List of Roman emperors

A famous statue of Augustus (r. 27 BC – AD 14), the first Roman emperor

The Roman emperors were the rulers of the Roman Empire from the granting of the name and title Augustus to Octavian by the Roman Senate in 27 BC onward.[1][2] Augustus maintained a facade of Republican rule, rejecting monarchical titles but calling himself princeps senatus (first man of the Senate) and princeps civitatis (first citizen of the state). The title of Augustus was conferred on his successors to the imperial position, and emperors gradually grew more monarchical and authoritarian.[3]

The style of government instituted by Augustus is called the Principate and continued until the late third or early fourth century.[4] The modern word "emperor" derives from the title imperator, that was granted by an army to a successful general; during the initial phase of the empire, the title was generally used only by the princeps.[5] For example, Augustus's official name was Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus.[6] The territory under command of the emperor had developed under the period of the Roman Republic as it invaded and occupied much of Europe and portions of North Africa and the Middle East. Under the republic, the Senate and People of Rome authorized provincial governors, who answered only to them, to rule regions of the empire.[7] The chief magistrates of the republic were two consuls elected each year; consuls continued to be elected in the imperial period, but their authority was subservient to that of the emperor, who also controlled and determined their election.[8] Often, the emperors themselves, or close family, were selected as consul.[9]

After the Crisis of the Third Century, Diocletian increased the authority of the emperor and adopted the title "dominus noster" (our lord). The rise of powerful barbarian tribes along the borders of the empire, the challenge they posed to the defense of far-flung borders as well as an unstable imperial succession led Diocletian to divide the administration of the Empire geographically with a co-augustus in 286. In 330, Constantine the Great, the emperor who accepted Christianity, established a second capital in Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. Historians consider the Dominate period of the empire to have begun with either Diocletian or Constantine, depending on the author.[10] For most of the period from 286 to 480, there was more than one recognized senior emperor, with the division usually based on geographic regions. This division was consistently in place after the death of Theodosius I in 395, which historians have dated as the division between the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. However, formally the Empire remained a single polity, with separate co-emperors in the separate courts.[11]

The fall of the Western Roman Empire is dated either from the de facto date of 476, when Romulus Augustulus was deposed by the Germanic Herulians led by Odoacer, or the de jure date of 480, on the death of Julius Nepos, when Eastern emperor Zeno ended recognition of a separate Western court.[12][13] Historians typically refer to the empire in the centuries that followed as the "Byzantine Empire", orientated toward Hellenic culture and governed by the Byzantine emperors.[a] Given that "Byzantine" is a later historiographical designation and the inhabitants and emperors of the empire continually maintained Roman identity, this designation is not used universally and continues to be a subject of specialist debate.[b] Under Justinian I, in the sixth century, a large portion of the western empire was retaken, including Italy, Africa, and part of Spain.[17] Over the course of the centuries thereafter, most of the imperial territories were lost, which eventually restricted the empire to Anatolia and the Balkans.[c] The line of emperors continued until the death of Constantine XI Palaiologos at the fall of Constantinople in 1453, when the remaining territories were conquered by the Ottoman Turks led by Sultan Mehmed II.[23][d] In the aftermath of the conquest, Mehmed II proclaimed himself kayser-i Rûm ("Caesar of Rome"),[e] thus claiming to be the new emperor,[29] a claim maintained by succeeding sultans.[30] Competing claims of succession to the Roman Empire have also been forwarded by various other states and empires, and by numerous later pretenders.[31]

## Contents

* 1 Legitimacy
* 1.1 List inclusion criteria
* 2 Principate (27 BC – AD 284)
* 2.1 Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)
* 2.2 Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)
* 2.3 Flavian dynasty (69–96)
* 2.4 Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)
* 2.5 Year of the Five Emperors (193)
* 2.6 Severan dynasty (193–235)
* 2.7 Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)
* 3 Dominate (284–610)
* 3.1 Tetrarchy (284–324)
* 3.2 Constantinian dynasty (306–363)
* 3.3 Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)
* 3.4 Theodosian dynasty (379–457)
* 3.5 Last emperors in the west (455–476)
* 3.6 Leonid dynasty (east, 457–518)
* 3.7 Justinian dynasty (east, 518–602)
* 4 Later eastern emperors (610–1453)
* 4.1 Heraclian dynasty (610–695)
* 4.2 Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)
* 4.3 Isaurian dynasty (717–802)
* 4.4 Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)
* 4.5 Amorian dynasty (820–867)
* 4.6 Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)
* 4.7 Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)
* 4.8 Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)
* 4.9 Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)
* 4.10 Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)
* 4.11 Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)
* 5 See also
* 6 Notes
* 7 References
* 7.1 Citations
* 7.2 Main bibliography
* 7.3 Secondary bibliography
* 8 External links

## Legitimacy[edit | edit source]

See also: Roman emperor and Roman usurper

File:Denarius of Pescennius Niger.png

Coin of Pescennius Niger, a Roman usurper who claimed imperial power AD 193–194. Legend: IMP CAES C PESC NIGER IVST AVG

While the imperial government of the Roman Empire was rarely called into question during its five centuries in the west and fifteen centuries in the east, individual emperors often faced unending challenges in the form of usurpation and perpetual civil wars.[32] From the rise of Augustus, the first Roman emperor, in 27 BC to the sack of Rome in AD 455, there were over a hundred usurpations or attempted usurpations (an average of one usurpation or attempt about every four years). From the murder of Commodus in 192 until the fifth century, there was scarcely a single decade without succession conflicts and civil war. Very few emperors died of natural causes, with regicide in practical terms having become the expected end of a Roman emperor by late antiquity.[33] The distinction between a usurper and a legitimate emperor is a blurry one, given that a large number of emperors commonly considered legitimate began their rule as usurpers, revolting against the previous legitimate emperor.[34]

True legitimizing structures and theories were weak, or wholly absent, in the Roman Empire,[33] and there were no true objective legal criteria for being acclaimed emperor beyond acceptance by the Roman army.[35] Dynastic succession was not legally formalized, but also not uncommon, with powerful rulers sometimes succeeding in passing power on to their children or other relatives. While dynastic ties could bring someone to the throne, they were not a guarantee that their rule would not be challenged.[36] With the exception of Titus (r. 79–81; son of Vespasian), no son of an emperor who ruled after the death of their father died a natural death until Constantine I in 337. Control of Rome itself and approval of the Roman Senate held some importance as legitimising factors, but was mostly symbolic. Emperors who began their careers as usurpers had often been deemed public enemies by the senate before they managed to take the city. Emperors did not need to be acclaimed or crowned in Rome itself, as demonstrated in the Year of the Four Emperors (69), when claimants were crowned by armies in the Roman provinces, and the senate's role in legitimising emperors had almost faded into insignificance by the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284). By the end of the third century, Rome's importance was mainly ideological, with several emperors and usurpers even beginning to place their court in other cities in the empire, closer to the imperial frontier.[37]

Common methods used by emperors to assert claims of legitimacy, such as proclamation by the army, blood connections (sometimes fictitious) to past emperors, wearing imperial regalia, distributing one's own coins or statues and claims to pre-eminent virtue through propaganda, were pursued just as well by many usurpers as they were by legitimate emperors.[38] There were no constitutional or legal distinctions that differentiated legitimate emperors and usurpers. In ancient Roman texts, the differences between emperors and "tyrants" (the term typically used for usurpers) is often a moral one (with the tyrants ascribed wicked behaviour) rather than a legal one. Typically, the actual distinction was whether the claimant had been victorious or not. In the Historia Augusta, an ancient Roman collection of imperial biographies, the usurper Pescennius Niger (193–194) is expressly noted to only be a tyrant because he was defeated by Septimius Severus (r. 193–211).[39] This is also followed in modern historiography, where, in the absence of constitutional criteria separating them, the main factor that distinguishes usurpers from legitimate Roman emperors is their degree of success. What makes a figure who began as a usurper into a legitimate emperor is typically either that they managed to gain the recognition from a more senior, legitimate, emperor, or that they managed to defeat a more senior, legitimate emperor and seize power from them by force.[36]

### List inclusion criteria[edit | edit source]

Given that a concept of constitutional legitimacy was irrelevant in the Roman Empire, and emperors were only 'legitimate' in so far as they were able to be accepted in the wider empire,[40] this list of emperors operates on a collection of inclusion criteria:

* Imperial claimants whose power across the empire became, or from the beginning was, absolute and who ruled undisputed are treated as legitimate emperors.[41] From 284 onward, when imperial power was usually divided among two colleagues in the east and west,[42] control over the respective half is sufficient even if a claimant was not recognized in the other half, such as was the case for several of the last few emperors in the west.[43]
* Imperial claimants who were proclaimed emperors by another, legitimate, senior emperor, or who were recognized by a legitimate senior emperor, are treated as legitimate emperors.[35][44] Many emperors ruled alongside one or various joint-emperors. However, and specially from the 4th century onwards, most of these were children who never ruled in their own right. Scholars of the later Empire always omit these rulers,[45] but they do not agree about what co-emperors should be counted as “true” rulers during the early Empire.[46] This list gives all co-emperors their own entry only up to the 4th century.
* Imperial claimants who achieved the recognition of the Roman Senate, especially in times of uncertainty and civil war, are, due to the senate's nominal role as an elective body, treated as legitimate emperors.[34][47] In later times, especially when emperors ruled from other cities, this criterion defaults to the possession and control of Rome itself. In the later eastern empire, possession of the capital of Constantinople was an essential element of imperial legitimacy.[48]

In the case of non-dynastic emperors after or in the middle of the rule of a dynasty, it is customary among historians to group them together with the rulers of said dynasty,[49] an approach that is followed in this list. Dynastic breaks with non-dynastic rulers are indicated with thickened horizontal lines.

## Principate (27 BC – AD 284)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Principate

### Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC – AD 68)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Julio-Claudian dynasty

Julio-Claudian dynasty Portrait  |  Name[f] | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:04.2022 Augustus Bevilacqua cropped.jpg | Augustus
Caesar Augustus | 16 January 27 BC – 19 August AD 14
(40 years, 7 months and 3 days)[g] | Grandnephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar. Gradually acquired further power through grants from, and constitutional settlements with, the Roman Senate.  | 23 September 63 BC – 19 August 14
(aged 75)

* * *

Born as Gaius Octavius; first elected Roman consul on 19 August 43 BC.
Died of natural causes[53]
File:(Toulouse) Tibère - Musée Saint-Raymond Ra 342 b (cropped).jpg | Tiberius
Tiberius Caesar Augustus | 17 September 14 – 16 March 37
(22 years, 5 months and 27 days) | Stepson, former son-in-law and adopted son of Augustus | 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37
(aged 77)

* * *

Died probably of natural causes, allegedly murdered at the instigation of Caligula[54]
File:Caligula - MET - 14.37 (cropped 2).jpg | Caligula
Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus | 18 March 37 – 24 January 41
(3 years, 10 months and 6 days) | Grandnephew and adopted heir of Tiberius, great-grandson of Augustus | 31 August 12 – 24 January 41
(aged 28)

* * *

Murdered in a conspiracy involving the Praetorian Guard and senators[55]
File:Claudius crop (cropped).jpg | Claudius
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus | 24 January 41 – 13 October 54
(13 years, 8 months and 19 days) | Uncle of Caligula, grandnephew of Augustus, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard and accepted by the Senate  | 1 August 10 BC – 13 October 54
(aged 63)

* * *

Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina, in favor of her son Nero[56]
File:Nero Glyptothek Munich 321 (cropped).jpg | Nero
Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus | 13 October 54 – 9 June 68
(13 years, 7 months and 27 days) | Grandnephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius, great-great-grandson of Augustus | 15 December 37 – 9 June 68
(aged 30)

* * *

Committed suicide after being deserted by the Praetorian Guard and sentenced to death by the Senate[57]

### Year of the Four Emperors (68–69)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Year of the Four Emperors

Year of the Four Emperors Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Roman emperor Galba, Gustav III's Museum of Antiquities, Stockholm (20) (35867773310) edited (cropped).jpg | Galba
Servius Galba Caesar Augustus | 8 June 68 – 15 January 69
(7 months and 7 days) | Governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, revolted against Nero and seized power after his suicide, with support of the Senate and Praetorian Guard | 24 December 3 BC – 15 January 69
(aged 70)

* * *

Murdered by soldiers of the Praetorian Guard in a coup led by Otho[58]
File:Paris - Musée du Louvre (30612822394) (cropped).jpg | Otho
Marcus Otho Caesar Augustus | 15 January – 16 April 69
(3 months and 1 day) | Seized power through a coup against Galba | 28 April 32 – 16 April 69
(aged 36)

* * *

Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius[59]
File:Tunis Bardo Buste 8 (cropped).jpg | Vitellius
Aulus Vitellius Germanicus Augustus | 19 April – 20 December 69
(8 months and 1 day) | Governor of Germania Inferior, proclaimed emperor by the Rhine legions on 2 January in opposition to Galba and Otho, later recognized by the Senate | 24 September 15 – 20/22 December 69
(aged 54)

* * *

Murdered by Vespasian's troops[60]

### Flavian dynasty (69–96)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Flavian dynasty

Flavian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Naples Archaeology Museum (5914222133) cropped.jpg | Vespasian
Caesar Vespasianus Augustus | 1 July 69 – 23 June 79
(9 years, 11 months and 22 days) | Seized power with support of the eastern legions, in opposition to Vitellius | 17 November 9 – 23/24 June 79
(aged 69)

* * *

Died of natural causes[61]
File:Titus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3159 (cropped).jpg | Titus
Titus Caesar Vespasianus Augustus | 24 June 79 – 13 September 81
(2 years, 2 months and 20 days) | Son of Vespasian | 30 December 39 – 13 September 81
(aged 41)

* * *

Died of natural causes[62]
File:Domiziano da collezione albani, fine del I sec. dc. 02 cropped (cropped).jpg | Domitian
Caesar Domitianus Augustus | 14 September 81 – 18 September 96
(15 years and 4 days) | Brother of Titus and son of Vespasian | 24 October 51 – 18 September 96
(aged 44)

* * *

Assassinated in a conspiracy of court officials, possibly involving Nerva[63]

### Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

Nerva–Antonine dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Nerva.JPG | Nerva
Nerva Caesar Augustus | 18 September 96 – 27 January 98
(1 year, 4 months and 9 days) | Proclaimed emperor after the murder of Domitian | 8 November 30 – 27 January 98
(aged 67)

* * *

First of the "Five Good Emperors". Died of natural causes[64]
File:Traianus Glyptothek Munich 72 (cropped).jpg | Trajan
Caesar Nerva Traianus Augustus | 28 January 98 – 7/11 August 117
(19 years, 6 months and 10/14 days) | Adopted son of Nerva | 18 September 53 – 7/11 August 117
(aged 63)

* * *

First non-Italian emperor. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire. Died of natural causes[65]
File:Hadrianus Townley BM GR1805.07-03.94 n02 (cropped).jpg | Hadrian
Caesar Traianus Hadrianus Augustus | 11 August 117 – 10 July 138
(20 years, 10 months and 29 days) | Cousin of Trajan, allegedly adopted on his deathbed  | 24 January 76 – 10 July 138
(aged 62)

* * *

Ended Roman expansionism. Died of natural causes[66]
File:Glyptothek München 259 (cropped and edited).jpg | Antoninus Pius
Titus Aelius Hadrianus Antoninus Pius[h] | 10 July 138 – 7 March 161
(22 years, 7 months and 25 days) | Adopted son of Hadrian | 19 September 86 – 7 March 161
(aged 74)

* * *

Died of natural causes[68]
File:Marcus Aurelius Louvre MR561 n02.jpg | Marcus Aurelius
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus | 7 March 161 – 17 March 180
(19 years and 10 days) | Son-in-law and adopted son of Antoninus Pius. Reigned jointly with his adoptive brother, Lucius Verus, the first time multiple emperors shared power.  | 26 April 121 – 17 March 180
(aged 58)

* * *

Last of the "Five Good Emperors"; also one of the most representative Stoic philosophers. Died of natural causes[69]
File:Lucius Verus bust (crop).png | Lucius Verus
Lucius Aurelius Verus | 7 March 161 – January/February 169
(7 years and 11 months) | Adopted son of Antoninus Pius, joint emperor with his adoptive brother, Marcus Aurelius | 15 December 130 – early 169
(aged 38)

