programme based on scientific principles. This was the first case of state management of forests in the world.[5] Eventually, the government under Governor-General Lord Dalhousie introduced the first permanent and large-scale forest conservation programme in the world in 1855, a model that soon spread to other colonies, as well as the United States. In 1860, the Department banned the use of shifting cultivation.[6] Hugh Cleghorn's 1861 manual, The forests and gardens of South India, became the definitive work on the subject and was widely used by forest assistants in the subcontinent.[7][8]

Dietrich Brandis joined the British service in 1856 as superintendent of the teak forests of Pegu division in eastern Burma. During that time Burma's teak forests were controlled by militant Karen tribals. He introduced the "taungya" system,[9] in which Karen villagers provided labour for clearing, planting, and weeding teak plantations. He formulated new forest legislation and helped establish research and training institutions. The Imperial Forestry School at Dehradun was founded by him.[10][11]

### Formation of environmental protection societies[edit | edit source]

The late 19th century saw the formation of the first wildlife conservation societies. The zoologist Alfred Newton published a series of investigations into the Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the Plumage League (later the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds) in 1889.[12] The society acted as a protest group campaigning against the use of great crested grebe and kittiwake skins and feathers in fur clothing.[13] The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes,[12] and influenced the passage of the Sea Birds Preservation Act in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.[14][15]

For most of the century from 1850 to 1950, however, the primary environmental cause was the mitigation of air pollution. The Coal Smoke Abatement Society was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir William Blake Richmond, frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the Public Health Act 1875 required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke.

File:John Ruskin - Portrait - Project Gutenberg eText 17774.jpg

John Ruskin an influential thinker who articulated the Romantic ideal of environmental protection and conservation

Systematic and general efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to industrialization, the growth of cities, and worsening air and water pollution. Starting with the formation of the Commons Preservation Society in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. Robert Hunter, solicitor for the society, worked with Hardwicke Rawnsley, Octavia Hill, and John Ruskin to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoilt valleys of Newlands and Ennerdale. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).[16]

In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894.[17] The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation.[18] and the bill was passed in August 1907.[19]

File:Walden Thoreau.jpg

Original title page of Walden by Henry David Thoreau

An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as John Ruskin, William Morris, and Edward Carpenter, who were all against consumerism, pollution and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.[20] The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical Utopia and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it . . . we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables . . . we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it.[21]

Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the Morris dance and the maypole.[22]

The movement in the United States began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as John Muir and Henry David Thoreau making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book Walden, which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in Yosemite Valley and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form Yosemite National Park and went on to set up the Sierra Club in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism. However, the early movement in the U.S. developed with a contradiction; preservationists like John Muir wanted land and nature set aside for its own sake, and conservationists, such as Gifford Pinchot (appointed as the first Chief of the US Forest Service from 1905 to 1910), wanted to manage natural resources for human use.

### 20th century[edit | edit source]

In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were beginning to be made to save the wildlife, particularly the American bison. The death of the last passenger pigeon as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and popularize their concerns. In 1916, the National Park Service was founded by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson.[23] Pioneers of the movement called for more efficient and professional management of natural resources. They fought for reform because they believed the destruction of forests, fertile soil, minerals, wildlife, and water resources would lead to the downfall of society.[24] The group that has been the most active in recent years is the climate movement.

> "The conservation of natural resources is the fundamental problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail us little to solve all others".

Theodore Roosevelt (4 October 1907)[25]

The U.S movement began to take off after World War II, as people began to recognize the costs of environmental negligence, disease, and the expansion of air and water pollution through the occurrence of several environmental disasters that occurred post-World War II. Aldo Leopold published A Sand County Almanac in 1949. He believed in a land ethic that recognized that maintaining the "beauty, integrity, and health of natural systems" as a moral and ethical imperative.

Another major literary force in the promotion of the environmental movement was Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring about declining bird populations due to DDT, an insecticide, pollutant, and man's attempts to control nature through the use of synthetic substances. Her core message for her readers was to identify the complex and fragile ecosystem and the threats facing the population. In 1958, Carson started to work on her last book, with an idea that nature needs human protection. Her influence was radioactive fallout, smog, food additives, and pesticide use. Carson's main focus was on pesticides, which led her to identify nature as fragile and the use of technology dangerous to humans and other species.[26]

Both of these books helped bring the issues into the public eye[24] Rachel Carson's Silent Spring sold over two million copies[27] and is linked to a nationwide ban on DDT and the creation of the EPA.[28]

File:Earth Day 2007 at City College San Diego.JPG

Earth Day 2007 at City College, San Diego

Beginning in 1969 and continuing into the 1970s, Illinois-based environmental activist James F. Phillips engaged in numerous covert anti-pollution campaigns using the pseudonym "the Fox." His activities included plugging illegal sewage outfall pipes and dumping toxic wastewater produced by a US Steel factory inside the company's Chicago corporate office. Phillips' "ecotage" campaigns attracted considerable media attention and subsequently inspired other direct action protests against environmental destruction.

The first Earth Day was celebrated on 22 April 1970.[29] Its founder, former Wisconsin Senator Gaylord Nelson, was inspired to create this day of environmental education and awareness after seeing the oil spill off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969. Greenpeace was created in 1971 as an organization that believed that political advocacy and legislation were ineffective or inefficient solutions and supported non-violent action. 1980 saw the creation of Earth First!, a group with an ecocentric view of the world – believing in equality between the rights of humans to flourish, the rights of all other species to flourish and the rights of life-sustaining systems to flourish.[24]

In the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, several events illustrated the magnitude of environmental damage caused by humans. In 1954, a hydrogen bomb test at Bikini Atoll exposed the 23-man crew of the Japanese fishing vessel Lucky Dragon 5 to radioactive fallout. The incident is known as Castle Bravo, the largest thermonuclear device ever detonated by the United States and the first in a series of high-yield thermonuclear weapon design tests.[30] In 1967 the oil tanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off the coast of Cornwall, and in 1969 oil spilled from an offshore well in California's Santa Barbara Channel. In 1971, the conclusion of a lawsuit in Japan drew international attention to the effects of decades of mercury poisoning on the people of Minamata.[31]

At the same time, emerging scientific research drew new attention to existing and hypothetical threats to the environment and humanity. Among them were Paul R. Ehrlich, whose book The Population Bomb (1968) revived Malthusian concerns about the impact of exponential population growth. Biologist Barry Commoner generated a debate about growth, affluence and "flawed technology." Additionally, an association of scientists and political leaders known as the Club of Rome published their report The Limits to Growth in 1972, and drew attention to the growing pressure on natural resources from human activities.

