Nation state

Political concept of a sovereign state identified with a single nation

For 2018 Israeli legislation, see Nation-State Bill. For the government simulation browser game, see NationStates.

File:Westfaelischer Friede in Muenster (Gerard Terborch 1648).jpg

The Peace of Münster, part of the Peace of Westphalia (1648), is widely regarded as a formative moment in the evolution of the modern nation state system.

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A nation state is a form of political organization in which a clearly defined sovereign state is identified with a specific nation; i.e., a population that shares a sense of collective identity, culture, or historical experience.[1][2] The nation state is distinguished from broader political entities such as empires or confederations by its emphasis on internal cohesion and shared identity as the basis for legitimate sovereignty.[3]

In modern usage, the nation state refers to a sovereign political entity in which the boundaries of governance roughly align with the cultural, linguistic, or ethnic boundaries of a nation. This alignment is rarely exact, and most states today contain some degree of ethnic, linguistic, or religious diversity. As political scientist Rogers Brubaker notes, a state becomes a nation state "insofar as it claims and is understood to be a nation's state; the state 'of' and 'for' a particular nation."[4]

The concept of the nation state is more precise than that of a country, which may describe any geographic territory under a unified government regardless of ethnic composition. A nation state typically unites a dominant national identity with formal political institutions and borders recognized in international law.[5] This structure differs from other political forms, including:

* A multinational state, which encompasses multiple national or ethnic groups within one polity (e.g., Canada or Switzerland).
* A city-state, a small sovereign entity typically centered on a single urban area (e.g., Singapore or Monaco).
* An empire, a multiethnic system ruled by a dominant power over other peoples or territories.
* A confederation, a voluntary association of sovereign states with limited central authority.
* A federation, a system of constituent units sharing power with a central government, which may or may not be nationally homogeneous.

While the idea of the nation state is closely linked to the European political order that emerged after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, its application is global. States such as Japan, France, and Iceland have often been cited as nation states due to strong linguistic and cultural cohesion, whereas countries like India, Belgium, and Nigeria exhibit the characteristics of multiethnic or multinational states.[6]

In practice, few states meet the ideal of perfect overlap between national identity and political sovereignty. Diasporas, stateless nations, and plural societies illustrate the continuing tension between the cultural and political dimensions of nationhood. The concept remains central to studies of nationalism, international relations, and political geography, serving as a framework for understanding how collective identities translate into territorial governance and legitimacy.[7]

## Contents

* 1 Complexity
* 2 History and origins
* 3 Before the nation state
* 4 Characteristics
* 5 Nation states in practice and diversity
* 6 Exceptional and complex nation-state models
* 6.1 Israel
* 6.2 Kingdom of the Netherlands
* 6.3 Pakistan
* 6.4 Spain
* 6.5 United Kingdom
* 6.6 Broader implications
* 7 Contemporary challenges and transformations
* 8 See also
* 9 References

## Complexity[edit | edit source]

The relationship between a nation and a state is complex and historically fluid. In political theory, a nation refers to a community bound by shared identity, often cultural, linguistic, or historical, while a state refers to the political and institutional framework that governs a defined territory. The nation state exists where these two forms of organization overlap, but few examples achieve complete congruence.[1][4]

In some cases, the establishment of a centralized state fosters the development of a national identity through policies of education, language standardization, and civic participation. This process, often described as state-driven nation building, demonstrates how institutions can create a sense of common identity among previously distinct populations.[6] In other cases, an already cohesive cultural community seeks political independence to align its sovereignty with its perceived national boundaries, a process known as nation-driven state formation.[8]

Scholars such as Valery Tishkov have argued that “all attempts to develop terminological consensus around ‘nation’ resulted in failure,” emphasizing that the nation is a dynamic social construct rather than a fixed category.[9] Political theorist Walker Connor similarly warned against conflating nation with state, noting that many modern states are home to multiple nations and that the presumed unity of the nation state often obscures internal diversity.[10]

The complexity of the nation state also lies in its legitimizing narratives. Governments frequently invoke national identity to justify political authority, territorial integrity, and collective sacrifice, while marginalized groups may contest these same narratives to demand recognition or autonomy. Historian Craig Calhoun observed that nationalism functions as “a form of modern solidarity” that simultaneously unites and divides populations by defining who belongs within the political community.[7]