* * *

Died of natural causes[70]
File:Commodus Musei Capitolini MC1120 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Commodus
Marcus Aurelius Commodus Antoninus / Lucius Aelius Aurelius Commodus | 17 March 180 – 31 December 192
(12 years, 9 months and 14 days) | Son of Marcus Aurelius. Proclaimed co-emperor on 27 November 176, at age 15, becoming the first emperor to be elevated during predecessor's lifetime  | 31 August 161 – 31 December 192
(aged 31)

* * *

Strangled to death in a conspiracy involving his praetorian prefect, Laetus, and mistress, Marcia[71]

### Year of the Five Emperors (193)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Year of the Five Emperors

Note: The other claimants during the Year of the Five Emperors were Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus, generally regarded as usurpers.
Year of the Five Emperors Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Bust of Pertinax at the Uffizi Gallery (cropped).jpg | Pertinax
Publius Helvius Pertinax | 1 January – 28 March 193
(2 months and 27 days) | City prefect of Rome at Commodus's death, set up as emperor by the praetorian prefect, Laetus, with consent of the Senate | 1 August 126 – 28 March 193
(aged 66)

* * *

Murdered by mutinous soldiers of the Praetorian Guard[72]
File:Lyon 5e - Musée Lugdunum - EnQuête de pouvoir - Buste de Didius Iulianus 01 (cropped).jpeg | Didius Julianus
Marcus Didius Severus Julianus | 28 March – 1 June 193
(2 months and 4 days) | Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor  | 30 January 133 – 1/2 June 193
(aged 60)

* * *

Killed on order of the Senate, at the behest of Septimius Severus[73]

### Severan dynasty (193–235)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Severan dynasty

(§) – Varying ascribed status[i]

Severan dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Septimius Severus Glyptothek Munich 357 (cropped).jpg | Septimius Severus
Lucius Septimius Severus Pertinax | 9 April 193 – 4 February 211
(17 years, 9 months and 26 days) | Governor of Upper Pannonia, acclaimed emperor by the Pannonian legions following the murder of Pertinax | 11 April 145 – 4 February 211
(aged 65)

* * *

First non-European emperor. Died of natural causes[74]
File:Caracalla Musei Capitolini MC2310.jpg | Caracalla
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus | 4 February 211 – 8 April 217
(6 years, 2 months and 4 days) | Son of Septimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor on 28 January 198, at age 10. Succeeded jointly with his brother, Geta, in 211  | 4 April 188 – 8 April 217
(aged 29)

* * *

First child emperor. Granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Murdered by a soldier at the instigation of Macrinus[75]
File:Geta (cropped).jpg | Geta
Publius Septimius Geta | 4 February 211 – 19/26 December 211
(10 months and 15/22 days) | Son of Septimius Severus, proclaimed co-emperor in October 209, succeeded jointly with his older brother, Caracalla | 7 March 189 – 19/26 December 211
(aged 22)

* * *

Murdered on order of his brother, Caracalla[76]
File:Bust of Macrinus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016.jpg | Macrinus
Marcus Opellius Severus Macrinus | 11 April 217 – 8 June 218
(1 year, 1 month and 28 days) | Praetorian prefect of Caracalla, accepted as emperor by the army and Senate after having arranged his predecessor's death in fear of his own life  | c. 165 – June 218
(aged approx. 53)

* * *

First non-senator to become emperor, and first emperor not to visit Rome after acceding. Executed during a revolt of the troops in favor of Elagabalus.[77]
File:Macrino, aureo per diadoumeniano cesare, 217-18, 01.JPG | Diadumenian
Marcus Opellius Antoninus Diadumenianus | Late May – June 218
(less than a month) | Son of Macrinus, named co-emperor by his father after the eruption of a rebellion in favor of Elagabalus | 14 September 208 – June 218
(aged 9)

* * *

Caught in flight and executed in favor of Elagabalus[78]
File:Bust of Elagabalus - Palazzo Nuovo - Musei Capitolini - Rome 2016 (2) (cropped).jpg | Elagabalus
Marcus Aurelius Antoninus | 16 May 218 – 12 March 222
(3 years, 9 months and 24 days) | Cousin and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla, acclaimed as emperor by rebellious legions in opposition to Macrinus at the instigation of his grandmother, Julia Maesa | 203/204 – 11/12 March 222
(aged 18)

* * *

Murdered by the Praetorian Guard alongside his mother, probably at the instigation of Julia Maesa[79]
File:Bust Alexander Severus Louvre Ma1051 n2 (cropped).jpg | Severus Alexander
Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander | 13 March 222 – 21 March 235
(13 years and 8 days) | Cousin and adopted heir of Elagabalus | 1 October 208 – 21 March 235
(aged 26)

* * *

Lynched by mutinous troops, alongside his mother[80]

### Crisis of the Third Century (235–284)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Crisis of the Third Century, Year of the Six Emperors, and Gordian dynasty

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

(§) – Varying ascribed status[i]

Crisis of the Third Century Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Maximinus Thrax Musei Capitolini MC473 (cropped).jpg | Maximinus I "Thrax"
Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus | c. March 235 – c. June 238[k]
(3 years and 3 months) | Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander | c. 172–180 – c. June 238
(aged approx. 58–66)

* * *

First commoner to become emperor. Murdered by his men during the siege of Aquileia[86]
File:CapitoliniGordianoI.jpg | Gordian I
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus | c. April – c. May 238[k]
(22 days) | Proclaimed emperor alongside his son, Gordian II, while serving as governor of Africa, in a revolt against Maximinus, and recognized by the Senate | c. 158 (?) – c. May 238
(aged approx. 80)

* * *

Oldest emperor at the time of his elevation. Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of his son[87]
File:GordianusIIsest.jpg | Gordian II
Marcus Antonius Gordianus Sempronianus Romanus | c. April – c. May 238[k]
(22 days) | Proclaimed emperor alongside his father Gordian I, during revolt in Africa against Maximinus | c. 192 – c. May 238
(aged approx. 46)

* * *

The shortest-reigning emperor on record. Killed outside Carthage in battle against an army loyal to Maximinus I[88]
File:Pupienus Musei Capitolini MC477 (cropped).jpg | Pupienus
Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus | c. May – c. August 238[k]
(99 days) | Proclaimed emperor jointly with Balbinus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 164 – c. August 238
(aged approx. 74)

* * *

Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[89]
File:Ritratto di balbino, 238 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Balbinus
Decimus Caelius Calvinus Balbinus | c. May – c. August 238[k]
(99 days) | Proclaimed emperor jointly with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus | c. 178 – c. August 238
(aged approx. 60)

* * *

Tortured and murdered by the Praetorian Guard[90]
File:Bust Gordianus III Louvre Ma1063 (cropped).jpg | Gordian III
Marcus Antonius Gordianus | c. August 238 – c. February 244
(c. 5 years and 6 months) | Grandson of Gordian I, appointed as heir by Pupienus and Balbinus, upon whose deaths he succeeded as emperor  | 20 January 225 – c. February 244
(aged 19)

* * *

Died during campaign against Persia, possibly in a murder plot instigated by Philip I[91]
File:Bust of emperor Philippus Arabus - Hermitage Museum (cropped).jpg | Philip I "the Arab"
Marcus Julius Philippus | c. February 244 – September/October 249
(c. 5 years and 7/8 months) | Praetorian prefect under Gordian III, seized power after his death  | c. 204 – September/October 249
(aged approx. 45)

* * *

Killed at the Battle of Verona, against Decius[92]
File:Philip Junior crop.png | Philip II "the Younger" (§)
Marcus Julius Severus Philippus | July/August 247 – September/October 249
(c. 2 years and 2 months) | Son of Philip I, appointed co-emperor  | c. 237 – September/October 249
(aged approx. 12)

* * *

Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[93]
File:Emperor Traianus Decius (Mary Harrsch) enhanced (cropped).jpg | Decius
Gaius Messius Quintus Traianus Decius | September/October 249 – June 251
(c. 1 year and 8/9 months) | Proclaimed emperor by the troops in Moesia, then defeated and killed Philip I in battle  | c. 190/200 – June 251
(aged approx. 50/60)

* * *

Killed at the Battle of Abrittus, against the Goths[94]
File:Aureus Herennius Etruscus (obverse).jpg | Herennius Etruscus (§)
Quintus Herennius Etruscus Messius Decius | May/June – June 251
(less than a month) | Son of Decius, appointed co-emperor  | Unknown – June 251

* * *

Killed at the Battle of Abrittus alongside his father[95]
File:Antakya Trebonianus Gallus cropped.jpg | Trebonianus Gallus
Gaius Vibius Trebonianus Gallus | June 251 – c. August 253
(c. 3 years and 2 months) | Senator and general, proclaimed emperor after the deaths of Decius and Herennius Etruscus | c. 206 – c. August 253
(aged 47)

* * *

Murdered by his own troops in favor of Aemilian[96]
File:Aureus Hostilianus (obverse).jpg | Hostilian (§)
Gaius Valens Hostilianus Messius Quintus | c. June – c. July 251
(c. 1 month) | Younger son of Decius, named caesar by his father and proclaimed co-emperor by Trebonianus Gallus  | Unknown – c. July 251

* * *

Died of plague or murdered by Trebonianus Gallus[97]
File:Volusian crop.png | Volusianus (§)
Gaius Vibius Afinius Gallus Veldumnianus Volusianus | c. August 251 – c. August 253
(3 years) | Son of Gallus, appointed co-emperor  | c. 230 – c. August 253
(aged approx. 23)

* * *

Murdered by the soldiers, alongside his father[98]
File:Aemilian1.jpg | Aemilianus
Marcus Aemilius Aemilianus | c. July – c. September 253
(c. 2 months) | Commander in Moesia, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers after defeating barbarians, in opposition to Gallus  | c. 207 – c. September 253
(aged approx. 46)

* * *

Murdered by his own troops in favor of Valerian[99]
File:Silbannacus coin (transparent background).png | Silbannacus[l] (#)
Mar. Silbannacus | c. September/October 253
(very briefly) | Obscure figure known only from coinage, appears to have briefly ruled in Rome between Aemilianus and Valerian  | Nothing known[24]
File:Valerianus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN3387.jpg | Valerian
Publius Licinius Valerianus | c. September 253 – c. June 260
(c. 6 years and 9 months) | Army commander in Raetia and Noricum, proclaimed emperor by the legions in opposition to Aemilian  | c. 200 – after 262 (?)

* * *

Captured at Edessa by the Persian king Shapur I, died in captivity possibly forced to swallow molten gold[103]
File:Ritratto di gallieno dalla casa delle vestali.jpg | Gallienus
Publius Licinius Egnatius Gallienus | c. September 253 – c. September 268
(15 years) | Son of Valerian, appointed joint emperor. Sole emperor after Valerian's capture and subsequent death  | 218 – c. September 268
(aged 50)

* * *

Murdered in a conspiracy of army officers, involving his successors Claudius II and Aurelian[104]
File:Saloninus coin (transparent background).png | Saloninus[m] (§)
Publius Licinius Cornelius Saloninus Valerianus | Autumn 260
(c. 1 month) | Son of Gallienus, proclaimed caesar by his father and proclaimed emperor by the praetorian prefect Silvanus while besieged by Postumus | Unknown – Late 260

* * *

Murdered by troops loyal to Postumus[107]
File:ClaudiusGothicusSC265569.jpg | Claudius II "Gothicus"
Marcus Aurelius Claudius | c. September 268 – c. April 270
(c. 1 year and 7 months) | Army commander in Illyria, proclaimed emperor after Gallienus's death  | 10 May 214 – c. April 270
(aged approx. 55)

* * *

Died of plague[108]
File:Aureus Quintillus (obverse).jpg | Quintillus
Marcus Aurelius Claudius Quintillus | c. April – May/June 270
(17–77 days) | Brother of Claudius II, proclaimed emperor after his death  | Unknown – 270

* * *

Committed suicide or killed at the behest of Aurelian[109]
File:INC-1859-a Ауреус Аврелиан ок. 270-275 гг. (аверс).png | Aurelian
Lucius Domitius Aurelianus | c. May 270 – c. October 275
(c. 5 years and 5 months) | Supreme commander of the Roman cavalry, proclaimed emperor by Danube legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus  | 9 September 214 – c. October 275
(aged 61)

* * *

Murdered by the Praetorian Guard[110]
File:P1150181 Louvre empereur Tacite Ma1018 rwk enhanced (cropped).jpg | Tacitus
Marcus Claudius Tacitus | c. December 275 – c. June 276
(c. 7 months) | Alleged princeps senatus, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers in Campania after Aurelian's death  | c. 200 (?) – c. June 276
(aged approx. 76)

* * *

Died of illness or possibly murdered[111]
File:Aureus Florianus Ticinum (obverse).jpg | Florianus
Marcus Annius Florianus | c. June – September 276
(80–88 days) | Brother or, more likely, half-brother of Tacitus  | Unknown – September/October 276

* * *

Murdered by his own troops in favor of Probus[112]
File:Probus Musei Capitolini MC493 (cropped enhanced).jpg | Probus
Marcus Aurelius Probus | c. June 276 – c. September 282
(c. 6 years and 3 months) | General; proclaimed emperor by the eastern legions, in opposition to Florianus  | 19 August 232 – c. September 282
(aged 50)

* * *

Murdered by his own troops in favor of Carus[113]
File:Carusinc2955obverse.png | Carus
Marcus Aurelius Carus | c. September 282 – c. July 283
(c. 10 months) | Praetorian prefect under Probus, seized power before or after Probus's murder  | c. 224 (?) – c. July 283
(aged approx. 60)

* * *

Died in Persia, either of illness, assassination, or by being hit by lightning[114]
File:Montemartini - Carino cropped (cropped).JPG | Carinus
Marcus Aurelius Carinus | Spring 283 – August/September 285
(2 years) | Son of Carus, appointed joint emperor shortly before his death. Succeeded jointly with Numerian  | c. 250 – August/September 285
(aged approx. 35)

* * *

Probably died in battle against Diocletian, likely betrayed by his own soldiers[115]
File:NumerianusAntoninianus.jpg | Numerian
Marcus Aurelius Numerianus | c. July/August 283 – November 284
(1 year and 3/4 months) | Son of Carus, succeeded jointly with Carinus  | c. 253 – November 284
(aged approx. 31)

* * *

Died while marching to Europe, probably of disease, possibly assassinated[116]

## Dominate (284–610)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Dominate

### Tetrarchy (284–324)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Tetrarchy

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

Tetrarchy Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Asia minore romana, testa di statua togata di diocleziano, 295-300 ca.jpg | Diocletian
Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus | 20 November 284 – 1 May 305
(20 years, 5 months and 11 days) | Commander of the imperial bodyguard, acclaimed by the army after death of Numerian, and proceeded to defeat Numerian's brother, Carinus, in battle  | c. 243/245 – 311/312
(aged approx. 68)

* * *

First emperor to voluntarily abdicate. Died in unclear circumstances[117]
File:MSR - Tête de l'empreur Maximien Hercule - Inv 34 b (cropped).jpg | Maximian "Herculius"
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus | 1 April 286 – 1 May 305
(19 years and 1 month; West)
Late 306 – 11 November 308
(2 years; Italy) | Elevated by Diocletian, ruled the western provinces | c. 250 – c. July 310
(aged approx. 60)

* * *

Abdicated with Diocletian, later trying to regain power with, and then from, Maxentius, before being probably killed on orders of Constantine I[118]
File:Constantius Chlorus Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek IN836 (cropped).jpg | Constantius I "Chlorus"
Flavius Valerius Constantius | 1 May 305 – 25 July 306
(1 year, 2 months and 24 days; West) | Maximian's relation by marriage, elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as western augustus upon Maximian's abdication  | 31 March c. 250 – 25 July 306
(aged approx. 56)

* * *

Died of natural causes[119]
File:Romuliana Galerius head (cropped).jpg | Galerius
Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus | 1 May 305 – May 311
(6 years; East) | Elevated to caesar in 293 by Diocletian, succeeded as eastern augustus upon Diocletian's abdication  | c. 258 – May 311
(aged approx. 53)