Meanwhile, technological accomplishments such as nuclear proliferation and photos of the Earth from outer space provided both new insights and new reasons for concern over Earth's seemingly small and unique place in the universe.

In 1972, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was held in Stockholm, and for the first time united the representatives of multiple governments in discussion relating to the state of the global environment. This conference led directly to the creation of government environmental agencies and the UN Environment Program.

By the mid-1970s anti-nuclear activism had moved beyond local protests and politics to gain a wider appeal and influence. Although it lacked a single co-ordinating organization the anti-nuclear movement's efforts gained a great deal of attention, especially in the United Kingdom and United States.[32] In the aftermath of the Three Mile Island accident in 1979, many mass demonstrations took place. The largest one was held in New York City in September 1979 and involved 200,000 people.[33][34][35]

Since the 1970s, public awareness, environmental sciences, ecology, and technology have advanced to include modern focus points like ozone depletion, global climate change, acid rain, mutation breeding, genetically modified crops and genetically modified livestock. With mutation breeding, crop cultivars were created by exposing seeds to chemicals or radiation. Many of these cultivars are still being used today. Genetically modified plants and animals are said by some environmentalists to be inherently bad because they are unnatural. Others point out the possible benefits of GM crops such as water conservation through corn modified to be less "thirsty" and decreased pesticide use through insect – resistant crops. They also point out that some genetically modified livestock have accelerated growth which means there are shorter production cycles which again results in a more efficient use of feed.[36] Besides genetically modified crops and livestock, synthetic biology is also on the rise and environmentalists argue that these also contain risks, if these organisms were ever to end up in nature. This, as unlike with genetically modified organisms, synthetic biology even uses base pairs that do not exist in nature.[37]

## 21st century[edit | edit source]

In 2022, Global Witness reported that, in the preceding decade, more than 1,700 land and environmental defenders were killed, about one every two days.[38] Brazil, Colombia, Philippines, and Mexico were the deadliest countries.[38]

## United States[edit | edit source]

Main article: Environmental movement in the United States

Beginning in the conservation movement at the beginning of the 20th century, the contemporary environmental movement's roots can be traced back to Rachel Carson's 1962 book Silent Spring, Murray Bookchin's 1962 book Our Synthetic Environment, and Paul R. Ehrlich's 1968 The Population Bomb. American environmentalists have campaigned against nuclear weapons and nuclear power in the 1960s and 1970s, acid rain in the 1980s, ozone depletion and deforestation in the 1990s, and most recently climate change and global warming.

The United States passed many pieces of environmental legislation in the 1970s, such as the Clean Water Act, the Clean Air Act, the Endangered Species Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act. These remain as the foundations for current environmental standards.

### Timeline of US environmental history[edit | edit source]

* 1832 – Hot Springs Reservation
* 1864 – Yosemite Valley
* 1872 – Yellowstone National Park
* 1892 – Sierra Club
* 1916 – National Park Service Organic Act
* 1916 – National Audubon Society[24]
* 1949 – UN Scientific Conference on the Conservation and Utilization of Resources
* 1961 – World Wildlife Foundation[39]
* 1964 – Land and Water Conservation Act
* 1964 – National Wilderness Preservation System
* 1968 – National Trails System Act
* 1968 – National Wild and Scenic Rivers System/Wild and Scenic Rivers Act[24]
* 1969 – National Environmental Policy Act
* 1970 – First Earth Day- 22 April
* 1970 – Clean Air Act
* 1970 – Environmental Protection Agency[39]
* 1971 – Greenpeace
* 1972 – Clean Water Act
* 1973 – Endangered Species Act
* 1980 – Earth First![24]
* 1992 – UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro[39]
* 1997 – Kyoto Protocol commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas emissions[40]
* 2017 – First National CleanUp Day

## Latin America[edit | edit source]

After the International Environmental Conference in Stockholm in 1972 Latin American officials returned with a high hope of growth and protection of the fairly untouched natural resources. Governments spent millions of dollars, and created departments and pollution standards. However, the outcomes have not always been what officials had initially hoped. Activists blame this on growing urban populations and industrial growth. Many Latin American countries have had a large inflow of immigrants that are living in substandard housing. Enforcement of the pollution standards is lax and penalties are minimal; in Venezuela, the largest penalty for violating an environmental law is 50,000 bolivar fine ($3,400) and 3 days in jail. In the 1970s or 1980s, many Latin American countries were transitioning from military dictatorships to democratic governments.[41]

### Brazil[edit | edit source]

See also: Environmental issues in Brazil § Solutions and policies

In 1992, Brazil came under scrutiny with the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has a history of little environmental awareness. It has the highest biodiversity in the world and also the highest amount of habitat destruction. One-third of the world's forests lie in Brazil. It is home to the largest river, The Amazon, and the largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. People have raised funds to create state parks and increase the consciousness of people who have destroyed forests and polluted waterways. It is home to several organizations that have fronted the environmental movement. The Blue Wave Foundation was created in 1989 and has partnered with advertising companies to promote national education campaigns to keep Brazil's beaches clean. Funatura was created in 1986 and is a wildlife sanctuary program. Pro-Natura International is a private environmental organization created in 1986.[42]

## Europe[edit | edit source]

See also: Environmental movement in Switzerland and Environmental direct action in the United Kingdom

In 1952 the Great London Smog episode killed thousands of people and led the UK to create the first Clean Air Act in 1956. In 1957 the first major nuclear accident occurred in Windscale in northern England. The supertanker Torrey Canyon ran aground off the coast of Cornwall in 1967, causing the first major oil leak that killed marine life along the coast. In 1972, in Stockholm, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment created the UN Environment Programme. The EU's environmental policy was formally founded by a European Council declaration and the first five-year environment programme was adopted. The main idea of the declaration was that prevention is better than the cure and the polluter should pay.