Contemporary debates extend beyond classical nationalism to examine the effects of globalization, migration, and supranational institutions. As transnational corporations and organizations exert growing influence, and as global communication networks blur cultural boundaries, the nation state continues to evolve. Its sovereignty is increasingly negotiated across multiple layers of governance. The persistence of nationalism amid these global changes illustrates both the resilience and the adaptability of the nation state as a political form.[11]

## History and origins[edit | edit source]

Main article: Nation

The historical development of the nation state is a subject of enduring scholarly debate. One of the central questions is whether nations created states or whether states created nations. Some historians argue that cultural communities with preexisting shared identities eventually sought political sovereignty, while others contend that centralized states used education, bureaucracy, and military service to forge national consciousness among diverse populations.[12][13]

Scholars such as Steven Weber, David Woodward, and Michel Foucault have linked the rise of nation states to the transformation of early modern political and economic thought. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, developments in mercantilism, geography, and cartography contributed to the emergence of territorial sovereignty. The evolution of accurate maps and administrative borders encouraged rulers to conceptualize governance in spatial terms, reinforcing the modern idea of bounded political authority.[14][15]

The French and Italian cases illustrate two contrasting paths toward the nation state. In France, political centralization preceded the formation of a unified national identity. At the time of the French Revolution, only about half the population spoke French, and fewer still spoke the Parisian dialect that became the national standard. Through public education and military conscription, the French state gradually transformed a multilingual population into a self-conscious nation.[12] In Italy, by contrast, nationalist movements such as the Risorgimento united disparate principalities through shared cultural and linguistic ideals, culminating in political unification under a constitutional monarchy in 1861.[16]

File:Europe 1848 map en.png

The Revolutions of 1848 were democratic and liberal in nature, with the aim of removing the old monarchical structures and creating independent nation-states.

Elsewhere in Europe, unification movements in Germany and Eastern Europe reflected similar tensions between culture and statehood. The German states, divided among dozens of principalities, were consolidated through a combination of industrial modernization, shared language, and military alliances led by Prussia. The Zollverein customs union of 1834 and subsequent victories in the Austro-Prussian War and Franco-Prussian War laid the groundwork for a unified German Empire in 1871.[17]

Beyond Europe, several premodern polities displayed characteristics similar to the nation state. In East Asia, the eleventh-century Chanyuan Treaty between China’s Song dynasty and the Liao dynasty established recognized borders between sovereign regimes, centuries before the Peace of Westphalia formalized similar concepts in Europe.[18] Likewise, in Japan, the Meiji Restoration (1868) consolidated imperial authority and modernized governance around a cohesive sense of national identity that paralleled European state formation.[19]

The idea of sovereign equality among states became codified in Europe after the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which established a diplomatic order based on noninterference and mutual recognition. This system gradually spread beyond Europe through colonial expansion, treaties, and international law. Although the Westphalian model provided a framework for sovereignty, it did not by itself create nation states; rather, it supplied the political vocabulary through which nations later asserted independence and self-determination.[20]

By the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the rise of literacy, mass education, and print culture helped consolidate national identities across Europe and the wider world. Romanticism, industrialization, and colonial competition further strengthened the belief that cultural unity and political sovereignty should coincide. These developments collectively transformed nationalism from a philosophical ideal into a dominant organizing principle of the modern international system.[6][7]

## Before the nation state[edit | edit source]

File:Dissolution of Austria-Hungary.png

The dissolution of the multiethnic Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1918 marked the transformation from dynastic empires to modern nation states in Central Europe.

Before the rise of the modern nation state, most of the world’s political systems were structured around dynastic, religious, or imperial authority rather than collective national identity. In Europe during the 18th century, the dominant political units were multiethnic empires such as the Austrian Empire, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the Portuguese Empire, the Spanish Empire, the British Empire, and the Dutch Empire. These entities encompassed numerous peoples, languages, and faiths, united primarily by the sovereignty of a monarch or ruling dynasty. Authority was hierarchical and personal rather than civic, and political legitimacy was derived from divine right, hereditary succession, or imperial conquest rather than from national belonging.[12][17]

In these empires, one ethnic group generally dominated the political and administrative structures. The ruling group’s language commonly became the language of law, education, and diplomacy, while the tongues of subject peoples were suppressed or marginalized. For example, German served as the administrative language of the Austrian Empire; Turkish dominated in the Ottoman Empire; and Russian was the official language across the Russian Empire. The monarch, whether emperor, tsar, or sultan, represented a dynastic lineage rather than a national collective, and loyalty was owed to the crown rather than to an abstract notion of citizenship.[12]