* * *

Died of natural causes[120]
File:Severus II Aureus Joanneum.jpg | Severus II
Flavius Valerius Severus | August 306 – March/April 307
(c. 8 months; West) | Elevated to caesar in 305 by Maximian, promoted to western augustus by Galerius upon Constantius I's death  | Unknown – September 307

* * *

Surrendered to Maximian and Maxentius, later murdered or forced to commit suicide[121]
File:Bust of Maxentius, Dresden (cropped).jpg | Maxentius (#)
Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius | 28 October 306 – 28 October 312
(6 years; Italy) | Son of Maximian and son-in-law of Galerius, seized power in Italy with support of the Praetorian Guard and his father after being passed over in the succession. Not recognized by the other emperors  | c. 283 – 28 October 312
(aged approx. 29)

* * *

Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I[122]
File:Bust of Licinius, Kunsthistorisches Museum (cropped).jpg | Licinius
Valerius Licinianus Licinius | 11 November 308 – 19 September 324
(15 years, 10 months and 8 days; East) | Elevated by Galerius to replace Severus, in opposition to Maxentius. Defeated Maximinus Daza in a civil war to become sole emperor of the East in 313  | c. 265 – early 325
(aged approx. 60)

* * *

Defeated, deposed and put to death by Constantine I[123]
File:Aureus of Maximinus II (obverse).jpg | Maximinus II "Daza"
Galerius Valerius Maximinus | 310 – c. July 313
(3 years; East) | Nephew of Galerius, elevated to caesar by Diocletian in 305, and acclaimed as augustus by his troops in 310  | 20 November c. 270 – c. July 313
(aged approx. 42)

* * *

Defeated in civil war against Licinius, died shortly afterwards[124]
File:Valerius Valens coin (transparent background).png | Valerius Valens[n] (#)
Aurelius Valerius Valens | October 316 – c. January 317
(c. 2–3 months; West) | Frontier commander in Dacia, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I  | Unknown – 317

* * *

Executed in the lead-up to a peace settlement between Licinius and Constantine[126]
File:Martinian coin (transparent background).png | Martinian[n] (#)
Mar. Martinianus | July – 19 September 324
(2 months; West) | A senior bureaucrat, elevated by Licinius in opposition to Constantine I  | Unknown – 325

* * *

Deposed by Constantine and banished to Cappadocia, later executed[127]

### Constantinian dynasty (306–363)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Constantinian dynasty

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

Constantinian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Constantine Chiaramonti Inv1749.jpg | Constantine I
"the Great"
Flavius Valerius Constantinus | 25 July 306 – 22 May 337
(30 years, 9 months and 27 days) | Son of Constantius I, acclaimed by his father's troops. Accepted as caesar by Galerius in 306, promoted to augustus in 307 by Maximian, refused demotion to caesar in 309  | 27 February 272/273 – 22 May 337
(aged 64/65)

* * *

First Christian emperor and founder of Constantinople. Sole ruler of the Empire after defeating Maxentius in 312 and Licinius in 324. Died of natural causes[128]
File:Campidoglio, Roma - Costantino II cesare dettaglio (cropped).jpg | Constantine II
Flavius Claudius Constantinus | 9 September 337 – April 340
(2 years and 7 months) | Son of Constantine I  | 7 August 316 – April 340
(aged 23)

* * *

Ruled the praetorian prefecture of Gaul. Killed in an ambush during a war against his brother, Constans I[129]
File:Constant head.jpg | Constans I
Flavius Julius Constans | 9 September 337 – January 350
(12 years and 4 months) | Son of Constantine I  | 322/323 – January/February 350
(aged 27)

* * *

Ruled Italy, Illyricum and Africa initially, then the western empire after Constantine II's death. Overthrown and killed by Magnentius[130]
File:INC-3055-a Ауреус. Констанций II. Ок. 355—361 гг. (аверс).png | Constantius II
Flavius Julius Constantius | 9 September 337 – 3 November 361
(24 years, 1 month and 25 days) | Son of Constantine I  | 7 August 317 – 3 November 361
(aged 44)

* * *

Ruled the east initially, then the whole empire after the death of Magnentius. Died of a fever[131]
File:Magnentius coin (transparent background).png | Magnentius (#)
Magnus Magnentius | 18 January 350 – 10 August 353
(3 years, 6 months and 23 days) | Proclaimed emperor by the troops, in opposition to Constans I  | c. 303 – 10 August 353
(aged approx. 50)

* * *

Committed suicide after losing the Battle of Mons Seleucus[132]
File:Coin of Nepotian.png | Nepotianus (#)
Julius Nepotianus | 3 June – 30 June 350
(27 days) | Son of Eutropia, a daughter of Constantius I. Proclaimed emperor in Rome in opposition to Magnentius  | Unknown – 30 June 350

* * *

Captured and executed by supporters of Magnentius[133]
File:Vetranio coin (transparent background).png | Vetranio[o] (#)  | 1 March – 25 December 350
(9 months and 24 days) | General of Constans in Illyricum, acclaimed by the Illyrian legions at the expense of Magnentius  | Unknown – c. 356

* * *

Abdicated in Constantius II's favor, retired, and died 6 years later[135]
File:INC-1525-a Солид Юлиан II Отступник (аверс).png | Julian "the Apostate"
Flavius Claudius Julianus | 3 November 361 – 26 June 363
(1 year, 7 months and 24 days) | Acclaimed by the Gallic army in early 360, became sole emperor after the death of his cousin, Constantius II  | 331 – 26 June 363
(aged 32)

* * *

Last non-Christian emperor. Mortally wounded during a campaign against Persia[136]
File:Jovian solidus.png | Jovian
Jovianus[p] | 27 June 363 – 17 February 364
(7 months and 21 days) | Commander of imperial household guard; proclaimed emperor by the army after Julian's death  | 330/331 – 17 February 364
(aged 33)

* * *

Possibly died of inhaling toxic fumes or indigestion[138]

### Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Valentinianic dynasty

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

Valentinianic dynasty Portrait  |  Name[q] | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Restored head of Valentinian I (cropped).jpg | Valentinian I "the Great"
Valentinianus | 25/26 February 364 – 17 November 375
(11 years, 8 months and 23 days) | General; proclaimed emperor by the army after Jovian's death  | 321 – 17 November 375
(aged 54)

* * *

Died of a stroke while yelling at envoys[140]
File:INC-1867-a Солид. Валент II. Ок. 375—378 гг. (аверс).png | Valens | 28 March 364 – 9 August 378
(14 years, 4 months and 12 days) | Brother of Valentinian I, made eastern emperor by his brother (Valentinian retaining the west)  | c. 328 – 9 August 378
(aged nearly 50)

* * *

Killed at the Battle of Adrianople[141]
File:INC-1866-a Солид. Прокопий. Ок. 365—366 гг. (аверс).png | Procopius (#)  | 28 September 365 – 27 May 366
(7 months and 29 days) | Maternal cousin and intended heir of Julian; revolted against Valens and captured Constantinople, where the people proclaimed him emperor  | 326 – 27/28 May 366
(aged 40)

* * *

Deposed, captured and executed by Valens[142]
File:Gratian Trier enhanced.jpg | Gratian
Gratianus | 17 November 375 – 25 August 383
(7 years, 9 months and 8 days) | Son of Valentinian I; proclaimed western co-emperor on 24 August 367, at age 8. Emperor in his own right after Valentinian's death  | 18 April 359 – 25 August 383
(aged 24)

* * *

Killed by Andragathius, an officer of Magnus Maximus[143]
File:Magnus Maximus coin (transparent).png | Magnus Maximus (#)  | Spring 383 – 28 August 388
(5 years)

* * *

with Victor (383/387–388)[r] | General, related to Theodosius I; proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Briefly recognized by Theodosius I and Valentinian II  | Unknown – 28 August 388

* * *

Defeated by Theodosius I at the Battle of Save, executed after surrendering[144]
File:Statue of emperor Valentinian II (cropped enhanced).JPG | Valentinian II
Valentinianus | 28 August 388 – 15 March 392
(3 years, 6 months and 16 days) | Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed co-emperor on 22 November 375, at age 4. Sole western ruler after the defeat of Magnus Maximus in 388  | 371 – 15 March 392
(aged 20)

* * *

Dominated by regents and co-emperors his entire reign. Probably suicide, possibly killed by Arbogast[145]
File:Eugenius coin (transparent).png | Eugenius (#)  | 22 August 392 – 6 September 394
(2 years and 15 days) | Teacher of Latin grammar and rhetoric, secretary of Valentinian II. Proclaimed emperor by Arbogast | Unknown – 6 September 394

* * *

Defeated by Theodosius I at the Battle of the Frigidus and executed[146]

### Theodosian dynasty (379–457)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Theodosian dynasty

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

Theodosian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Bust of Theodosius I (cropped).jpg | Theodosius I
"the Great"  | 19 January 379 – 17 January 395
(15 years, 11 months and 29 days) | Retired general; proclaimed eastern emperor by Gratian. Ruler of the entire empire after Valentinian II's death  | 11 January 346/347 – 17 January 395
(aged 48/49)

* * *

Last emperor to rule over the two halves of the Empire. Died of natural causes[147]
File:Arcadius Istanbul Museum (cropped).JPG | Arcadius | 17 January 395 – 1 May 408
(13 years, 3 months and 14 days) | Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 16 January 383. Emperor in the east  | 377 – 1 May 408
(aged 31)

* * *

Died of natural causes[148]
File:Diptych of Honorius (head).jpg | Honorius | 17 January 395 – 15 August 423
(28 years, 6 months and 29 days) | Son of Theodosius I; co-emperor since 23 January 393. Emperor in the west  | 9 September 384 – 15 August 423
(aged 38)

* * *

Reigned under several successive regencies. Died of edema[149]
File:Solidus of Constantine III (west).png | Constantine III (#)
Claudius Constantinus | 407 – 411
(4 years)

* * *

with Constans (409–411)[r] | Common soldier, proclaimed emperor by the troops in Britain. Recognized by Honorius in 409. Emperor in the west  | Unknown – 411 (before 18 September)

* * *

Surrendered to Constantius, a general of Honorius, and abdicated. Sent to Italy but murdered on the way[150]
File:Theodosius II Louvre Ma1036.jpg | Theodosius II | 1 May 408 – 28 July 450
(42 years, 2 months and 27 days) | Son of Arcadius; co-emperor since 10 January 402. Emperor in the east  | 10 April 401 – 28 July 450
(aged 49)

* * *

Died of a fall from his horse[151]
File:Rare solidus of Priscus Attalus (obverse).png | Priscus Attalus (#)  | Late 409 – summer 410
(less than a year) | A leading member of the Senate, proclaimed emperor by Alaric after the Sack of Rome. Emperor in the west  | Unknown lifespan

* * *

Deposed by Alaric after reconciling with Honorius. Tried to claim the throne again 414–415 but was defeated and forced into exile; fate unknown[152]
File:Solidus of Constantius III.png | Constantius III | 8 February – 2 September 421
(6 months and 25 days) | Prominent general under Honorius and husband of Galla Placidia, a daughter of Theodosius I. Made co-emperor by Honorius. Emperor in the west  | Unknown – 2 September 421

* * *

De facto ruler since 411; died of illness[153]
File:Solidus of Joannes.png | Johannes (#)  | 20 November 423 – c. May 425
(c. 1 year and a half) | Senior civil servant, seized power in Rome and the west after Theodosius II delayed in nominating a successor of Honorius  | Unknown – c. May 425

* * *

Captured by the forces of Theodosius II, brought to Constantinople and executed[154]
File:Valentinianiiicng01178obverse.jpg | Valentinian III
Placidius Valentinianus | 23 October 425 – 16 March 455
(29 years, 4 months and 21 days) | Son of Constantius III and grandson of Theodosius I, installed as emperor of the west by Theodosius II  | 2 July 419 – 16 March 455
(aged 35)

* * *

Murdered by Optelas and Thraustelas, retainers of Aetius[155]
File:Solidus of Marcian.png | Marcian
Marcianus | 25 August 450 – 27 January 457
(6 years, 5 months and 2 days) | Soldier and official, proclaimed emperor after marrying Pulcheria, a daughter of Arcadius. Emperor in the east  | 391/392 – 27 January 457
(aged 65)

* * *

Died after a prolonged period of illness[156]

### Last emperors in the west (455–476)[edit | edit source]

See also: Fall of the Western Roman Empire

Puppet emperors Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Solidus of Petronius Maximus.png | Petronius Maximus | 17 March – 31 May 455
(2 months and 14 days) | General and civil official, murdered Valentinian III and married his widow, Licinia Eudoxia | Unknown – 31 May 455

* * *

Killed by a mob while fleeing during the Vandalic sack of Rome[157]
File:Solidus Avitus Arles (obverse).jpg | Avitus
Eparchius Avitus | 9 July 455 – 17 October 456
(1 year, 3 months and 8 days) | General; proclaimed emperor by the Visigoths and Gallo-Romans after the death of Petronius Maximus  | Unknown – 456/457

* * *

Defeated and deposed by the magister militum Ricimer, consecrated as a bishop. Died soon thereafter of either natural causes, strangulation, or being starved to death[158]
File:Solidus Majorian Arles (obverse).jpg | Majorian
Julius Valerius Maiorianus | 28 December 457 – 2 August 461
(3 years, 7 months and 5 days) | General; proclaimed emperor by the army and backed by Ricimer  | Unknown – 7 August 461

* * *

Deposed by Ricimer and executed five days later[159]
File:Libiusseverus01854obverse.jpg | Severus III
Libius Severus | 19 November 461 – 14 November 465
(3 years, 11 months and 26 days) | Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer  | Unknown – 14 November 465

* * *

Died of natural causes[160]
File:Solidus of Anthemius.png | Anthemius
Procopius Anthemius | 12 April 467 – 11 July 472
(5 years, 2 months and 29 days) | General; husband of Marcia Euphemia, a daughter of Marcian. Proclaimed western emperor by the eastern emperor Leo I | Unknown – 11 July 472

* * *

Murdered by Gundobad after a civil war with Ricimer[161]
File:Tremissis Olybrius (obverse).jpg | Olybrius
Anicius Olybrius | c. April – 2 November 472
(c. 7 months) | Husband of Placidia, a daughter of Valentinian III. Proclaimed emperor by Ricimer  | Unknown – 2 November 472

* * *

Died of dropsy[162]
File:Solidus Glycerius Ravenna (obverse).jpg | Glycerius | 3/5 March 473 – 24 June 474
(1 year, 3 months and 11/19 days) | General; proclaimed emperor by Gundobad | Unknown lifespan

* * *

Deposed by Julius Nepos and made a bishop, subsequent fate unknown[163]
File:Solidus of Julius Nepos.png | Julius Nepos | 24 June 474 – 28 August 475
(1 year, 2 months and 4 days) | General; married to a relative of Verina, the wife of the eastern emperor Leo I. Installed as western emperor by Leo  | Unknown – 9 May 480

* * *

Fled to Dalmatia in the face of an attack by his magister militum Orestes. Continued to claim to be emperor in exile. Murdered by his retainers[164]
File:RomulusAugustus.jpg | Romulus "Augustulus"
Romulus Augustus | 31 October 475 – 4 September 476
(10 months and 4 days) | Proclaimed emperor by his father, the magister militum Orestes  | Roughly 465 – after 507/511?