In the 1980s the green parties that were created a decade before began to have some political success. In 1986, there was a nuclear accident in Chernobyl, Ukraine. A large-scale environmental campaign was staged in Ukraine in 1986. The end of the 1980s and start of the 1990s saw the fall of communism across central and Eastern Europe, the fall of the Berlin Wall, and the Union of East and West Germany. In 1992 there was a UN summit held in Rio de Janeiro where Agenda 21 was adopted. The Kyoto Protocol was created in 1997, setting specific targets and deadlines to reduce global greenhouse gas emissions. The Kyoto Protocol has 192 signatories, including the European Union, Cook Islands, Niue, and all UN member states except Andorra, Canada, South Sudan, and the United States. In the early 2000s, activists believed that environmental policy concerns were overshadowed by energy security, globalism, and terrorism.[43]

## Asia[edit | edit source]

### Middle East[edit | edit source]

The environmental movement is reaching the less developed world with different degrees of success. The Arab world, including the Middle East and North Africa, has different adaptations of the environmental movement. Countries on the Persian Gulf have high incomes and rely heavily on the large amount of energy resources in the area. Each country in the Arab world has varying combinations of low or high amounts of natural resources and low or high amounts of labor.

The League of Arab States has one specialized sub-committee, of 12 standing specialized subcommittees in the Foreign Affairs Ministerial Committees, which deals with Environmental Issues. Countries in the League of Arab States have demonstrated an interest in environmental issues, on paper some environmental activists have doubts about the level of commitment to environmental issues; being a part of the world community may have obliged these countries to portray concern for the environment. The initial level of environmental awareness may be the creation of a ministry of the environment. The year of establishment of a ministry is also indicative of the level of engagement. Saudi Arabia was the first to establish environmental law in 1992 followed by Egypt in 1994. Somalia is the only country without environmental law. In 2010 the Environmental Performance Index listed Algeria as the top Arab country at 42 of 163; Morocco was at 52 and Syria at 56. The Environmental Performance Index measures the ability of a country to actively manage and protect its environment and the health of its citizens. A weighted index is created by giving 50% weight for environmental health objective (health) and 50% for ecosystem vitality (ecosystem); values range from 0–100. No Arab countries were in the top quartile, and 7 countries were in the lowest quartile.[44]

### South Korea and Taiwan[edit | edit source]

South Korea and Taiwan experienced similar growth in industrialization from 1965 to 1990 with few environmental controls.[45] South Korea's Han River and Nakdong River were so polluted by unchecked dumping of industrial waste that they were close to being classified as biologically dead. Taiwan's formula for balanced growth was to prevent industrial concentration and encourage manufacturers to set up in the countryside. This led to 20% of the farmland being polluted by industrial waste and 30% of the rice grown on the island was contaminated with heavy metals. Both countries had spontaneous environmental movements drawing participants from different classes. Their demands were linked with issues of employment, occupational health, and agricultural crisis. They were also quite militant; the people learned that protesting can bring results. The polluting factories were forced to make immediate improvements to the conditions or pay compensation to victims. Some were even forced to shut down or move locations. The people were able to force the government to come out with new restrictive rules on toxins, industrial waste, and air pollution. All of these new regulations caused the migration of those polluting industries from Taiwan and South Korea to China and other countries in Southeast Asia with more relaxed environmental laws.

### China[edit | edit source]

Further information: Environmental activism in China

China's environmental movement is characterized by the rise of environmental NGOs, policy advocacy, spontaneous alliances, and protests that often only occur at the local level.[46] Environmental protests in China are increasingly expanding their scope of concerns, calling for broader participation "in the name of the public."[47]

The Chinese have realized the ability of riots and protests to have success and had led to an increase in disputes in China by 30% since 2005 to more than 50,000 events. Protests cover topics such as environmental issues, land loss, income, and political issues. They have also grown in size from about 10 people or fewer in the mid-1990s to 52 people per incident in 2004. China has more relaxed environmental laws than other countries in Asia, so many polluting factories have relocated to China, causing pollution in China.

Water pollution, water scarcity, soil pollution, soil degradation, and desertification are issues currently in discussion in China. The groundwater table of the North China Plain is dropping by 1.5 m (5 ft) per year. This groundwater table occurs in the region of China that produces 40% of the country's grain.[48][49] The Center for Legal Assistance to Pollution Victims works to confront legal issues associated with environmental justice by hearing court cases that expose the narratives of victims of environmental pollution.[50][page needed] As China continues domestic economic reforms and integration into global markets, there emerge new linkages between China's domestic environmental degradation and global ecological crisis.[51]

Comparing the experience of China, South Korea, Japan and Taiwan reveals that the impact of environmental activism is heavily modified by domestic political context, particularly the level of integration of mass-based protests and policy advocacy NGOs. Hinted by the history of neighboring Japan and South Korea, the possible convergence of NGOs and anti-pollution protests will have significant implications for Chinese environmental politics in the coming years.[52]

### India[edit | edit source]

Further information: Environmental movement in India

Environmental and public health is an ongoing struggle within India. The first seed of an environmental movement in India was the foundation in 1964 of Dasholi Gram Swarajya Sangh, a labour cooperative started by Chandi Prasad Bhatt. It was inaugurated by Sucheta Kriplani and founded on land donated by Shyma Devi. This initiative was eventually followed up with the Chipko movement starting in 1974.

The most severe single event underpinning the movement was the Bhopal gas leakage on 3 December 1984.[53] 40 tons of methyl isocyanate was released, immediately killing 2,259 people and ultimately affecting 700,000 citizens.

India has a national campaign against Coca-Cola and Pepsi Cola plants due to their practices of drawing groundwater and contaminating fields with sludge. The movement is characterized by local struggles against intensive aquaculture farms. The most influential part of the environmental movement in India is the anti-dam movement. Dam creation has been thought of as a way for India to catch up with the West by connecting to the power grid with giant dams, coal or oil-powered plants, or nuclear plants. Jhola Aandolan a mass movement is conducting as fighting against polyethylene carry bags uses and promoting cloth/jute/paper carry bags to protect the environment and nature. Activists in the Indian environmental movement consider global warming, sea levels rising, and glaciers retreating decreasing the amount of water flowing into streams to be the biggest challenges for them to face in the early twenty-first century.[48] Eco Revolution movement has been started by Eco Needs Foundation[54] in 2008 from Aurangabad Maharashtra that seeks the participation of children, youth, researchers, spiritual and political leaders to organise awareness programmes and conferences. Child activists against air pollution in India and greenhouse gas emissions by India include Licypriya Kangujam.

### Bangladesh[edit | edit source]

Mithun Roy Chowdhury, President, Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW), Bangladesh, insisted that the people of Bangladesh raise their voice against Tipaimukh Dam, being constructed by the Government of India. He said the Tipaimukh Dam project will be another "death trap for Bangladesh like the Farakka Barrage," which would lead to an environmental disaster for 50 million people in the Meghna River basin. He said that this project will start desertification in Bangladesh.[55][56][57][58]

## Africa[edit | edit source]

### South Africa[edit | edit source]

Main article: Environmental movement in South Africa

## Oceania[edit | edit source]

### Australia[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Environmental movement in Australia.[edit]

File:Bob Brown at 2008 climate change rally DSC 6368.JPG

A climate change rally in Melbourne on 5 July 2008

Beginning as a conservation movement, the environmental movement in Australia was the first in the world to become a political movement. Australia is home to United Tasmania Group, the world's first green party.[59]

The environmental movement is represented by a wide range of groups sometimes called non-governmental organizations (NGOs). These exist on local, national, and international scales. Environmental NGOs vary widely in political views and in the amount they seek to influence environmental policy in Australia and elsewhere. The environmental movement today consists of both large national groups and also many smaller local groups with local concerns. There are also 5,000 Landcare groups in the six states and two mainland territories. Other environmental issues within the scope of the movement include climate change and opposition to nuclear activities.

In Australia, the movement has seen a growth in popularity through prominent Australian environmentalists such as Bob Brown, Peter Garrett, Steve Irwin, Tim Flannery, and David Fleay.

### New Zealand[edit | edit source]

This section is an excerpt from Environmental movement in New Zealand.[edit]

File:GE-free march Auckland 2003.JPG

Part of a protest march held in 2003 voicing opposition to genetic engineering, making its way up Queen St, a main thoroughfare of Auckland

The environmental movement in New Zealand started in the 1950s, a period of rapid social change. Since then numerous high-profile national campaigns have contested various environmental issues. The environmental movement eventually spawned the Values Party, which was the first political party with a strong focus on environmental issues to contest national elections. The Values Party eventually morphed into the Green Party of Aotearoa New Zealand.

## Scope of the movement[edit | edit source]

File:Air pollution by industrial chimneys.jpg

Before flue-gas desulfurization was installed, the air-polluting emissions from this power plant in New Mexico contained excessive amounts of sulfur dioxide

Environmental science is the study of the interactions among the physical, chemical, and biological components of the environment.

* Ecology, or ecological science, is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of living organisms and how these properties are affected by interactions between the organisms and their environment.

### Primary focus points[edit | edit source]

The environmental movement is broad in scope and can include any topic related to the environment, conservation, and biology, as well as the preservation of landscapes, flora, and fauna for a variety of purposes and uses. See List of environmental issues. When an act of violence is committed against someone or some institution in the name of environmental defense it is referred to as eco-terrorism.

* The conservation movement seeks to protect natural areas for sustainable consumption, as well as traditional (hunting, fishing, trapping) and spiritual use.
* Environmental conservation is the process in which one is involved in conserving the natural aspects of the environment. Whether through reforestation, recycling, or pollution control, environmental conservation sustains the natural quality of life.
* Environmental health movement dates at least to Progressive Era, and focuses on urban standards like clean water, efficient sewage handling, and stable population growth. Environmental health could also deal with nutrition, preventive medicine, aging, and other concerns specific to human well-being. Environmental health is also seen as an indicator for the state of the environment, or an early warning system for what may happen to humans
* Environmental justice is a movement that began in the U.S. in the 1980s and seeks an end to environmental racism and to prevent low-income and minority communities from an unbalanced exposure to highways, garbage dumps, and factories. The Environmental Justice movement seeks to link "social" and "ecological" environmental concerns, while at the same time preventing de facto racism, and classism. This makes it particularly adequate for the construction of labor-environmental alliances.[60]
* Ecology movement could involve the Gaia Theory, as well as Value of Earth and other interactions between humans, science, and responsibility.
* Bright green environmentalism is a currently popular sub-movement, which emphasizes the idea that through technology, good design and more thoughtful use of energy and resources, people can live responsible, sustainable lives while enjoying prosperity.
* Light green, and dark green environmentalism[61][62] are yet other sub-movements, respectively distinguished by seeing environmentalism as a lifestyle choice (light greens), and promoting reduction in human numbers and/or a relinquishment of technology (dark greens)
* Deep Ecology is an ideological spinoff of the ecology movement that views the diversity and integrity of the planetary ecosystem, in and for itself, as its primary value.
* The anti-nuclear movement opposes the use of various nuclear technologies. The initial anti-nuclear objective was nuclear disarmament and later the focus began to shift to other issues, mainly opposition to the use of nuclear power. There have been many large anti-nuclear demonstrations and protests. Major anti-nuclear groups include Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Friends of the Earth, Greenpeace, International Physicians for the Prevention of Nuclear War, and the Nuclear Information and Resource Service.
* The pro-nuclear movement consists of people, including former opponents of nuclear energy, who calculate that the threat to humanity from climate change is far worse than any risk associated with nuclear energy.

## Environmental law and theory[edit | edit source]

### Property rights[edit | edit source]

Many environmental lawsuits question the legal rights of property owners, and whether the general public has a right to intervene with detrimental practices occurring on someone else's land. Environmental law organizations exist all across the world, such as the Environmental Law and Policy Center in the midwestern United States.

### Citizens' rights[edit | edit source]

One of the earliest lawsuits to establish that citizens may sue for environmental and aesthetic harms was Scenic Hudson Preservation Conference v. Federal Power Commission, decided in 1965 by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals. The case helped halt the construction of a power plant on Storm King Mountain in New York State. See also United States environmental law and David Sive, an attorney who was involved in the case.