* * *

The last western emperor. Deposed by the Germanic general Odoacer and retired. Possibly alive as late as 507 or 511; fate unknown[165]

### Leonid dynasty (east, 457–518)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Leonid dynasty and Byzantine Empire under the Leonid dynasty

Leonid dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Leo I Louvre Ma1012 n2 (cropped).jpg | Leo I "the Butcher"  | 7 February 457 – 18 January 474
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) | Low-ranking army officer; chosen by the magister militum Aspar to succeed Marcian  | 400 – 18 January 474
(aged 73)

* * *

First emperor to be crowned by the Patriarch of Constantinople. Died of dysentery[166]
File:Solidus of Leo II.png | Leo II | 18 January – November 474
(11 months) | Grandson of Leo I and son of Zeno; co-emperor since 17 November 473  | 467 – November 474
(aged 7)

* * *

Youngest emperor at the time of his death. Died of illness[167]
File:Semissis of Zeno.png | Zeno | 29 January 474 – 9 April 491
(17 years, 2 months and 11 days) | Husband of Ariadne, a daughter of Leo I, and father of Leo II. Crowned senior co-emperor with the approval of the Senate | 425/430 – 9 April 491
(aged 60/65)

* * *

Died of dysentery or epilepsy[168]
File:Solidus of Basiliscus.png | Basiliscus | 9 January 475 – August 476
(1 year and 7 months)

* * *

with Marcus (475–476)[r] | Brother of Verina, the wife of Leo I. Proclaimed emperor by his sister in opposition to Zeno and seized Constantinople  | Unknown – 476/477

* * *

Deposed by Zeno upon his return to Constantinople; imprisoned in a dried-up resorvoir and starved to death[169]
File:Anastasius I. minted 507-518.jpg | Anastasius I "Dicorus"  | 11 April 491 – 9 July 518
(27 years, 2 months and 28 days) | Government official; chosen by Ariadne, whom he married, to succeed Zeno  | 429/430 – 9 July 518
(aged 88)

* * *

Oldest emperor at the time of his death. Died of natural causes[170]

### Justinian dynasty (east, 518–602)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty

Justinian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Justin I obverse.jpg | Justin I
Iustinus | 9/10 July 518 – 1 August 527
(9 years and 23 days) | Soldier; proclaimed emperor by the troops after the death of Anastasius I  | 450 – 1 August 527
(aged 77)

* * *

Died of natural causes[171]
File:Mosaic of Justinianus I (cropped).jpg | Justinian I "the Great"
Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus | 1 April 527 – 14 November 565
(38 years, 7 months and 13 days) | Nephew and adoptive son of Justin I  | 481/482 – 14 November 565
(aged 83)

* * *

Temporarily reconquered most of the Western Roman Empire, including Rome. Died of natural causes[172]
File:Solidus of Justin II (obverse).jpg | Justin II
Iustinus | 14 November 565 – 5 October 578
(12 years, 10 months and 21 days) | Son of Vigilantia, sister of Justinian I  | Unknown – 5 October 578

* * *

Suffered an attack of dementia in 572, whereafter the government was run by regents. Died of natural causes[173]
File:Tiberios II (obverse).jpg | Tiberius II Constantine
Tiberius Constantinus | 26 September 578 – 14 August 582
(3 years, 10 months and 19 days) | Adoptive son of Justin II  | Mid-6th century – 14 August 582

* * *

Died after a sudden illness, supposedly after accidentally eating bad food[174]
File:Solidus of Maurice (transitional issue).png | Maurice
Mauricius Tiberius | 13 August 582 – 27 November 602
(20 years, 3 months and 14 days)

* * *

with Theodosius (590–602)[r] | Husband of Constantina, a daughter of Tiberius II Constantine  | 539 – 27 November 602
(aged 63)

* * *

Captured and executed by troops loyal to Phocas[175]
File:Solidus of Phocas.jpg | Phocas
Focas | 23 November 602 – 5 October 610
(7 years, 10 months and 12 days) | Centurion in the army; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Maurice  | 547 – 5 October 610
(aged 63)

* * *

Deposed and then beheaded on the orders of Heraclius[176]

## Later eastern emperors (610–1453)[edit | edit source]

### Heraclian dynasty (610–695)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty

Heraclian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Heraclius solidus.jpg | Heraclius
Ἡράκλειος[s] | 5 October 610 – 11 February 641
(30 years, 4 months and 6 days) | Son of Heraclius the Elder, the exarch of Carthage. Led a revolt against Phocas  | 574/575 – 11 February 641
(aged 66)

* * *

Ended the Persian Wars, but suffered the loss of Africa and the Levant to the Muslims. Died of natural causes[179]
File:Solidus Heraclius Constantine Obverse.jpg | Constantine III Heraclius
Heraclius Constantinus
Ἡράκλειος Κωνσταντῖνος[t] | 11 February – 25 May 641
(3 months and 14 days) | Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 22 January 613  | 3 May 612 – 25 May 641
(aged 29)

* * *

Died of tuberculosis[182]
File:Heraclius solidus sb 764 (obverse).png | Heraclonas
Heraclius, Ἡράκλειος | 11 February – 5 November (?) 641
(8 months and 25 days)

* * *

with Tiberius, son of Heraclius (641)[r] | Son of Heraclius; co-emperor since 4 July 638. Co-ruler with Constantine and then sole emperor under the regency of his mother Martina | 626 – unknown

* * *

Deposed, mutilated and exiled, subsequent fate unknown[183]
File:Solidus Constans II (obverse).jpg | Constans II "the Bearded"
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος | September 641 – 15 July 668
(26 years and 10 months) | Son of Heraclius Constantine; proclaimed co-emperor by Heraclonas at age 11  | 7 November 630 – 15 July 668
(aged 37)

* * *

Murdered in Sicily while bathing by supporters of the usurper Mezezius[184]
File:Constantine IV mosaic (cropped) (2).png | Constantine IV
Constantinus, Κωνσταντῖνος | September 668 – 10 July (?) 685
(16 years and 10 months)

* * *

with Heraclius and Tiberius, sons of Constans II (659–681)[r] | Son of Constans II; co-emperor since 13 April 654  | c. 650 – 10 July (?) 685
(aged approx. 35)

* * *

Died of dysentery[185]
File:Justinian II mosaic (cropped).png | Justinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Iustinianus, Ἰουστινιανός | July 685 – 695
(10 years) | Son of Constantine IV  | 668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)

* * *

Deposed and mutilated (hence his nickname, "Slit-nosed") by Leontius in 695; returned to the throne in 705[186]

### Twenty Years' Anarchy (695–717)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Twenty Years' Anarchy

Twenty Years' Anarchy Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Solidus of Leontius.png | Leontius
Λέων(τιος) | 695 – 698
(3 years) | General; deposed Justinian II  | Unknown – 15 February (?) 706

* * *

Deposed by Tiberius III in 698 and later executed by Justinian II in 706[187]
File:Solidus of Tiberius III Apsimar.png | Tiberius III
Τιβέριος | 698 – 705
(7 years) | General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Leontius  | Unknown – 15 February (?) 706

* * *

Deposed and later executed by Justinian II alongside Leontius[188]
File:Solidus of Justinian II, 2nd reign (reverse).jpg | Justinian II "Rhinotmetus"
Iustinianus, Ἰουστινιανός
(second reign) | 21 August (?) 705 – 4 November 711
(6 years, 2 months and 14 days)

* * *

with Tiberius, son of Justinian II (706–711)[r] | Retook the throne with the aid of the Khazars | 668/669 – 4 November 711
(aged 42)

* * *

Killed by supporters of Philippicus after fleeing Constantinople[189]
File:Solidus of Philippicus.png | Philippicus
Filepicus, Φιλιππικός | 4 November 711 – 3 June 713
(1 year, 6 months and 30 days) | General; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Justinian II  | Unknown – 20 January 714/715

* * *

Deposed and blinded in favor of Anastasius II, later died of natural causes[190]
File:Tremissis of Anastasius II.png | Anastasius II
Artemius Anastasius
Ἀρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος | 4 June 713 – fall 715
(less than 2 years) | Senior court official, proclaimed emperor after the deposition of Philippicus  | Unknown – 1 June 719

* * *

Abdicated to Theodosius III after a six-month civil war, becoming a monk. Beheaded by Leo III after an attempt to retake the throne[191]
File:Coin of Theodosius III.png | Theodosius III
Θεοδόσιος | Fall 715 – 25 March 717
(less than 2 years) | Tax-collector, possibly son of Tiberius III; proclaimed emperor by the troops against Anastasius II  | Unknown lifespan

* * *

Deposed by Leo III, whereafter he became a monk. His subsequent fate is unknown.[192]

### Isaurian dynasty (717–802)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty

(#) – Ambiguous legitimacy[j]

Isaurian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Solidus of Leo III.png | Leo III "the Isaurian"
Λέων[u] | 25 March 717 – 18 June 741
(24 years, 2 months and 24 days) | General; deposed Theodosius III  | c. 685 – 18 June 741
(aged approx. 56)

* * *

Ended Muslim expansion in Anatolia. Died of dropsy[193]
File:Solidus of Constantine V & Leo III (reverse).jpg | Constantine V "Copronymus"
Κωνσταντῖνος | 18 June 741 – 14 September 775
(34 years, 2 months and 27 days) | Son of Leo III; co-emperor since 31 March 720  | 718 – 14 September 775
(aged 57)

* * *

Last emperor to rule over Rome. Died of a fever[194]
File:Solidus of Artabasdos.png | Artabasdos (#)
Ἀρτάβασδος | June 741/2 – 2 November 743
(1/2 years and 5 months)

* * *

with Nikephoros, son of Artabasdos (741/2–743) | Husband of Anna, a daughter of Leo III. Revolted against Constantine V and briefly ruled at Constantinople  | Unknown lifespan

* * *

Deposed and blinded by Constantine V, relegated to a monastery where he died of natural causes[195]
File:Solidus of Leo IV and Constantine VI.png | Leo IV "the Khazar"
Λέων | 14 September 775 – 8 September 780
(4 years, 11 months and 25 days) | Son of Constantine V; co-emperor since 6 June 751  | 25 January 750 – 8 September 780
(aged 30)

* * *

Died of a fever[196]
File:Solidus of Constantine VI.png | Constantine VI
Κωνσταντῖνος | 8 September 780 – 19 August 797
(16 years, 11 months and 11 days) | Son of Leo IV; co-emperor since 14 April 776  | 14 January 771 – before 805
(aged less than 34)

* * *

Last emperor to be recognized in the West. Deposed and blinded by Irene, died in exile[197]
File:Solidus of Irene.png | Irene
Εἰρήνη | 19 August 797 – 31 October 802
(5 years, 2 months and 12 days) | Widow of Leo IV and former regent of Constantine VI. Dethroned and blinded her son Constantine in 797, becoming the first female ruler of the empire  | c. 752 – 9 August 803
(aged approx. 51)

* * *

Deposed by Nikephoros I and exiled to Lesbos, where she died of natural causes[198]

### Nikephorian dynasty (802–813)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Nikephorian dynasty

Nikephorian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Nikephoros I Logothetes.jpg | Nikephoros I
"the Logothete"
Νικηφόρος | 31 October 802 – 26 July 811
(8 years, 8 months and 26 days) | Court official; proclaimed emperor in opposition to Irene  | c. 760 – 26 July 811
(aged approx. 51)

* * *

Killed at the Battle of Pliska[199]
File:INC-1870-r Солид. Никифор I и его сын Ставракий. Ок. 803—811 гг. (реверс).png | Staurakios
Σταυράκιος | 28 July – 2 October 811
(2 months and 4 days) | Son of Nikephoros I; co-emperor since 25 December 803. Proclaimed emperor after the death of his father  | 790s – 11 January 812
(in his late teens)

* * *

Wounded at Pliska; abdicated in favor of Michael I and became a monk[200]
File:Byzantine co-emperor.jpg | Michael I Rangabe
Μιχαὴλ | 2 October 811 – 11 July 813
(1 year, 9 months and 9 days)

* * *

with Theophylact and Staurakios, sons of Michael I (811–813)[r] | Husband of Prokopia, a daughter of Nikephoros I  | c. 770 – 11 January 844
(aged approx. 74)

* * *

Abdicated in 813 in favor of Leo V after suffering a defeat at the Battle of Versinikia and retired as a monk[201]
File:Leo V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg | Leo V "the Armenian"
Λέων | 11 July 813 – 25 December 820
(7 years, 5 months and 14 days)

* * *

with Constantine (813–820)[r] | General; proclaimed emperor after the Battle of Versinikia | c. 775 – 25 December 820
(aged approx. 45)

* * *

Murdered while in church by supporters of Michael II[202]

### Amorian dynasty (820–867)[edit | edit source]

Main article: Byzantine Empire under the Amorian dynasty

(§) – Varying ascribed status[v]

Amorian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Michael II in the Madrid Skylitzes (cropped).jpg | Michael II "the Amorian"
Μιχαὴλ | 25 December 820 – 2 October 829
(8 years, 9 months and 7 days) | General sentenced to execution by Leo V; proclaimed emperor by Leo V's assassins and crowned by Patriarch Theodotus I on the same day  | c. 770 – 2 October 829
(aged approx. 59)

* * *

Died of kidney failure[204]
File:Theophilos (cropped2).jpg | Theophilos
Θεόφιλος | 2 October 829 – 20 January 842
(12 years, 3 months and 18 days)

* * *

with Constantine (c. 834–835)[r] | Son of Michael II; co-emperor since 12 May 821  | 812/813 – 20 January 842
(aged 30)

* * *

Died of dysentery[205]
File:Theodora in the Madrid Skylitzes2 (cropped).png | Theodora (§)
Θεοδώρα | 20 January 842 – 15 March 856
(14 years, 1 month and 24 days)

* * *

with Thekla (842–856)[r] | Widow of Theophilos; ruler in her own right during the minority of their son Michael III  | c. 815 – c. 867
(aged approx. 52)

* * *

Deposed by Michael III in 856, later died of natural causes[206]
File:Michael iii.jpg | Michael III "the Drunkard"
Μιχαὴλ | 20 January 842 – 24 September 867
(25 years, 8 months and 4 days) | Son of Theophilos; co-emperor since 16 May 840. Ruled under his mother's regency until 15 March 856  | 19 January 840 – 24 September 867
(aged 27)

* * *

The youngest emperor. Murdered by Basil I and his supporters[207]

### Macedonian dynasty (867–1056)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Macedonian dynasty, Lekapenos, and Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty

Macedonian dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Roman Emperor Basil I (cropped).png | Basil I "the Macedonian"
Βασίλειος | 24 September 867 – 29 August 886
(18 years, 9 months and 5 days)

* * *

with Constantine (868–879)[r] | General; proclaimed co-emperor by Michael III on 26 May 866 and became senior emperor after Michael's murder  | 811, 830 or 836 – 29 August 886
(aged approx. 50, 56 or 75)

* * *

Died after a hunting accident[208]
File:Detail of the Imperial Gate mosaic in Hagia Sophia showing Leo VI the Wise (cropped).jpg | Leo VI "the Wise"
Λέων | 29 August 886 – 11 May 912
(25 years, 8 months and 12 days) | Son of Basil I or illegitimate son of Michael III; crowned co-emperor on 6 January 870  | 19 September 866 – 11 May 912
(aged 45)

* * *

Died of an intestinal disease[209]
File:Emperor Alexander head.jpg | Alexander
Αλέξανδρος | 11 May 912 – 6 June 913
(1 year and 26 days) | Son of Basil I; co-emperor since September or October 879  | 23 November 870 – 6 June 913
(aged 42)

* * *

Died of illness, possibly testicular cancer[210]
File:Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (cropped).jpg | Constantine VII
Porphyrogenitus
Κωνσταντῖνος | 6 June 913 – 9 November 959
(46 years, 5 months and 3 days) | Son of Leo VI; co-emperor since 15 May 908. Successively dominated by regents and co-emperors until 27 January 945, when he deposed Romanos I's sons  | 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959
(aged 54)

* * *

Remembered for his numerous writings. Died of natural causes[211]
File:Seal of Romanos I Lekapenos (detail).jpg | Romanos I Lekapenos
Ῥωμανὸς | 17 December 920 – 20 December 944
(24 years and 3 days)

* * *

with Christopher (921–931), Stephen and Constantine Lekapenos (924–945)[r] | Overthrew Constantine VII's regency, married him to his daughter Helena and was made senior co-emperor. Made several sons co-emperors to curb Constantine VII's authority  | c. 870 – 15 June 948
(aged approx. 78)

* * *

Deposed by his sons Stephen and Constantine. Died of natural causes in exile as a monk[212]
File:Romanos (cropped) (cropped).JPG | Romanos II
Ῥωμανὸς | 9 November 959 – 15 March 963
(3 years, 4 months and 6 days) | Son of Constantine VII and grandson of Romanos I; co-emperor since 6 April 945  | 939 – 15 March 963
(aged 23)