### Nature's rights[edit | edit source]

Main article: Rights of nature

Christopher D. Stone's 1972 essay, "Should trees have standing?" addressed the question of whether natural objects themselves should have legal rights. In the essay, Stone suggests that his argument is valid because many current rightsholders (women, children) were once seen as objects.

## Environmental reactivism[edit | edit source]

Numerous criticisms and ethical ambiguities have led to growing concerns about technology, including the use of potentially harmful pesticides, water additives like fluoride, and the extremely dangerous ethanol-processing plants.[citation needed]

When residents living near proposed developments organize opposition they are sometimes called "NIMBYS", short for "not in my back yard".[63]

## Environmentalism today[edit | edit source]

File:BlueMarble-2001-2002.jpg

Composite images of Earth generated by NASA in 2001 (left) and 2002 (right)

Today, the sciences of ecology and environmental science, in addition to any aesthetic goals, provide the basis of unity to some of the serious environmentalists. As more information is gathered in scientific fields, more scientific issues like biodiversity, as opposed to mere aesthetics, are a concern to environmentalists. Conservation biology is a rapidly developing field.

In recent years, the environmental movement has increasingly focused on global warming as one of the top issues. As concerns about climate change moved more into the mainstream, from the connections drawn between global warming and Hurricane Katrina to Al Gore's 2006 documentary film An Inconvenient Truth, more and more environmental groups refocused their efforts. In the United States, 2007 witnessed the largest grassroots environmental demonstration in years, Step It Up 2007, with rallies in over 1,400 communities and all 50 states for real global warming solutions.[citation needed]

Publicity and widespread organising of school strike for the climate began after Swedish schoolgirl Greta Thunberg staged a protest in August 2018 outside the Swedish Riksdag (parliament). The September 2019 climate strikes were likely the largest climate strikes in world history.[64]

In 2019, a survey found that climate breakdown is viewed as the most important issue facing the world in seven out of the eight countries surveyed.[65]

Many religious organizations and individual churches now have programs and activities dedicated to environmental issues.[66] The religious movement is often supported by interpretation of scriptures.[67] Most major religious groups are represented including Jewish, Islamic, Anglican, Orthodox, Evangelical, Zoroastrian, Christian and Catholic.[68]

## Radical environmentalism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Radical environmentalism

Radical environmentalism emerged from an ecocentrism-based frustration with the co-option of mainstream environmentalism. The radical environmental movement aspires to what scholar Christopher Manes calls "a new kind of environmental activism: iconoclastic, uncompromising, discontented with traditional conservation policy, at times illegal ..." Radical environmentalism presupposes a need to reconsider Western ideas of religion and philosophy (including capitalism, patriarchy[69] and globalization)[70] sometimes through "resacralising" and reconnecting with nature.[69][71] Greenpeace represents an organization with a radical approach, but has contributed in serious ways towards understanding of critical issues, and has a science-oriented core with radicalism as a means to media exposure. Groups like Earth First! take a much more radical posture. Some radical environmentalist groups, like Earth First! and the Earth Liberation Front, illegally sabotage or destroy infrastructural capital.

## Criticisms[edit | edit source]

See also: Environmental skepticism, Anti-environmentalism, and Criticism of the environmental movement in the United States

Conservative critics of the movement characterize it as radical and misguided. Especially critics of the United States Endangered Species Act, which has come under scrutiny lately,[when?] and the Clean Air Act, which they said conflict with private property rights, corporate profits and the nation's overall economic growth. Critics also challenge the scientific evidence for global warming. They argue that the environmental movement has diverted attention from more pressing issues.[24] Western environmental activists have also been criticized for performative activism, eco-colonialism, and enacting white savior tropes, especially celebrities who promote conservation in developing countries.[72][73]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* AI and Environment
* Anti-consumerism
* Chemical Leasing
* Carbon Neutrality
* Car-free movement
* Earth Science
* Earth Strike
* Eco-anarchism
* Eco-socialism
* Ecofascism
* Ecological economics
* Ecological modernization
* Ecopsychology
* Environmental justice
* Environmental philosophy
* Environmental organizations
* Family planning
* Free-market environmentalism
* Green anarchism
* Green movement
* Green seniors
* Green syndicalism
* Holistic management
* National Cleanup Day
* Natural environment
* Political ecology
* Positive environmentalism
* Sexecology
* Social ecology
* Substitute good
* Sustainability
* Sustainability and systemic change resistance
* Technogaianism
* Timeline of environmental events
* Voluntary Human Extinction Movement
* List of women climate scientists and activists