* * *

Died of exhaustion on a hunting trip[213]
File:Nikephoros Phokas (cropped 1).jpg | Nikephoros II Phokas
Νικηφόρος | 16 August 963 – 11 December 969
(6 years, 3 months and 25 days) | General; proclaimed emperor on 2 July 963 against the unpopular Joseph Bringas (regent for the young sons of Romanos II), entered Constantinople on 16 August 963. Married Theophano, the widow of Romanos II  | c. 912 – 11 December 969
(aged approx. 57)

* * *

Murdered in a conspiracy involving his former supporters (including John I Tzimiskes) and Theophano[214]
File:John I in Madrid Skylitzes2.jpg | John I Tzimiskes
Ἰωάννης | 11 December 969 – 10 January 976
(6 years and 30 days) | Nephew of Nikephoros II, took his place as senior co-emperor  | c. 925 – 10 January 976
(aged approx. 50)

* * *

Possibly poisoned by Basil Lekapenos[215]
File:Basil II crop.png | Basil II "the Bulgar-Slayer"
Βασίλειος | 10 January 976 – 15 December 1025
(49 years, 11 months and 5 days) | Son of Romanos II; co-emperor since 22 April 960. Succeeded as senior emperor upon the death of John I  | 958 – 15 December 1025
(aged 67)

* * *

The longest-reigning emperor; best known for his reconquest of Bulgaria. Died of natural causes[216]
File:Constantine VIII in the Exultet roll (3).jpg | Constantine VIII
Κωνσταντῖνος | 15 December 1025 – 12 November 1028
(2 years, 10 months and 28 days) | Son of Romanos II and brother of Basil II; co-emperor since 30 March 962  | 960/961 – 12 November 1028
(aged 68)

* * *

Died of natural causes[217]
File:Romanos III in Madrid Skylitzes.png | Romanos III Argyros
Ῥωμανὸς | 12 November 1028 – 11 April 1034
(5 years, 4 months and 30 days) | Husband of Zoë, a daughter of Constantine VIII  | c. 968 – 11 April 1034
(aged approx. 66)

* * *

Possibly drowned on Zoë's orders[218]
File:Michael IV the Paphlagonian (cropped).jpg | Michael IV "the Paphlagonian"
Μιχαὴλ | 12 April 1034 – 10 December 1041
(7 years, 7 months and 28 days) | Lover of Zoë, made emperor after their marriage following Romanos III's death  | c. 1010 – 10 December 1041
(aged approx. 31)

* * *

Died of epilepsy[219]
File:Michael V in Madrid Skylitzes.jpg | Michael V "Kalaphates"
Μιχαὴλ | 13 December 1041 – 21 April 1042
(4 months and 8 days) | Nephew and designated heir of Michael IV, proclaimed emperor by Zoë three days after Michael IV's death  | c. 1015 – unknown

* * *

Deposed in a popular uprising after attempting to sideline Zoë, blinded and forced to become a monk[220]
File:Zoe mosaic Hagia Sophia (cropped).jpg | Zoë Porphyrogenita
Ζωή | 21 April – 12 June 1042
(1 month and 22 days) | Daughter of Constantine VIII and widow of Romanos III and Michael IV. Ruled in her own right from Michael V's deposition until her marriage to Constantine IX.  | c. 978 – 1050
(aged approx. 72)

* * *

Died of natural causes[221]
File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg | Theodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα | 21 April – 12 June 1042
(1 month and 22 days) | Daughter of Constantine VIII and sister of Zoë, proclaimed co-empress during the revolt that deposed Michael V  | c. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)

* * *

Sidelined after Zoë's marriage to Constantine IX, returned to the throne in 1055[222]
File:Emperor Constantine IX (cropped).jpg | Constantine IX Monomachos
Κωνσταντῖνος Μονομάχος[w] | 12 June 1042 – 11 January 1055
(12 years, 6 months and 30 days) | Husband of Zoë, made emperor the day after their marriage  | c. 1006 – 11 January 1055
(aged approx. 49)

* * *

Died of natural causes[224]
File:Theodora Porphyrogenita crown.jpg | Theodora Porphyrogenita
Θεοδώρα
(second reign) | 11 January 1055 – 31 August 1056
(1 year, 7 months and 20 days) | Claimed the throne again after Constantine IX's death as the last living member of the Macedonian dynasty  | c. 980 – 31 August 1056
(aged approx. 76)

* * *

Died of natural causes[222]
File:Tetarteron of Michael VI (reverse).png | Michael VI Bringas "Stratiotikos"
Μιχαήλ[w] | 22 August 1056 – 30 August 1057
(1 year and 8 days) | Proclaimed emperor by Theodora on her deathbed  | 980s/990s – c. 1057
(in his sixties)

* * *

Deposed in a revolt, retired to a monastery and died soon afterwards[225]
File:INC-3060-r Номисма тетартерон. Исаак I Комнин. Ок. 1057—1059 гг. (реверс).png | Isaac I Komnenos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός | 1 September 1057 – 22 November 1059
(2 years, 2 months and 21 days) | General, revolted against Michael VI  | c. 1007 – 31 May/1 June 1060
(aged approx. 53)

* * *

Abdicated to Constantine X due to illness and hostile courtiers, became a monk[226]

### Doukas dynasty (1059–1078)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Doukas and Byzantine Empire under the Doukas dynasty

(§) – Varying ascribed status[v]

Doukas dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Constantine X portrait.jpg | Constantine X Doukas
Κωνσταντῖνος Δούκας | 23 November 1059 – 23 May 1067
(7 years and 6 months) | Designated as emperor by Isaac I Komnenos during his abdication  | c. 1006 – 23 May 1067
(aged approx. 61)

* * *

Died of natural causes[227]
File:Eudokia Makrembolitissa portrait.png | Eudokia Makrembolitissa
Εὐδοκία Μακρεμβολίτισσα (§)  | 23 May – 31 December 1067
(7 months and 8 days) | Widow of Constantine X; ruler in her own right on behalf of their sons until her marriage to Romanos IV. Briefly resumed her regency in 1071  | c. 1030 – after 1078

* * *

Became a nun in November 1071 and later died of natural causes[228]
File:Romanus IV coin crop.png | Romanos IV Diogenes
Ῥωμανὸς Διογένης | 1 January 1068 – 1 October 1071
(3 years and 9 months)

* * *

with Leo (1069–1071) and Nikephoros Diogenes (1070–1071)[r][x] | Husband of Eudokia. Regent and senior co-emperor together with Constantine X's and Eudokia's children  | c. 1032 – 4 August 1072
(aged approx. 40)

* * *

Deposed in a palace coup while imprisoned by the Seljuk Sultanate. After his release captured and blinded on 29 June 1072, later dying of his wounds[230]
File:Michael VII Doukas on the Holy Crown (cropped).jpg | Michael VII Doukas "Parapinakes"
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας | 23 May 1067 – 24/31 March 1078
(10 years, 10 months and 1/8 days)

* * *

with Konstantios (1060–1078), Andronikos (1068–1070s) and Constantine Doukas (1074–1078; 1st time)[r] | Son of Constantine X; co-emperor with Eudokia and Romanos IV  | c. 1050 – c. 1090
(aged approx. 40)

* * *

Forced to become a monk after a popular uprising. Died of natural causes several years later[231]
File:Nikephoros III (cropped).jpg | Nikephoros III Botaneiates
Νικηφόρος Βοτανειάτης | 3 April 1078 – 1 April 1081
(2 years, 11 months and 29 days) | General; revolted against Michael VII on 2 July or 2 October 1077 and entered Constantinople on 27 March or 3 April. Married Maria of Alania, the former wife of Michael VII  | 1001/1002 – c. 1081
(aged approx. 80)

* * *

Abdicated after Alexios I captured Constantinople, became a monk and died of natural causes, probably later in the same year[232]

### Komnenos dynasty (1081–1185)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Komnenos and Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty

Komnenos dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:Alexios I Komnenos (cropped).jpg | Alexios I Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός | 1 April 1081 – 15 August 1118
(37 years, 4 months and 14 days)

* * *

with Constantine Doukas
(1081–1087; 2nd time)[r] | Nephew of Isaac I, also husband of Irene Doukaina, a grand-niece of Constantine X. General; revolted against Nikephoros III on 14 February 1081. Seized Constantinople on 1 April; crowned on 4 April  | c. 1057 – 15 August 1118
(aged approx. 61)

* * *

Died of natural causes[233]
File:John II head.png | John II Komnenos
"the Good"
Ἰωάννης Κομνηνός | 15 August 1118 – 8 April 1143
(24 years, 7 months and 24 days)

* * *

with Alexios Komnenos, son of John II
(1119–1142)[r] | Son of Alexios I, co-emperor since about September 1092  | 13 September 1087 – 8 April 1143
(aged 55)

* * *

Died of injuries sustained in a hunting accident, possibly assassinated (perhaps involving Raymond of Poitiers or supporters of Manuel I)[234]
File:Manuel I Comnenus (cropped).jpg | Manuel I Komnenos
"the Great"
Μανουὴλ Κομνηνός | 8 April 1143 – 24 September 1180
(37 years, 5 months and 16 days) | Youngest son and allegedly designated heir of John II on his deathbed, crowned in November 1143 after a few months of having to establish his rights  | 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180
(aged 61)

* * *

Last emperor to attempt reconquests in the west. Died of natural causes[235]
File:142 - Alexios II Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios II Komnenos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός | 24 September 1180 – c. September 1183
(3 years) | Son of Manuel I; co-emperor since 1171  | 14 September 1169 – c. September 1183
(aged 14)

* * *

Strangled on the orders of Andronikos I, body thrown in the sea[236]
File:143 - Andronikos I Komnenos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos I Komnenos "Misophaes"
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός | c. September 1183 – 12 September 1185
(2 years)

* * *

with John Komnenos, son of Andronikos I
(1183–1185)[r] | Son of Isaac Komnenos, a son of Alexios I. Overthrew the regency of Alexios II in April 1182, crowned co-emperor in 1183 and shortly thereafter had Alexios II murdered  | c. 1118/1120 – 12 September 1185
(aged 64–67)

* * *

Overthrown by Isaac II, tortured and mutilated in the imperial palace, then slowly dismembered alive by a mob in the Hippodrome[237]

### Angelos dynasty (1185–1204)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Angelos and Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty

Angelos dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος | 12 September 1185 – 8 April 1195
(9 years, 6 months and 27 days) | Great-grandson of Alexios I. Resisted an order of arrest issued by Andronikos I, after which he was proclaimed emperor by the people of Constantinople. Captured and killed Andronikos I  | c. 1156 – 28/29 January 1204
(aged 47)

* * *

Overthrown and blinded by Alexios III in 1195, reinstalled in 1203[238]
File:145 - Alexios III Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios III Angelos
Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός[y] | 8 April 1195 – 17/18 July 1203
(8 years, 3 months and 10 days) | Elder brother of Isaac II, overthrew and blinded his brother  | c. 1156 – 1211/1212
(aged approx. 58)

* * *

Fled after brief resistance against the Fourth Crusade. Died a natural death after being captured and forced to become a monk by Theodore I[240]
File:144 - Isaac II Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Isaac II Angelos
Ἰσαάκιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος
(second reign) | 19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204
(6 months and 8 days) | Freed from imprisonment during the Fourth Crusade by courtiers and reinstated as ruler after Alexios III abandoned the defense of Constantinople  | c. 1156 – 28/29 January 1204
(aged 47)

* * *

Became senile or demented and died of natural causes[238]
File:146 - Alexios IV Angelos (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios IV Angelos
Ἀλέξιος Ἄγγελος | 19 July 1203 – 27 January 1204
(6 months and 8 days) | Son of Isaac II, made co-emperor after the populace of Constantinople were convinced by the crusaders to accept him alongside his father  | c. 1182/1183 – c. 8 February 1204
(aged approx. 21)

* * *

Deposed and imprisoned by Alexios V, then strangled in prison[241]
File:147 - Alexios V Doukas (Mutinensis - color).png | Alexios V Doukas "Mourtzouphlos"
Ἀλέξιος Δούκας | 27/28 January – 12 April 1204
(2 months and 16 days) | Seized power through a palace coup  | c. 1139 – c. late November 1204
(aged approx. 65)

* * *

Captured by crusader Thierry de Loos, tried by the Latin Empire and thrown from the Column of Theodosius[242]

### Laskaris dynasty (1205–1261)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Laskaris and Empire of Nicaea

Note: Roman rule in Constantinople was interrupted with the capture of the city by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. Though the crusaders created a new line of Latin emperors in the city, modern historians recognize the line of emperors of the Laskaris dynasty, reigning in Nicaea, as the legitimate Roman emperors during this period as the Nicene Empire eventually retook Constantinople.[25] For other lines of claimant emperors, see List of Trapezuntine emperors and List of Thessalonian emperors.
Laskaris dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:148 - Theodore I Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png | Theodore I Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Κομνηνὸς Λάσκαρις | c. August 1205 – November 1221
(16 years and 3 months)

* * *

with Nicholas Laskaris (1208–1210)[r] | Husband of Anna Komnene Angelina, a daughter of Alexios III. Organized resistance against the Latin Empire in Nicaea and proclaimed emperor in 1205 after the Battle of Adrianople; crowned by Patriarch Michael IV on 6 April 1208.  | c. 1174 – November 1221
(aged approx. 47)

* * *

Died of natural causes[243]
File:149 - John III Doukas Vatatzes (Mutinensis - color).png | John III Doukas Vatatzes
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Βατάτζης | c. December 1221 – 3 November 1254
(32 years and 11 months) | Husband of Irene Laskarina, a daughter of Theodore I  | c. 1192 – 3 November 1254
(aged approx. 62)

* * *

Started Nicaean expansionism. Died of natural causes[244]
File:150 - Theodore II Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png | Theodore II Laskaris
Θεόδωρος Δούκας Λάσκαρις | 3 November 1254 – 16 August 1258
(3 years, 9 months and 13 days) | Son of John III and grandson of Theodore I  | November 1221 – 16 August 1258
(aged 36)

* * *

Died of epilepsy[245]
File:151 - John IV Laskaris (Mutinensis - color).png | John IV Laskaris
Ἰωάννης Δούκας Λάσκαρις | 16 August 1258 – 25 December 1261
(3 years, 4 months and 9 days) | Son of Theodore II  | 25 December 1250 – c. 1305
(aged approx. 55)

* * *

Blinded, deposed and imprisoned by Michael VIII Palaiologos in 1261, died in captivity several decades later[246]

### Palaiologos dynasty (1259–1453)[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Palaiologos and Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty

Palaiologos dynasty Portrait  | Name  | Reign  | Succession  | Life details

|
|
|
|

File:152 - Michael VIII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Michael VIII Palaiologos
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος | 1 January 1259 – 11 December 1282
(23 years, 11 months and 10 days) | Great-grandson of Alexios III; became regent for John IV in 1258 and crowned co-emperor in 1259. Regained Constantinople on 25 July 1261, entered the city on 15 August. Became sole ruler after deposing John IV on 25 December  | 1224/1225 – 11 December 1282
(aged 57/58)

* * *

Died of dysentery[247]
File:153 - Andronikos II Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos II Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος | 11 December 1282 – 24 May 1328
(45 years, 5 months and 13 days) | Son of Michael VIII; co-emperor since 8 November 1272  | 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332
(aged 72)

* * *

Deposed by his grandson Andronikos III in 1328 and became a monk, dying of natural causes four years later[248]
File:154 - Michael IX Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Michael IX Palaiologos
Μιχαὴλ Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος | 21 May 1294 – 12 October 1320
(26 years, 4 months and 21 days) | Son and co-ruler of Andronikos II, named co-emperor in 1281 but not crowned until 21 May 1294  | 17 April 1277/1278 – 12 October 1320
(aged 42/43)

* * *

Allegedly died of grief due to the accidental murder of his second son[249]
File:155 - Andronikos III Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos III Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Δούκας Ἄγγελος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος | 24 May 1328 – 15 June 1341
(13 years and 22 days) | Son of Michael IX, named co-emperor between 1308 and 1313. Fought with his grandfather Andronikos II for power from April 1321 onwards. Crowned emperor on 2 February 1325, became sole emperor after deposing Andronikos II  | 25 March 1297 – 15 June 1341
(aged 44)