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ Wordsworth, William (1835). A guide through the district of the lakes in the north of England with a description of the scenery, &c. for the use of tourists and residents (5th ed.). Kendal, England: Hudson and Nicholson. p. 88. "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy."
2. ^ Fleming, James R.; Bethany R. Knorr. "History of the Clean Air Act". American Meteorological Society. Archived from the original on 10 June 2011. Retrieved 14 February 2006.
3. ^ "Climate Change First Became News 30 Years Ago. Why Haven't We Fixed It?". Magazine. 21 June 2018. Archived from the original on 14 January 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2019.
4. ^ Stebbing, E.P (1922). The Forests of India. Vol. 1\. pp. 72–81. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
5. ^ Barton, Greg (2002). Empire Forestry and the Origins of Environmentalism. Cambridge University Press. p. 48\. ISBN 9781139434607. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
6. ^ MUTHIAH, S. (5 November 2007). "A life for forestry". The Hindu. Chennai, India. Archived from the original on 8 November 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
7. ^ Cleghorn, Hugh Francis Clarke (1861). The Forests and Gardens of South India (Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized 10 February 2006 ed.). London: W. H. Allen. OCLC 301345427. Archived from the original on 15 March 2020. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
8. ^ Oliver, J.W. (1901). "Forestry in India". The Indian Forester. Vol. v.27 (Original from Harvard University, Digitized 4 April 2008 ed.). Allahabad: R. P. Sharma, Business Manager, Indian Forester. pp. 617–623. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
9. ^ King, KFS (1968). Agro-silviculture (the taungya system). Vol. Bulletin no. 1. University of Ibadan / Dept. of Forestry. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
10. ^ Weil, Benjamin (2006). "Conservation, Exploitation, and Cultural Change in the Indian Forest Service, 1875–1927". Environmental History. 11 (2): 319–343. doi:10.1093/envhis/11.2.319. JSTOR 3986234.
11. ^ Gadgil, Madhav; Guha, Ramachandra (1993). This Fissured Land: An Ecological History of India. ISBN 9780520082960. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 6 June 2020.
12. ^ a b "Milestones". RSPB. Archived from the original on 23 May 2010. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
13. ^ "History of the RSPB". RSPB. Archived from the original on 26 January 2007. Retrieved 19 February 2007.
14. ^ G. Baeyens, M. L. Martinez (2007). Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation. Springer. p. 282.
15. ^ Makel, Jo (2 February 2011). "Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 May 2019. Retrieved 16 December 2013.
16. ^ "Canon Hardwicke Drummond Rawnsley" Archived 6 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Visitcumbria.com. Retrieved 17 May 2009
17. ^ "A Proposed National Trust", The Times, 17 July 1894, p. 12
18. ^ "Parliamentary Committees", The Times, 26 July 1907. p. 4
19. ^ "An Act to incorporate and confer powers upon the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" Archived 2 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine, The National Trust. Retrieved 4 June 2012
20. ^ Gould, Peter C. (1988). Early Green Politics, Brighton, Harvester Press, pgs. 15–19, and Wall, Derek, (1994) Green History: A Reader. London, Routledge, pgs. 9–14.
21. ^ Marsh, Jan (1982). Back to the Land: The Pastoral Impulse in England, 1880–1914. Quartet Books. ISBN 9780704322769.
22. ^ "'Back to nature' movement nothing new – dates back to 1880". The Christian Science Monitor. 15 December 1983. Archived from the original on 16 December 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
23. ^ "National Parks 101". Travel Channel. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 9 June 2020.
24. ^ a b c d e f g Chapman, Roger (2010). Culture wars: an encyclopedia of issues, viewpoints, and voices. M.E. Sharpe, Inc. pp. 162. ISBN 978-0-7656-1761-3.
25. ^ Theodore Roosevelt, Address to the Deep Waterway Convention. Memphis, TN, 4 October 1907
26. ^ Hunt, Michael H. (2004). The World Transformed: 1945 to the present. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 215–217. ISBN 9780199371020.
27. ^ Griswold, Eliza (21 September 2012). "How 'Silent Spring' Ignited the Environmental Movement". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2013.
28. ^ Eschner, Kat. "Rachel Carson Wrote Silent Spring (Partly) Because of the Author of Stuart Little". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
29. ^ "The first Earth Day". HISTORY. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
30. ^ Rowberry, Ariana (27 February 2014). "Castle Bravo: The Largest U.S. Nuclear Explosion". Brookings. Archived from the original on 15 November 2019. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
31. ^ Most of the information in this section comes from John McCormick, The Global Environmental Movement, London: John Wiley, 1995.
32. ^ Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 10–11.
33. ^ Hrebenar, Ronald J.; Scott, Ruth K. (16 August 1997). Interest Group Politics in America. M.E. Sharpe. p. 149. ISBN 9781563247033. Retrieved 16 August 2018 - via Internet Archive. "nevada test site protest demonstration."
34. ^ Giugni, Marco (16 August 2018). Social Protest and Policy Change: Ecology, Antinuclear, and Peace Movements in Comparative Perspective. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 45\. ISBN 9780742518278. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 16 August 2018 - via Google Books.
35. ^ Herman, Robin (24 September 1979). "Nearly 200,000 Rally to Protest Nuclear Energy". The New York Times. p. B1.
36. ^ Rincon, Paul (25 February 2015). "Is the world ready for GM animals?". BBC. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
37. ^ "FUTURE BRIEF : Synthetic biology and biodiversity" (PDF). European Commission. September 2016. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 16 August 2018.
38. ^ a b "A deadly decade for land and environmental activists - with a killing every two days". Global Witness. 29 September 2022. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022.
39. ^ a b c Elkington, John (2007). Environmental Movement: The A to Z of Corporate Social Responsibility. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
40. ^ Research, CNN Editorial (26 July 2013). "Kyoto Protocol Fast Facts". CNN. Archived from the original on 7 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
41. ^ Figdor, Carrie (24 July 1988). "Latin America's Environmental Movement Seen as Well-Meaning but Inadequate". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
42. ^ Brooke, Elizabeth Heilman (2 June 1992). "As Forests Fall, Environmental Movement Rises in Brazil". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 May 2013. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
43. ^ "Celebrating Europe and its environment". European Environment Agency. Archived from the original on 24 February 2013. Retrieved 21 February 2013.
44. ^ Djoundourian, Salpie (1 August 2011). "Environmental movement in the Arab world". Environment, Development and Sustainability. 13 (4): 743–758. doi:10.1007/s10668-011-9287-7. S2CID 153447715.
45. ^ Wu and Wen (2015). Nongovernmental organizations and environmental protests: Impacts in East Asia (chapter 7 of Routledge Handbook of Environment and Society in Asia). London: Routledge. pp. 105–119. ISBN 978-0-415-65985-7.
46. ^ Fengshi Wu (2009). "Environmental Activism and Civil Society Development in China: 15 Years in Review" (PDF). Harvard-Yenching Institute Working Paper Series. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
47. ^ Christoph Steinhardt; Fengshi Wu (2016). "In the Name of the Public: Environmental Protest and the Changing Landscape of Popular Contention in China". The China Journal. 75: 61–82. doi:10.1086/684010. S2CID 102491027.
48. ^ a b Bello, Walden (12 October 2007). "The Environmental Movement in the Global South". Transnational Institute. Archived from the original on 5 June 2013. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
49. ^ Guha, Ramachandra. The Last Liberal. Permanent Black. pp. 27–28.
50. ^ Yang, Guobin (2005). "Environmental NGOs and Institutional Dynamics in China". The China Quarterly. 181: 44–66. doi:10.1017/S0305741005000032. S2CID 15522940. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2018.
51. ^ {Fengshi Wu and Richard Edmonds. (2017). "Environmental degradation in China", Chapter 7 in Czes Tubilewicz (ed) Critical Issues in Contemporary China: Unity, Stability and Development (London and New York: Routledge), pp. 105–119.}
52. ^ {Fengshi Wu and Wen Bo (2014) "Nongovernmental Organizations and Environmental Protest: Impacts in East Asia," in Graeme Lang and Paul Harris ed. Routledge Handbook of Environment and Society in Asia: pp. 105–119 (London and New York: Routledge)}
53. ^ Taylor, Alan. "Bhopal: The World's Worst Industrial Disaster, 30 Years Later - The Atlantic". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
54. ^ "Welcome to Eco Needs Foundation". Econeeds.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 2 July 2017.
55. ^ "Protest against the Tipaimukh Dam by Save Nature & Wildlife (SNW), Bangladesh". Newstoday.com.bd. Archived from the original on 5 December 2020. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
56. ^ "Long march against Tipai dam begins". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 2 September 2016.
57. ^ "Protest against Tipaimukh dam". Thefinancialexpress-bd.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2016. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
58. ^ "Protest tipai Dam". Kalerkantho.com. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 17 March 2013.
59. ^ "History". Australian Greens. May 2010. Archived from the original on 11 March 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
60. ^ Jakopovich, Dan. "Uniting to Win: Labor-Environmental Alliances". `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
61. ^ Troster, Rabbi Lawrence (15 January 2013). "Dark Green Environmentalism: On Tu Bishvat, Jews Must Move Beyond 'Light' Activism". HuffPost. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
62. ^ Chris Jensen (4 April 2009). "Dark Green and Bright Green Environmentalism – Green Future Solutions". Greenfuture.sg. Archived from the original on 27 May 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2014.
63. ^ "Definition of Nimby". Macmillan Dictionary. Retrieved 17 July 2015.
64. ^ Barclay, Eliza (20 September 2019). "How big was the global climate strike? 4 million people, activists estimate". Vox. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
65. ^ Taylor, Matthew (18 September 2019). "Climate crisis seen as 'most important issue' by public, poll shows". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 4 December 2019. Retrieved 3 December 2019.
66. ^ List of (incomplete) religious environmental organizations. Archived 27 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
67. ^ "EEN". Creationcare.org. 24 November 2002. Archived from the original on 24 November 2002.
68. ^ "Archived copy". cia.gov. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 25 February 2019.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
69. ^ a b Manes, Christopher, 1990. Green Rage: Radical Environmentalism and the Unmaking of Civilization, Boston: Little, Brown and Co.
70. ^ A Brief Description of Radical Environmentalism Archived 14 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine, Jeff Luers, 4 Struggle Magazine, 26 September 2005.
71. ^ Milstein, T. & Castro-Sotomayor, J. (2020). Routledge Handbook of Ecocultural Identity. London, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351068840
72. ^ Abidin, Crystal; Brockington, Dan; Goodman, Michael K.; Mostafanezhad, Mary; Richey, Lisa Ann (17 October 2020). "The Tropes of Celebrity Environmentalism". Annual Review of Environment and Resources. 45 (1): 387–410. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-012320-081703. ISSN 1543-5938.
73. ^ Dillon, Nina M. (1991). "The Feasibility of Debt-For-Nature Swaps". North Carolina Journal of International Law and Commercial Regulation. 16: 127. Retrieved 28 August 2022.

## Further reading[edit | edit source]

* Guha, Ramachandra. 1999. Environmentalism: A Global History, London, Longman.
* Hawken, Paul. 2007. Blessed Unrest, Penguin.
* Kamieniecki, Sheldon, ed. 1993. Environmental Politics in the International Arena: Movements, Parties, Organizations, and Policy, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-1664-X
* Kline, Benjamin. First Along the River: A brief history of the U.S. environmental movement (4th ed. 2011)
* McCormick, John. 1995. The Global Environmental Movement, London: John Wiley.
* Shabecoff, Philip. 2003. A Fierce Green Fire: The American Environmental Movement, Island Press; Revised Edition, ISBN 1-55963-437-5
* de Steiguer, Joseph E. (2006). The origins of modern environmental thought. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-2461-7. OCLC 64486430.
* Wapner, Paul. 1996. Environmental Activism and World Civil Politics, Albany: State University of New York, ISBN 0-7914-2790-0

* v
* t
* e

Green politics

Core topics|

* Green politics
* Green party
* List of topics

Four pillars|

* Ecological wisdom
* Social justice
* Grassroots democracy
* Nonviolence

Perspectives|

* Bright green environmentalism
* Deep ecology
* Ecoauthoritarianism
* Eco-capitalism
* Ecofascism
* Ecofeminism
* Eco-nationalism
* Eco-socialism
* Green anarchism
* Green conservatism
* Green left
* Green liberalism
* Green libertarianism
* Green Zionism
* Social ecology
* Queer ecology

Organizations|

* Asia Pacific Greens Federation
* European Green Party
* Federation of Green Parties of Africa
* Federation of the Green Parties of the Americas
* Federation of Young European Greens
* Global Greens
* Global Young Greens

Related topics|

* Carbon fee and dividend
* Carbon tax
* Circular economy
* Climate change mitigation
* Climate finance
* Climate justice
* Conservation movement
* Degrowth
* Ecocentrism
* Eco-investing
* Ecological economics
* Ecological modernization
* Ecomodernism
* Eco-tariff
* Ecotax
* Eco-terrorism
* Environmental issues
* Environmental finance
* Environmental justice
* Environmental movement
* Environmental planning
* Environmental pricing reform
* Environmental racism
* Environmental technology
* Environmentalism
* opposition
* Stewardship
* in music
* Fossil fuel phase-out
* Green Alliance
* Green development
* Green economy
* Green growth
* Green Imperialism
* Green industrial policy
* Green infrastructure
* Green job
* Green New Deal
* Green recovery
* Green retrofit
* Green state
* Green theory
* Green transport hierarchy
* Green vehicle
* Greening
* Localism
* Low-carbon economy
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable design
* Sustainable development
* Sustainable energy
* Sustainable engineering
* Sustainable refurbishment
* Sustainable transport

* v
* t
* e

Simple living

Practices|

* Barter
* Cord-cutting
* DIY ethic
* Downshifting
* Dry toilet
* Fasting
* Forest gardening
* Freeganism
* Frugality
* Gift economy
* Intentional community
* Local currency
* Low-impact development
* No frills
* Off-the-grid
* Permaculture
* Regift
* Sattvic diet
* Self-sufficiency
* Subsistence agriculture
* Sustainable living
* Sustainable sanitation
* Veganism
* Vegetarianism
* War tax resistance
* WWOOF