* * *

Died of sudden illness, possibly malaria[250]
File:157 - John V Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | John V Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος | 15 June 1341 – 16 February 1391
(49 years, 8 months and 1 day) | Son of Andronikos III, not formally crowned until 19 November 1341. Dominated by regents until 1354, faced numerous usurpations and civil wars throughout his long reign  | 18 June 1332 – 16 February 1391
(aged 58)

* * *

Reigned almost 50 years, but only held effective power for 17. Lost almost all territories outside Constantinople. Died of natural causes[251]
File:156 - John VI Kantakouzenos (Mutinensis - color).png | John VI Kantakouzenos
Ἰωάννης Ἄγγελος Κομνηνὸς Παλαιολόγος Καντακουζηνός | 8 February 1347 – 10 December 1354
(7 years, 10 months and 2 days)

* * *

with Matthew Kantakouzenos (1353–1357)[r] | Related to the Palaiologoi through his mother. Proclaimed by the army on 26 October 1341, became regent and senior co-emperor after a lengthy civil war with John V's mother, Anna of Savoy. Entered Constantinople on 8 February, crowned on 21 May 1347  | c. 1295 – 15 June 1383
(aged approx. 88)

* * *

Deposed by John V in another civil war and retired, becoming a monk. Died of natural causes several decades later[252]
File:158 - Andronikos IV Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Andronikos IV Palaiologos
Ἀνδρόνικος Κομνηνός Παλαιολόγος | 12 August 1376 – 1 July 1379
(2 years, 10 months and 19 days) | Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 1352. Rebelled and deposed his father in 1376, not formally crowned until 18 October 1377  | 11 April 1348 – 25/28 June 1385
(aged 37)

* * *

Deposed by John V in 1379 and fled to Galata in exile but restored as co-emperor and heir in 1381. Rebelled again in 1385 but died shortly thereafter[253]
File:159 - John VII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | John VII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος | 14 April – 17 September 1390
(5 months and 3 days, in Constantinople)
1403 – 22 September 1408
(5 years, in Thessalonica)

* * *

with Andronikos V Palaiologos (1403–1407)[r] | Son of Andronikos IV, usurped the throne from John V in 1390. Deposed shortly thereafter but granted Thessalonica by Manuel II in 1403, from where he once more ruled as emperor until his death  | 1370 – 22 September 1408
(aged 38)

* * *

Died of natural causes[254]
File:160 - Manuel II Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Manuel II Palaiologos
Μανουὴλ Παλαιολόγος | 16 February 1391 – 21 July 1425
(34 years, 4 months and 5 days) | Son of John V and grandson of John VI; co-emperor since 25 September 1373  | 27 June 1350 – 21 July 1425
(aged 74)

* * *

Suffered a stroke in 1422, whereafter the government was run by his son, John VIII. Died of natural causes[255]
File:161 - John VIII Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | John VIII Palaiologos
Ίωάννης Παλαιολόγος | 21 July 1425 – 31 October 1448
(23 years, 4 months and 10 days) | Son of Manuel II; co-emperor since before 1408 and full emperor since 19 January 1421  | 18 December 1392 – 31 October 1448
(aged 55)

* * *

Died of natural causes[256]
File:162 - Constantine XI Palaiologos (Mutinensis - color).png | Constantine XI Palaiologos
Κωνσταντῖνος Δραγάσης Παλαιολόγος | 6 January 1449 – 29 May 1453
(4 years, 4 months and 23 days) | Son of Manuel II and favored successor of his brother John VIII. Crowned emperor in Mystras on 6 January 1449, entered Constantinople on 12 March.  | 8 February 1405 – 29 May 1453
(aged 48)

* * *

Died in battle at the fall of Constantinople.[257]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* List of Roman and Byzantine empresses – for the consorts of the emperors
* List of Roman usurpers – for a list of unsuccessful claimants to the position of emperor (41–470)
* List of Byzantine usurpers – for a list of unsuccessful claimants to the position of emperor (479–1448)
* List of Roman dynasties – for a list of the many dynasties that ruled the Roman Empire
* List of Roman consuls – for a list of the consuls who held power during the Roman Republic and who continued to be appointed in imperial times
* List of Roman dictators – for a list of dictators during the Roman Republic
* Family tree of Roman emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (27 BC–518 AD)
* Family tree of Byzantine emperors – for a concise family tree of emperors and their immediate family (337–1453)
* List of Byzantine emperors

## Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ^ The term basileus eventually replaced augustus as the official title of the emperor, although both were seen as equals already by the times of Constantine I.[14]
2. ^ The Byzantine Empire is universally recognized as the remnant, continuation or later stage of the Roman Empire. There is no universally agreed date used to separate the ancient Roman and "Byzantine" empires, with proposed dates ranging in age from 284 to 716.[15] Some authors reject the term "Byzantine" entirely.[16]
3. ^ Spain was lost in 625[18] and Africa in 698.[19] A large portion of Italy was conquered by the Lombards already under Justinian I's successor, Justin II.[20] Rome and its surroundings remained under imperial control until 756, when they became the Papal States,[21] though the last Italian holdouts were not lost until 1071 with the fall of Bari.[22] The seventh century also saw much of the empire's eastern and southern territories lost permanently to Arab Muslim conquests.[23]
4. ^ There is no "official" count of Roman emperors given that different scholars sometimes include and omit different emperors (see Legitimacy). This list includes 171 emperors, 15 of whose legitimacy is disputed in scholarship (including the obscure figure of Silbannacus, whose existence and role are shrouded in mystery,[24] and the four emperors of Nicaea, who are often seen as the "legitimate" emperors during the interregnum of 1204–1261),[25] and 5 ruling empresses, 2 of which have variable ascribed status (these being Saint Theodora and Eudokia Makrembolitissa, who were rulers in their own right but are still absent in most lists of rulers[26] or just labeled as regents),[27] for a total of 176 monarchs. Also included are 33 junior co-emperors, 3 of whose legitimacy is debated, and 1 junior co-empress. All in all, this list thus includes a total of 210 occupants of the Roman imperial office.
5. ^ This was one of the titles used for the emperors in Constantinople by Ottoman writers prior to 1453.[28]
6. ^ Entries also include the regnal name of each emperor. These generally differed from their original birth name, often adopting elements from the previous emperor.[50] Augustus's full name would be "Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus" according to Roman naming conventions, but he styled himself as "Imperator Caesar Augustus", treating "Caesar" as a family name.[51] Given that "Imperator" was only a victory title, it will be omitted from the emperors' full nomenclature.
7. ^ The conventional date for the Empire's founding is 27 BC,[1] when the Senate awarded Octavian the title and name Augustus alongside one of several grants of power.[2] Ancient writers, however, give him a rule of 56 years.[1] He became de facto sovereign in 31 BC, after defeating his last remaining opposition at the Battle of Actium.[52] This is a date also used by some writers.[1] Augustus himself dated his accession to legal power to 7 January 43 BC, when he first received imperium.[2] Later that year he became consul (19 August) and then triumvir (27 November) alongside Mark Antony and Lepidus. Augustus thus ruled the Roman state for exactly 56 years, but only 40 as "emperor".[2]
8. ^ By this time, 'Caesar' and 'Augustus' are regarded less as personal names and more as imperial titles, with the former denoting the heir-apparent and the latter indicating the emperor himself.[67]
9. ^ a b The co-emperors marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures, mostly children, who are not always counted as "true" emperors given their submissive status to the senior emperor.[46]
10. ^ a b c d e f Unless otherwise noted to be some other ambiguity, the emperors marked to be of ambiguous legitimacy are those who fulfill one or more of the inclusion criteria above, but who are not universally regarded by scholars to count as legitimate. In most cases, such figures are those who held power only briefly, and/or who in times of more than one emperor held one of the capitals but never achieved the full recognition of the other emperor(s).[81][82][83][84]
11. ^ a b c d e On account of the limited surviving source material, the dates used here for the Year of the Six Emperors (238) are approximate and only one of several estimates.[85]
12. ^ Unmentioned in literary sources and known only from two coins seemingly issued in Rome, implying he was proclaimed emperor in the capital, probably between Aemilianus and Valerian, or against either.[100][101][102]
13. ^ Made caesar by his father and only referred to as augustus in a single series of coins, issued while he was besieged in Cologne in 260. Coinage issued after his death honor him as caesar; probably because Gallienus didn't want to advertise the death of a second emperor in one year.[105][106]
14. ^ a b Legitimately appointed as co-emperor by Licinius, though as western emperor (in opposition to Constantine I). Did not actually rule anything given that Licinius did not control the west.[125]
15. ^ Although technically recognized by Constantius II, who even sent him the imperial diadem, Vetranio is often regarded as a usurper.[134]
16. ^ From the fourth century, emperors and other high-profile men of non-aristocratic birth often bore the name "Flavius", the family name of the Constantinian dynasty. Because it was often used as a status marker rather than personal name,[137] "Flavius" will generally be omitted in the following entries for simplicity.
17. ^ Distinction between nomen, praenomen and cognomen, the core elements of Roman naming conventions, began to fade away from the 3rd century onwards. Given that "new Romans" —that is, barbarians turned citizens— adopted the names of their masters, many citizens adopted the names Julius, Flavius (notable the Constantinians) and Marcus Aurelius (notable the 3rd century emperors), thus making them obsolete as surnames. As a result, most citizens of the Empire, even emperors, reverted back to single-names by the 5th century.[139]
18. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Although they constitutionally held the same supreme power as their senior counterpart, it is customary among scholars of the later empire to only regard those who actually ruled as emperors, omitting junior co-emperors who only exercised power nominally and never governed in their own name.[45] Co-emperors from the late 4th century onwards are thus no longer given full entries in the list, nor are later senior emperors' tenures as co-emperors counted as part of their reigns, per standard modern late Roman & Byzantine historiography.[26]
19. ^ From 629 onwards, Heraclius issued administrative documents in Greek.[177] Latin continued to be used in communication with Western Europe until the end of the empire and coins continued to be struck with Latin inscriptions until the early eighth century.[178]
20. ^ Often enumerated as 'Constantine III',[180] a name also applied to the earlier western emperor. It has been also used, at least once, for Heraclius Constantine's son Constans II.[181]
21. ^ Latin ceased being used in coin inscriptions under Leo III.[178]
22. ^ a b The empresses marked as being of "varying ascribed status" are figures who were undisputed as legitimate heads of the imperial government and who are sometimes (including by the Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium),[203] though not always, seen as having been empresses regnant.
23. ^ a b Emperors began to officially use family names from Constantine IX Monomachos onwards. The sole exception after Constantine IX's reign is Michael VI, whose family name (Bringas) was far less distinguished than those of the other imperial families and thus does not appear in official use.[223]
24. ^ Unattested in coinage; Leo is only called emperor in a singular letter, while his brother's status can only be deduced from the fact that he was born in the purple and that he also used the "imperial tokens".[229]
25. ^ Alexios III used the name Alexios Komnenos Angelos (Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός Ἄγγελος) prior to his accession but reigned as Alexios Komnenos, dropping his own family name in order to stress his matrilineal descent from the Komnenos dynasty.[239]

## References[edit | edit source]

### Citations[edit | edit source]

1. ^ a b c d Mosshammer 2008, pp. 342–343.
2. ^ a b c d Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54.
3. ^ Loewenstein 1973, pp. 329, 403.
4. ^ Loewenstein 1973, p. 238.
5. ^ Loewenstein 1973, p. 329.
6. ^ Loewenstein 1973, p. 245.
7. ^ Richardson 1984, pp. 39–40.
8. ^ Wu 2016, p. 35.
9. ^ Loewenstein 1973, p. 443.
10. ^ Loewenstein 1973, pp. 238, 403.
11. ^ Sandberg 2008, pp. 199–213.
12. ^ Arnold, Bjornlie & Sessa 2016, p. 3.
13. ^ Williams & Friell 1998, p. 187.
14. ^ ODB, p. 264.
15. ^ Mango 2002, p. 2.
16. ^ Goldsworthy 2009, p. 8.
17. ^ Halsall 2018, p. 53.
18. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 47–49.
19. ^ Becker 1913, p. 370.
20. ^ Hartmann 1913, p. 196.
21. ^ Logan 2012, pp. 71–74.
22. ^ Chalandon 1923, p. 325.
23. ^ a b Nicol 1992, p. ix.
24. ^ a b Estiot 1996.
25. ^ a b Treadgold 1997, p. 734.
26. ^ a b ODB, p. 360.
27. ^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 859–860.
28. ^ Çolak 2014, p. 19.
29. ^ Nicol 1967, p. 334.
30. ^ Çolak 2014, pp. 21–22.
31. ^ Nicol 1992, pp. 115–116.
32. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 3.
33. ^ a b Smolin 2021, p. 22.
34. ^ a b Claes 2015, p. 15.
35. ^ a b Omissi 2018, p. 25.
36. ^ a b Claes 2015, p. 23.
37. ^ Omissi 2018, pp. 9, 14, 17, 24.
38. ^ Smolin 2021, pp. 22–23.
39. ^ Omissi 2018, pp. 21, 29–30.
40. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 34.
41. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 32.
42. ^ Omissi 2018, p. xix.
43. ^ Mathisen 1997.
44. ^ Claes 2015, p. 18.
45. ^ a b Foss 2005, p. 101.
46. ^ a b Elton 1825, p. 303; Grant 1998, p. 179; Hekster 2008, p. 155; Cooley 2012; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. v–xii; Britannica; Livius; MET.
47. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 17.
48. ^ Van Tricht 2011, p. 79–80.
49. ^ Lawler 2004, p. 323.
50. ^ Cooley 2012.
51. ^ Syme 1958.
52. ^ Meijer 2004, pp. 14–16.
53. ^ Grant, pp. 8, 9, 12–13; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 53–54, 350.
54. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 70–72, 350; Grant, pp. 8, 16, 20, 25.
55. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 78; Grant, pp. 8, 25, 27.
56. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 82; Grant, pp. 8, 29, 33.
57. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 88–89, 350; Grant, pp. 8, 34, 39.
58. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 94; Grant, pp. 43, 44; Hammond, p. 24.
59. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 97; Grant, pp. 46–47.
60. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 99–100; Grant, pp. 48–50.
61. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 101; Grant, pp. 51–52, 55.
62. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 105; Grant, p. 55; Hammond, p. 27.
63. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 109; Grant, pp. 60–69.
64. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 114; Grant, p. 69.
65. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 116–117; Grant, pp. 71, 73, 76; Omissi 2018, p. 8; Cooley 2012, p. 492.
66. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 122–123; Grant, pp. 68, 76; Omissi 2018, p. 8.
67. ^ Hammond, pp. 29–31.
68. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 128; Grant, p. 87.
69. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 131–132; Grant, pp. 68, 89, 91, 93.
70. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 135; Grant, pp. 93, 94.
71. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 140–141; Grant, p. 97; Omissi 2018, p. 8.
72. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 145; Grant, pp. 103–104.
73. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 147; Grant, pp. 106–108; Cooley 2012, p. 495.
74. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 149–150; Grant, pp. 108, 110; Omissi 2018, p. 9.
75. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 156–157; Grant, pp. 119–120; Hammond, pp. 35–36.
76. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 160; Grant, p. 122.
77. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 162; Grant, pp. 123, 124, 125–126.
78. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 163–164; Grant, p. 125.
79. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 165; Grant, pp. 126, 129; Cooley 2012, p. 496.
80. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 171–172; Grant, pp. 130–133; Cooley 2012, p. 496.
81. ^ Vagi 1999, pp. 415, 463, 529.
82. ^ Omissi 2018, p. 24.
83. ^ Seibt 2018, p. 213.
84. ^ Tilemachos 2015, p. 243.
85. ^ Rea 1972, pp. 1–19.
86. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 176–179; Grant, pp. 137–139; Omissi 2018, p. 10.
87. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 180–181; Grant, pp. 140–141; Meijer 2004, p. 85.
88. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 182; Grant, pp. 142–143; Meijer 2004, p. 85; Peachin 1990, p. 28.
89. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 183–184; Grant, pp. 146–148; Meijer 2004, p. 87; Peachin 1990, p. 28.
90. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 185–186; Grant, pp. 144–145; Peachin 1990, p. 28.
91. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 187–189; Grant, pp. 149–151; Peachin 1990, p. 29.
92. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 190–191; Grant, pp. 152–155.
93. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 192–193; Grant, pp. 152–155.
94. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 195–197; Grant, pp. 156–159.
95. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 197–198; Grant, pp. 156–159.
96. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 200–201; Grant, pp. 160–161.
97. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 198–199; Peachin 1990, p. 34.
98. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 201–202; Grant, pp. 160–161; Peachin 1990, p. 36.
99. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 203–204; Grant, p. 162; Peachin 1990, pp. 36–37.
100. ^ Claes 2015, p. 44.
101. ^ Estiot 1996, pp. 105–117.
102. ^ Hartmann 2002.
103. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 205–207; Grant, pp. 163–167; Peachin 1990, pp. 37–38.
104. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 209–211; Grant, pp. 168–172; Peachin 1990, pp. 39–40.
105. ^ Shiel 1979, p. 117.
106. ^ Vagi 1999, p. 357.
107. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 213; Grant, pp. 168–172.
108. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 222; Grant, pp. 179–180; Stein 1924, pp. 45, 50.
109. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 224; Grant, pp. 181–182; Stein 1924, pp. 46, 50.
110. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 225–227; Grant, pp. 183–187; Peachin 1990, pp. 43–44; Stein 1924, pp. 46, 50.
111. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 241–242; Grant, pp. 188–189; Watson 1999, pp. 110, 225, 250 (n. 46).
112. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 243; Grant, p. 190; Peachin 1990, pp. 46–47.
113. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 244–245; Grant, pp. 191–193; Peachin 1990, p. 47.
114. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 248–249; Grant, pp. 194–195; Peachin 1990, p. 49.
115. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 250–251; Grant, pp. 196–197; Peachin 1990, pp. 49–50.
116. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 252; Grant, pp. 198–201.
117. ^ Barnes, pp. 4, 30–32; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 257–258; Grant, p. 204.
118. ^ Barnes, pp. 4, 13, 32, 34; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 262–263; Grant, pp. 210–212.
119. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 269; Barnes, pp. 35–36; Grant, pp. 216–218.
120. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 272–273; Barnes, pp. 4–6, 46; Grant, pp. 221–222.
121. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 278; Barnes, pp. 4–5, 38–39; Grant, pp. 223–224.
122. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 279; Grant, pp. 224–226; Barnes, pp. 12–13, 34.
123. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 282; Barnes, pp. 6–7, 43–44; Grant, pp. 235–237.
124. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 276; Barnes, pp. 6–7, 39; Grant, pp. 238–240.
125. ^ Vagi 1999, pp. 466–467.
126. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 284; Barnes, p. 15.
127. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 285; Barnes, p. 15.
128. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 286–288; Barnes, pp. 5–8, 39–42; Grant, pp. 228–231, 234.
129. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 296; Barnes, pp. 8, 44–45; Grant, p. 241.
130. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 298; Barnes, pp. 8, 45.
131. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 300–301; Grant, pp. 242–244.
132. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 532; Grant, pp. 248–250; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 305–306.
133. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 624; Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 306.
134. ^ Grant, p. 249; Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 307; Meijer 2004, p. 127–128.
135. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 307; PLRE, Vol. I, p. 954; Omissi 2018, pp. 181–182.
136. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 309–310; Grant, pp. 251–253.
137. ^ Cameron 1988, pp. 26, 28, 33.
138. ^ Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 312; Grant, pp. 255–258; PLRE, Vol. I, p. 461.
139. ^ Salway 1994.
140. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 933–934; Grant, pp. 259–262; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 313–314.
141. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 930–931; Grant, pp. 263–265; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 316–318.
142. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 742–743; Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 318.
143. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 401; Grant, pp. 266–267; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 319–320.
144. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 588; Grant, pp. 274–275; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 327–328.
145. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 934–935; Grant, pp. 268–269; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 321–322.
146. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 293; Kienast, Eck & Heil, p. 329.
147. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, pp. 904–905; Grant, pp. 270–273; Kienast, Eck & Heil, pp. 323–329; ODB, pp. 2050–2051.
148. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 99; ODB, pp. 173–174; Grant, pp. 276–281; Croke 1995, p. 58.
149. ^ PLRE, Vol. I, p. 442; ODB, p. 946; Grant, pp. 282–285.
150. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 316–317; Grant, pp. 286–287.
151. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, p. 1100; ODB, pp. 2051–2052; Grant, pp. 288–291.
152. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 180–181.
153. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 321–325; Grant, pp. 292–295.
154. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 594–595; Grant, pp. 296–297.
155. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 1138–1139; Grant, pp. 298–304.
156. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 714–715; ODB, pp. 1296–1297; Grant, pp. 305–307.
157. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 308–309; Grant, pp. 315–316.
158. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 196–198; Grant, pp. 310–311.
159. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 702–703; Grant, pp. 315–316.
160. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 1004–1005; Grant, pp. 317–318.
161. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 96–98; Grant, pp. 319–321.
162. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 796–798; Grant, p. 322.
163. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 514, 777; Grant, pp. 323–324.
164. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 777–778; Grant, pp. 325–326.
165. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 949–950; Grant, pp. 332–334.
166. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 663–664; ODB, pp. 1206–1207; Grant, pp. 312–314; Croke 2004, p. 569–572.
167. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 664–665; ODB, pp. 1207–1208; Croke 2004, pp. 563–575.
168. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 1200–1202; ODB, p. 2223; Grant, pp. 327–329; Croke 2004, p. 572.
169. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 212–214; Grant, pp. 330–331.
170. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 78–80; ODB, pp. 86–87.
171. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 648–651; ODB, p. 1082; Grierson 1962, p. 45.
172. ^ PLRE, Vol. II, pp. 645–648; ODB, pp. 1083–1084.
173. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, pp. 754–756; ODB, pp. 1082–1083; Grierson 1962, p. 47.
174. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 1323–1326; ODB, pp. 2083–2084.
175. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 855–860; ODB, p. 1318.
176. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIB, pp. 1030–1032; ODB, p. 1666.
177. ^ Kaegi 2003, p. 194.
178. ^ a b Grierson 1973, p. 177.
179. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 587; ODB, p. 916–917; Treadgold 1997, pp. 306, 308.
180. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 349; Grierson 1973, p. 385; Treadgold 1997, p. 308ff; Kaegi 2003, p. 112ff.
181. ^ Foss 2005, pp. 93–94.
182. ^ ODB, pp. 916–917; Grierson 1962, p. 48; Treadgold 1997, p. 309.
183. ^ PLRE, Vol. IIIA, p. 588; ODB, p. 918; Treadgold 1990, pp. 431–33.
184. ^ ODB, pp. 496–497; Grierson 1968, p. 402.
185. ^ ODB, pp. 500–501; Grierson 1968, pp. 402, 512.
186. ^ ODB, pp. 1084–1085; Grierson 1962, pp. 50–51; Grierson 1968, p. 568.
187. ^ ODB, pp. 1212–1213.
188. ^ ODB, p. 2084; Grierson 1962, p. 51.
189. ^ ODB, pp. 1084–1085; Grierson 1962, pp. 50–51.
190. ^ ODB, p. 1654; Grierson 1962, pp. 51–52.
191. ^ ODB, p. 87; Grierson 1962, p. 52.
192. ^ ODB, p. 2052.
193. ^ ODB, pp. 1208–1209; Treadgold 1997, p. 356.
194. ^ ODB, p. 501; Treadgold 1997, p. 366; PmbZ, Konstantinos 7 (#3703).
195. ^ ODB, p. 192; Garland 2006, p. 10; Schreiner, pp. 85–86.
196. ^ ODB, p. 1209; PmbZ, Leo 4 (#4243).
197. ^ ODB, pp. 501–502; Treadgold 1997, pp. 417–424; PmbZ, Konstantinos 8 (#3704).
198. ^ ODB, pp. 1008–1009; Grierson 1962, p. 55.
199. ^ ODB, pp. 1476–1477.
200. ^ ODB, pp. 1945–1946; Grierson 1962, p. 55; Treadgold 1997, p. 429.
201. ^ ODB, p. 1362; Treadgold 1997, p. 431–433.
202. ^ ODB, pp. 1209–1210; Treadgold 1997, pp. 431–433, 438.
203. ^ ODB, pp. 739, 2037.
204. ^ ODB, p. 1363; Treadgold 1997, pp. 433–436, 438.
205. ^ ODB, p. 2066.
206. ^ ODB, pp. 2037–2038; Treadgold 1997, p. 438; Garland 1999, p. 102.
207. ^ ODB, pp. 1364; Treadgold 1997, pp. 446–455; PmbZ, Michael 11 (#4991).
208. ^ ODB, p. 260; Treadgold 1997, pp. 461, 490; Grierson 1973, pp. 473–476.
209. ^ ODB, pp. 1210–1211; Treadgold 1997, p. 458–462, 470, 491.
210. ^ ODB, pp. 56–57; Treadgold 1997, p. 471; Grierson 1973, p. 473–476.
211. ^ ODB, pp. 502–503; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
212. ^ ODB, p. 1806; Schreiner, p. 121–128.
213. ^ ODB, pp. 1806–1807; Treadgold 1997, pp. 495–497.
214. ^ ODB, pp. 1478–1479.
215. ^ ODB, p. 1045.
216. ^ ODB, pp. 261–262; Grierson 1973, pp. 589, 599.
217. ^ ODB, p. 503; Grierson 1962, p. 58.
218. ^ ODB, pp. 503, 1807; Grierson 1962, p. 59.
219. ^ ODB, p. 1365; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
220. ^ ODB, pp. 1365–1366; Treadgold 1997, p. 491.
221. ^ ODB, p. 2228; Treadgold 1997, p. 590.
222. ^ a b ODB, p. 2038; Treadgold 1997, pp. 491, 590.
223. ^ Grierson 1973, p. 180.
224. ^ ODB, p. 504.
225. ^ ODB, p. 1366; Treadgold 1997, p. 597; Schreiner, pp. 149–150.
226. ^ ODB, pp. 1011–1012; Schreiner, pp. 151–152; Grierson 1973, pp. 759–760.
227. ^ ODB, pp. 504–505; Schreiner, pp. 151–152; Grierson 1973, p. 764.
228. ^ ODB, pp. 739–740; Treadgold 1997, p. 608; Grierson 1973, pp. 779–780.
229. ^ PmbZ, Leon 15005..
230. ^ ODB, p. 1807; Treadgold 1997, pp. 601–604, 608; Schreiner, p. 156.
231. ^ ODB, pp. 1366–1367; Schreiner, p. 157–159; Norwich 1993, p. 361.
232. ^ ODB, p. 1479; Schreiner, p. 158–159; Grierson 1973, p. 798–799, 821; Maynard 2021.
233. ^ ODB, p. 63; Schreiner, p. 159–164.
234. ^ ODB, pp. 1046–1047; Treadgold 1997, pp. 628–637; Bucossi & Rodriguez Suarez 2016, p. 16.
235. ^ ODB, pp. 1289–1290; Treadgold 1997, pp. 636, 638–650.
236. ^ ODB, pp. 64, 1289; Treadgold 1997, pp. 650–653; Schreiner, p. 176.
237. ^ ODB, pp. 64, 94, 1012; Treadgold 1997, pp. 653–656; Lascaratos 1999, p. 73.
238. ^ a b ODB, p. 1012; Treadgold 1997, pp. 654–660; Schreiner, pp. 183–185; Macrides 1999, VI: p. 75, X: p. 514, XII: p. 195.
239. ^ Cotsonis 2020, pp. 260–261.
240. ^ ODB, pp. 64–65; Treadgold 1997, pp. 659–664; Schreiner, pp. 183–185.
241. ^ ODB, pp. 65–66; Schreiner, pp. 183–185.
242. ^ ODB, p. 66; Treadgold 1997, pp. 265–266, 665; Schreiner, pp. 185–186.
243. ^ ODB, pp. 2039–2040; Schreiner, pp. 187–188; Angelov 2019, p. 18; Dragon 2003, p. 275.
244. ^ ODB, pp. 1047–1048; Angelov 2019, p. 256.
245. ^ ODB, pp. 2040–2041; Treadgold 1997, p. 731; Angelov 2019, p. 325.
246. ^ ODB, pp. 1048–1049; Treadgold 1997, p. 737; Angelov 2019, p. 305; Schreiner, pp. 196.
247. ^ ODB, p. 1367; Treadgold 1997, p. 745; Schreiner, pp. 196–206; PLP, p. 3929 (#21528).
248. ^ ODB, pp. 94–95; Angelov 2009, p. 100; PLP, p. 3889 (#21436).
249. ^ ODB, pp. 1367–8; Treadgold 1997, p. 755; Angelov 2009, p. 100; PLP, p. 3931 (#21529).
250. ^ ODB, p. 95; Treadgold 1997, p. 764; Lascaratos & Marketos 1997, pp. 106–9; PLP, p. 3891 (#21437).
251. ^ ODB, p. 1050; Schreiner, pp. 253, 345; PLP, p. 3912 (#21485).
252. ^ ODB, pp. 1050–1051; Schreiner, pp. 252–288; PLP, p. 2046 (#10973); Feiller 1976.
253. ^ ODB, p. 95; Mladenov 2003, p. 190; Schreiner, pp. 312–321; PLP, p. 3893 (#21438).
254. ^ ODB, p. 1052; Oikonomides 1977, p. 331; Schreiner, pp. 340–343.
255. ^ ODB, p. 1291; Schreiner, pp. 276, 309, 429; PLP, p. 3923 (#21513).
256. ^ ODB, pp. 1053–1054; Schreiner, pp. 340, 387–411; PLP, p. 3909 (#21481).
257. ^ ODB, p. 505; Nicol 1992, pp. 2, 35–38, 70; PLP, p. 3919 (#21500).

### Main bibliography[edit | edit source]

* Adkins, Lesley; Adkins, Roy A. (1994). "Emperors". Handbook to Life in Ancient Rome. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 20–37. ISBN 0-8160-2755-2.
* Cooley, Alison E. (2012). "Appendix 2; Augustus−Justinian". The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 488–509. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2.
* Barnes, Timothy D. (1982). The New Empire of Diocletian and Constantine. Harvard: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-28066-0.
* Grant, Michael (1985). The Roman Emperors: A Biographical Guide to the Rulers of Imperial Rome, 31 BC–AD 476. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. ISBN 0-684-18388-9.
* Grierson, Philip (1962). "The Tombs and Obits of the Byzantine Emperors (337–1042)". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 16. doi:10.2307/1291157. JSTOR 1291157.
* Grierson, Philip (1973). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection, 3: Leo III to Nicephorus III, 717-1081. Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-012-6.
* Jones, A. H. M.; Martindale, J. R.; Morris, John, eds. (1971–1992). Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire (3 volumes). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (see PLRE)
* Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. (see ODB)
* Kienast, Dietmar; Werner Eck & Matthäus Heil (2017) [1990]. Römische Kaisertabelle: Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie [Roman imperial table: Basics of the Roman imperial chronology] (in German) (6th ed.). Darmstadt: WBG. ISBN 978-3-534-26724-8.
* Meijer, Fik (2004). Emperors Don't Die in Bed. Translated by Leinbach, S. J. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-31201-9.
* Omissi, Adrastos (2018). Emperors and Usurpers in the Later Roman Empire: Civil War, Panegyric, and the Construction of Legitimacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-882482-4.
* Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0.
* Schreiner, Peter (1977). Die byzantinischen Kleinchroniken II: Historischer Kommentar [Byzantine small chronicles 2: Historical commentary]. Corpus Fontium Historiae Byzantinae (in German). Vienna: ÖAW. ISBN 978-3-7001-0206-9.
* Trapp, Erich, ed. (2001). Prosopographisches Lexikon der Palaiologenzeit [Prosopographical Lexicon of the Palaiologan era] (in German). Vienna: ÖAW. ISBN 978-3-7001-1462-8. (see PLP)
* Treadgold, Warren (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-2630-6.