Religious and spiritual|

* Amish
* Aparigraha
* Asceticism
* Cynicism
* Detachment
* Distributism
* Jesus movement
* Mendicant
* Mindfulness
* Monasticism
* New Monasticism
* Plain dress
* Plain people
* Quakers
* Rastafari
* Temperance
* Testimony of simplicity
* Tolstoyan movement
* Twelve Tribes communities

Secular movements|

* Back-to-the-land
* Car-free
* Environmental
* Hippie
* Open Source Ecology
* Slow
* Small house
* Tiny house
* Transition town

Notable writers|

* Wendell Berry
* Ernest Callenbach
* G. K. Chesterton
* Duane Elgin
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Richard Gregg
* Tom Hodgkinson
* Harlan Hubbard
* Satish Kumar
* Helen Nearing
* Scott Nearing
* Peace Pilgrim
* Nick Rosen
* Dugald Semple
* E. F. Schumacher
* George Skene Keith
* Henry David Thoreau
* Leo Tolstoy
* Valluvar

Modern-day adherents|

* Mark Boyle
* Rob Greenfield
* Ted Kaczynski
* Pentti Linkola
* Jim Merkel
* Peace Pilgrim
* Suelo
* Thomas
* Varg Vikernes

Media|

* "Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral"
* Escape from Affluenza
* The Good Life
* The Moon and the Sledgehammer
* Mother Earth News
* The Power of Half
* Small Is Beautiful
* Walden

Related|

* Affluenza
* Agrarianism
* Amateurism
* Anarcho-primitivism
* Anti-consumerism
* Appropriate technology
* Bohemianism
* Consumerism
* Critique of work
* Deep ecology
* Degrowth
* Ecological footprint
* Food miles
* Front Porch Republic
* Green anarchism
* The good life
* Global warming
* Hedonophobia
* Intentional living
* commune
* Rainbow Gathering
* Itinerant
* Low-technology
* Nonviolence
* Peak oil
* Sustainability
* Work–life interface

* v
* t
* e

Environmental social science

Fields|

* Ecological anthropology
* Ecological economics
* Environmental anthropology
* Environmental crime
* Environmental economics
* Environmental communication
* Environmental history
* Environmental politics
* Environmental psychology
* Environmental sociology
* Human ecology
* Human geography
* Political ecology
* Regional science

File:Sustainable development.svg

Related|

* Agroecology
* Anthrozoology
* Behavioral geography
* Community studies
* Demography
* Design
* ecological
* environmental
* Ecological humanities
* Economics
* energy
* thermo
* Environmental
* education
* ethics
* law
* science
* studies
* justice
* racism
* Ethnobiology
* botany
* ecology
* zoology
* Forestry
* Industrial ecology
* Integrated geography
* Permaculture
* Rural sociology
* Sexecology
* Science, technology and society
* science studies
* Sustainability
* science
* studies
* Systems ecology
* Urban
* ecology
* geography
* metabolism
* studies

Applied|

* Architecture
* landscape
* sustainable
* Ecopsychology
* Engineering
* ecological
* environmental
* Green criminology
* Health
* environmental
* epidemiology
* occupational
* public
* Management
* environmental
* fisheries
* forest
* natural resource
* waste
* Planning
* environmental
* land use
* regional
* spatial
* urban
* Policy
* energy
* environmental

* Portal Environment portal
* Category Category
* Concepts
* Degrees
* Journals
* Research institutes
* Scholars

* v
* t
* e

Environmentalism

* Outline of environmentalism

Key topics|

* Environmental movement
* History
* Organizations
* Human impact on the environment

Disciplines|

* Communication
* Ecology
* Education
* Ethics
* Health
* History
* Humanities
* Law
* Philosophy
* Politics
* Psychology
* Religion
* Science
* Sociology

Views|

| Philosophical|

* Biocentrism
* Deep ecology
* Ecocentrism
* Resacralization of nature
* Social ecology

|

Political|

* Bioconservatism
* Bright green environmentalism
* Eco-capitalism
* Ecofascism
* Ecofeminism
* Eco-nationalism
* Eco-socialism
* Eco-terrorism
* Ecomodernism
* Free-market environmentalism
* Green anarchism
* Green left
* Green liberalism
* Green libertarianism
* Green politics
* Green syndicalism

Religious|

* Ecotheology
* Christianity
* Evangelical
* Islam
* Judaism

Opposition|

* Anti-environmentalism
* Environmental skepticism

* Biophilia hypothesis
* Environmentalism of the poor
* Hairshirt environmentalism
* Hardline
* Nature conservation
* Radical environmentalism

Offshoots|

* Anti-fracking movement
* Anti-nuclear movement
* Car-free movement
* Climate movement
* Conservation movement
* Degrowth
* Earth Optimism
* Environmental justice
* Flight shame
* Slow movement

Goals|

* Circular economy
* Climate change mitigation
* Conservation community
* Environmental protection
* Environmental policy
* Environmental, social and corporate governance
* Greening
* Green economy
* Greenwashing
* Natural resource management
* Environmental resource management
* Rights of nature
* Short-haul flight ban
* Sustainability
* Vegetarianism
* Protests
* Tree sitting

By country|

* Australia
* China
* India
* Chipko movement
* New Zealand
* South Africa
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* United States

In culture|

* Art
* Books
* Film
* list
* festivals
* horror
* Journalism
* The Lord of the Rings
* Music
* Ecomusicology
* Motorsport
* Sculpture
* Publications

Environmentalists|

* Environmentalist
* Environmental defender
* Water protector
* Environmental killings

| Notable people|

* Sunderlal Bahuguna
* Murray Bookchin
* David Brower
* Rachel Carson
* Jacques Cousteau
* Ng Cho-nam
* Tim Flannery
* Al Gore
* Aldo Leopold
* Wangari Maathai
* Seyyed Hossein Nasr
* Chico Mendes
* John Muir
* Theodore Roosevelt
* Shōzō Tanaka
* Greta Thunberg

|

Related topics|

* Barriers to pro-environmental behaviour
* Land ethic
* Lifeboat ethics
* Tragedy of the commons

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template