### Secondary bibliography[edit | edit source]

* Angelov, Dimiter G. (2009). "Emperors and Patriarchs as Ideal Children and Adolescents: Literary Conventions and Cultural Expectations". In Papaconstantinou, Arietta; Talbot, Alice-Mary (eds.). Becoming Byzantine: Children and Childhood in Byzantium. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-356-2.
* Angelov, Dimiter (2019). The Byzantine Hellene: The Life of Emperor Theodore Laskaris and Byzantium in the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-48071-0.
* Arnold, Jonathan J.; Bjornlie, M. Shane; Sessa, Kristina (2016). "Introduction". In Arnold, Jonathan J.; Bjornlie, M. Shane; Sessa, Kristina (eds.). A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy. Leiden: BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-31376-7.
* Becker, C. H. (1913). "The Expansion of the Saracens—The East". In Gwatkin, H. M.; Whitney, J. P. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II: The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire. New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC 14739796.
* Bucossi, Alessandra; Rodriguez Suarez, Alex, eds. (2016). John II Komnenos, Emperor of Byzantium. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-4724-6024-0.
* Cameron, Alan (1988). "Flavius: a Nicety of Protocol". Latomus. 47 (1): 26–33. JSTOR 41540754.
* Chalandon, Ferdinand (1923). "The Earlier Comneni". In Tanner, J. R.; Previté-Orton, C. W.; Brooke, Z. N. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume IV: The Eastern Roman Empire (717–1453). New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC 14739796.
* Claes, Liesbeth (2015). "Coins with power?: imperial and local messages on the coinage of the usurpers of the second half of the third century". Jaarboek voor Munt- en Penningkunde. 102: 15–60. OCLC 948592865.
* Çolak, Hasan (2014). "Tekfur, fasiliyus and kayser: Disdain, Negligence and Appropriation of Byzantine Imperial Titulature in the Ottoman World". In Hadjianastasis, Marios (ed.). Frontiers of the Ottoman Imagination. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004283510.
* Collins, Roger (2004). Visigothic Spain, 409–711. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0631181859.
* Cotsonis, John A. (2020). The Religious Figural Imagery of Byzantine Lead Seals I. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-367-34696-6.
* Croke, Brian (1995). The Chronicle of Marcellinus: A translation with commentary. London: Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-34463-1.
* Croke, Brian (2004). "The Imperial Reigns of Leo II". Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 96 (2): 559–575. doi:10.1515/BYZS.2003.559. S2CID 191460505.
* Dragon, Gilbert (2003). Emperor and Priest: The Imperial Office in Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521801232.
* Elton, Charles A. (1825). A History of the Roman Emperors. Baldwin, Cradock and Joy.
* Estiot, Sylviane (1996). "L'empereur Silbannacus, un second antoninien" [Emperor Silbannacus, a second Antoninianus]. Revue numismatique (in French). 6 (151): 105–117. doi:10.3406/numi.1996.2087.
* Feiller, Albert (1976). "Nouvelle note sur la chronologie du règne de Jean Cantacuzène" [New note on the chronology of the reign of John Kantakouzenos]. Études byzantines. 34: 119–124. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1976.2046.
* Foss, Clive (2005). "Emperors named Constantine". Revue numismatique. 6 (161): 93–102. doi:10.3406/numi.2005.2594.
* Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium AD 527–1204. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-14688-7.
* Garland, Lynda (2006). Byzantine Women: Varieties of Experience 800–1200. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-5737-8.
* Grant, Michael (1998). From Rome to Byzantium: The Fifth Century. New York: Psychology Press. ISBN 9780415147538.
* Goldsworthy, Adrian Keith (2009). How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-13719-4.
* Grierson, Philip (1968). Catalogue of the Byzantine Coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Vol. 2\. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 9780884020240.
* Halsall, Guy (2018). "Transformations of Romanness: The northern Gallic case". In Pohl, Walter; Gantner, Clemens; Grifoni, Cinzia; Pollheimer-Mohaupt, Marianne (eds.). Transformations of Romanness: Early Medieval Regions and Identities. Berlin: De Gruyter. ISBN 9783110598384.
* Hammond, Mason (1957). "Imperial Elements in the Formula of the Roman Emperors during the First Two and a Half Centuries of the Empire". Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 25: 19–64. doi:10.2307/4238646. JSTOR 4238646.
* Hartmann, L. M. (1913). "Italy under the Lombards". In Gwatkin, H. M.; Whitney, J. P. (eds.). The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume II: The Rise of the Saracens and the Foundation of the Western Empire. New York: The Macmillan Company. OCLC 14739796.
* Hartmann, Udo (2002). Rezension zu: C. Körner: Philippus Arabs [Review of C. Körner: Philip the Arab]. H-Soz-Kult. Kommunikation und Fachinformation für die Geschichtswissenschaften (in German). ISBN 3-11-017205-4. Retrieved 2021-04-11.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
* Hekster, Olivier (2008). Rome and Its Empire: AD 193–284. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0748623044.
* Kaegi, Walter E. (2003). Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81459-6.
* Lascaratos, J.; Marketos, S. (1997), "The fatal disease of the Byzantine Emperor Andronicus III Palaeologus (1328-1341 A.D.)", Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 90 (2): 106–109, doi:10.1177/014107689709000215, PMC 1296151, PMID 9068444
* Lascaratos, J. (1999). ""Eyes" on the Thrones: Imperial Ophthalmologic Nicknames". Survey of Ophthalmology. 44 (1): 73–78. doi:10.1016/S0039-6257(99)00039-9. ISSN 0039-6257. PMID 10466590.
* Lawler, Jennifer (2004). Encyclopedia of the Byzantine Empire. Jefferson: McFarland. ISBN 978-0786466160.
* Lilie, Ralph-Johannes; et al. (2001–2016). Prosopography of the Byzantine World.
* Logan, F. Donald (2012). A History of the Church in the Middle Ages. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781134786695.
* Loewenstein, Karl (1973). The Governance of Rome. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. ISBN 978-90-247-1458-2.
* Macrides, Ruth (1999). Kinship and Justice in Byzantium, 11th–15th Centuries. Aldershot: Ashgate. ISBN 978-0-86078-799-0.
* Mango, Cyril (2002). The Oxford History of Byzantium. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-814098-3.
* Mathisen, Ralph W. (1997). "Romulus Augustulus". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 2022-03-18.
* Maynard, Daniel R.F. (2021). "Nicephorus III". De Imperatoribus Romanis. Archived from the original on 2022-03-11.
* Mosshammer, Alden (2008). The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-156236-5.
* Mladenov, Momchil (2003). "John VII Palaiologos and the Bulgarian Lands in 1390". Journal Epohi (in Bulgarian). 11 (1): 189–196. ISSN 2534-8418.
* Nicol, Donald M. (1967). "The Byzantine View of Western Europe". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 8 (4): 315–339.
* Nicol, Donald M. (1992). The Immortal Emperor: The Life and Legend of Constantine Palaiologos, Last Emperor of the Romans. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58369-8.
* Norwich, John Julius (1993). Byzantium: The Apogee. Virginia: Penguin. ISBN 0-14-011448-3.
* Oikonomides, Nicolas (1977). "John VII Palaeologus and the Ivory Pyxis at Dumbarton Oaks". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 31: 329–337. doi:10.2307/1291411. JSTOR 1291411.
* Rea, J. R. (1972). "O. Leid. 144 and the Chronology of A. D. 238". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 9: 1–19. JSTOR 20180380.
* Richardson, John (1984). Roman Provincial Administration. Bristol: Bristol Classical Press. ISBN 9780862921286. OCLC 1067756325.
* Sandberg, Kaj (2008). "The So-Called Division of the Roman Empire in AD 395: Notes on a Persistent Theme in Modern Historiography". Arctos. 42: 199–213. ISSN 0570-734X.
* Salway, Benet (1994). "What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700". Journal of Roman Studies. 84: 137–140. doi:10.2307/300873. JSTOR 300873.
* Seibt, Werner (2018). "Wer war Niketas Nobellisimos und Komes von Opsikion (8. Jahrhundert)?" [Who was Niketas Nobellisimos and Komes of Opsikion (8th century)?] (PDF). Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik (in German). 67: 213–216. doi:10.1553/joeb67s213.
* Shiel, Norman (1979). "The Coinage of Saloninus as Augustus". Museum Notes (American Numismatic Society). 24: 117–122. JSTOR 43573579.
* Stein, Arthur (1924). "Zur Chronologie der römischen Kaiser von Decius bis Diocletian" [On the chronology of the Roman emperors from Decius to Diocletian]. Archiv für Papyrusforschung und verwandte Gebiete. 7 (1–2): 30–51. doi:10.1515/apf.1924.7.1-2.30. S2CID 161464046.
* Smolin, Nathan I. (2021). Christ the Emperor: Roman Emperor and Christian Theology in the 4th Century AD (Doctoral thesis). University of North Carolina. doi:10.17615/wg7y-3h07.
* Syme, Ronald (1958), "Imperator Caesar: A Study in Nomenclature", Historia, vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 175–188, JSTOR 4434568
* Tilemachos, Lounghis (2015). "Review Article: Juan Signes Codoner, The emperor Theophilos and the East, 829-842: Court and frontier in Byzantium during the last phase of Iconoclasm, Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies, vol 13, Ashgate 2014". Byzantina Symmeikta. 25: 237–260. doi:10.12681/byzsym.8773.
* Treadgold, W. (1990). "A Note on Byzantium's Year of the Four Emperors". Byzantinische Zeitschrift. 83: 431–33. doi:10.1515/byzs.1990.83.2.431. S2CID 194092611.
* Van Tricht, Filip (2011). "The Imperial Ideology". The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228). Leiden: Brill. pp. 61–101. ISBN 978-90-04-20323-5.
* Vagi, David L. (1999). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire: c. 82 B.C. – A.D. 480. Volume I: History. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-99907-7.
* Watson, A. (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4.
* Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (1998). The Rome that Did Not Fall: The Survival of the East in the Fifth Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-203-98231-0.
* Wu, Chiang-Yuan (2016). ""Live Like a King": The Monument of Philopappus and the Continuity of Client-Kingship". In So, Francis K. H. (ed.). Perceiving Power in Early Modern Europe. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-58624-7.

## External links[edit | edit source]

* "List of Roman emperors". Encyclopædia Britannica
* "List of Roman emperors". Livius.org
* "List of Rulers of the Roman Empire". Metropolitan Museum of Art
* "The Rulers of the Roman Empire". De Imperatoribus Romanis

* v
* t
* e

Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses

Principate
27 BC – AD 235|

* Augustus
* Tiberius
* Caligula
* Claudius
* Nero
* Galba
* Otho
* Vitellius
* Vespasian
* Titus
* Domitian
* Nerva
* Trajan
* Hadrian
* Antoninus Pius
* Marcus Aurelius
* Lucius Verus
* Commodus
* Pertinax
* Didius Julianus
* Septimius Severus
* Caracalla
* Geta
* Macrinus (w. Diadumenian)
* Elagabalus
* Severus Alexander

Crisis
235–285|

* Maximinus I
* Gordian I
* Gordian II
* Pupienus
* Balbinus
* Gordian III
* Philip I (w. Philip II)
* Decius (w. Herennius Etruscus)
* Trebonianus Gallus (w. Hostilian & Volusianus)
* Aemilianus
* Silbannacus (?)
* Valerian
* Gallienus (w. Saloninus)
* Claudius II
* Quintillus
* Aurelian
* Tacitus
* Florianus
* Probus
* Carus
* Carinus
* Numerian

Dominate
284–610|

* Diocletian
* Maximian
* Galerius
* Constantius I
* Severus II
* Constantine I
* Maxentius
* Licinius
* Maximinus II
* Valerius Valens
* Martinian
* Constantine II
* Constantius II
* Constans I
* Magnentius
* Nepotianus
* Vetranio
* Julian
* Jovian
* Valentinian I
* Valens
* Procopius
* Gratian
* Valentinian II
* Theodosius I
* Magnus Maximus (w. Victor)
* Eugenius

| Western Empire
395–480|

* Honorius
* Constantine III (w. Constans II)
* Priscus Attalus
* Constantius III
* Joannes
* Valentinian III
* Petronius Maximus
* Avitus
* Majorian
* Severus III
* Anthemius
* Olybrius
* Glycerius
* Julius Nepos
* Romulus Augustulus

|

Eastern Empire
395–610|

* Arcadius
* Theodosius II
* Marcian
* Leo I
* Leo II
* Zeno
* Basiliscus (w. Marcus)
* Anastasius I
* Justin I
* Justinian I
* Justin II
* Tiberius II Constantine
* Maurice (w. Theodosius)
* Phocas

Eastern/
Byzantine Empire
610–1453|

* Heraclius
* Constantine III
* Heraclonas (w. Tiberius)
* Constans II
* Constantine IV (w. Heraclius & Tiberius)
* Justinian II
* Leontius
* Tiberius III
* Justinian II (w. Tiberius)
* Philippicus
* Anastasius II
* Theodosius III
* Leo III
* Constantine V
* Artabasdos (w. Nikephoros)
* Leo IV
* Constantine VI
* Irene
* Nikephoros I
* Staurakios
* Michael I Rangabe (w. Theophylact & Staurakios)
* Leo V (w. Constantine)
* Michael II
* Theophilos
* Theodora (II) (w. Thekla)
* Michael III
* Basil I (w. Constantine)
* Leo VI
* Alexander
* Constantine VII
* Romanos I Lekapenos (w. Christopher, Stephen & Constantine Lekapenos)
* Romanos II
* Nikephoros II Phokas
* John I Tzimiskes
* Basil II
* Constantine VIII
* Zoë
* Romanos III Argyros
* Michael IV
* Michael V
* Constantine IX Monomachos
* Theodora (III)
* Michael VI Bringas
* Isaac I Komnenos
* Constantine X Doukas
* Eudokia Makrembolitissa
* Romanos IV Diogenes (w. Leo & Nikephoros)
* Michael VII Doukas (w. Andronikos, Konstantios & Constantine Doukas)
* Nikephoros III Botaneiates
* Alexios I Komnenos (w. Constantine Doukas)
* John II Komnenos (w. Alexios)
* Manuel I Komnenos
* Alexios II Komnenos
* Andronikos I Komnenos (w. John)
* Isaac II Angelos
* Alexios III Angelos
* Alexios IV Angelos
* Alexios V Doukas
* Theodore I Laskaris (w. Nicholas)
* John III Vatatzes
* Theodore II Laskaris
* John IV Laskaris
* Michael VIII Palaiologos
* Andronikos II Palaiologos
* Michael IX Palaiologos
* Andronikos III Palaiologos
* John V Palaiologos
* John VI Kantakouzenos (w. Matthew)
* Andronikos IV Palaiologos
* John VII Palaiologos (w. Andronikos V)
* Manuel II Palaiologos
* John VIII Palaiologos
* Constantine XI Palaiologos

See also|

* Gallic emperors (260–274)
* Palmyrene emperors (267–273)
* Britannic emperors (286–296)
* Trapezuntine emperors (1204–1461)
* Thessalonian emperors (1224–1242)
* Empresses
* Augustae
* Usurpers
* Classical
* Eastern

Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, underlining indicates an emperor variously regarded as either legitimate or a usurper

* v
* t
* e

Roman emperors by time period

* List of Roman emperors
* Roman Empire
* Family tree

| Early Principate| Crisis of the Third Century| Dominate| Western Roman Empire and Eastern Roman Empire

|
|
|

* Julio-Claudian dynasty (27 BC–AD 68)
* Year of the 4 Emperors (68–69)
* Flavian dynasty (69–96)
* Nerva–Antonine dynasty (96–192)
* Year of the 5 Emperors (192–193)
* Severan dynasty (193–235)

* Year of the 6 Emperors (238)
* Gordian dynasty (238–244)
* Illyrian emperors (268–284)
* Gallic emperors (260–274)
* Britannic emperors (286–297)

* Tetrarchies (293–313)
* Constantinian dynasty (305–363)
* Valentinianic dynasty (364–392)
* Theodosian dynasty (378–455)

* Western Roman emperors (395–476)
* Eastern Roman/Byzantine emperors (395–1453)
* Emperors of Nicaea (1204–1261)
* Emperors of Trebizond (1204–1461)
* Emperors/Despots of Thessalonica (1224–1246)
* Latin emperors (1204–1261)

*[r.]: reigned
*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template