This pattern was not confined to Europe. Across Asia, Africa, and the Americas, premodern empires similarly combined political centralization with ethnic and cultural plurality. In China, successive dynasties such as the Tang dynasty (7th–10th centuries), Ming dynasty (14th–17th centuries), and Qing dynasty (17th–20th centuries) governed vast territories encompassing diverse ethnic groups. Each was led by a distinct ruling class: Turkic peoples under the Tang, the Han Chinese under the Ming, and the Manchus under the Qing. Despite these ethnic distinctions, all maintained imperial bureaucracies based on Confucian administration and cultural assimilation rather than nationalism.[21]

In the Islamic world, the Caliphate represented an alternative model of authority—transnational, religious, and multiethnic in nature. Following the death of the Prophet Muhammad in 632, the Rashidun Caliphate established a precedent for governance uniting spiritual and temporal power. Subsequent caliphates, including the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750), Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258), and the later Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924), administered territories stretching from Iberia and North Africa to Persia and Central Asia. The caliphs derived legitimacy from their role as successors to Muhammad rather than from ethnic identity, presiding over populations that included Arabs, Persians, Berbers, Turks, Slavs, and Africans.[22][23]

Political organization outside Europe also included federations, confederacies, and city-states that reflected early forms of local autonomy but not national identity. The Swahili city-states on the East African coast, the Maya city-states in Mesoamerica, and the independent merchant republics of Venice and Genoa in Renaissance Italy all exercised self-governance, yet their legitimacy derived from commerce, lineage, or religion rather than from popular sovereignty. The Holy Roman Empire represented an especially complex European structure, composed of hundreds of semi-independent principalities, bishoprics, and free cities that recognized the nominal authority of an emperor but functioned largely autonomously. Its intricate patchwork of jurisdictions reflected the dynastic rather than national principle of political order.[24]

Some small European states survived outside these large imperial systems. The principalities of Liechtenstein, Andorra, and Monaco, along with the microstate of San Marino, maintained independence through geographic isolation, diplomacy, and alliances with greater powers.[17] The Papal States similarly endured as a theocratic monarchy governed by the Catholic Church until they were annexed during Italian unification in 1870. The Lateran Treaty of 1929 resolved the long-standing Roman Question by recognizing Vatican City as a sovereign enclave independent of Italy.[25]

In Central and Eastern Europe, overlapping empires created conditions of chronic ethnic and linguistic fragmentation. The Austro-Hungarian Empire governed Czechs, Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Hungarians, and Poles under a dual monarchy, while the Ottoman Empire contained Arabs, Greeks, Armenians, Kurds, and Balkan Slavs. These arrangements preserved relative stability for centuries but suppressed aspirations for self-determination. The 19th-century rise of nationalism exposed the fragility of multiethnic imperial rule, as subject peoples increasingly sought independent statehood.[12]

The collapse of the major continental empires following World War I marked a watershed in global political organization. The defeat and partition of the Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire gave rise to newly independent states such as Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, and Yugoslavia. The principle of national self-determination, championed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points, guided the postwar redrawing of Europe’s map. Yet the creation of ethnically defined states often deepened tensions rather than resolved them, as many new borders failed to align with the actual distribution of national groups.[26]

The interwar and postwar eras confirmed both the appeal and the difficulty of nation-state formation. Where empires had previously integrated diverse populations under imperial structures, their successor states struggled to reconcile ethnic pluralism with national sovereignty. This process, which began in 1918 and continued through the decolonization movements of the mid-20th century, transformed the world from a mosaic of imperial domains into an international system dominated by formally sovereign nation states.[6][7]

## Characteristics[edit | edit source]

File:Europe 1815 map en.png

Map of Europe in 1815 following the Congress of Vienna

The modern nation state differs fundamentally from its dynastic and imperial predecessors in its conception of political legitimacy, territorial authority, and cultural unity. Historian Atul Kohli observed that “legitimate states that govern effectively and dynamic industrial economies are widely regarded today as the defining characteristics of a modern nation state.”[27] Unlike earlier regimes based on hereditary rule or divine sanction, the nation state claims its authority through the representation of a distinct people or nation, implying a social contract between citizens and government grounded in collective identity.

A defining feature of the nation state is its relationship to territory. Whereas dynastic monarchies could transfer or exchange territories through marriage, inheritance, or diplomacy, nation states regard their land as fixed and nontransferable. Territory is conceived as the homeland of the nation, and its defense becomes a central pillar of national policy. Borders are not merely geographic boundaries but symbolic markers of identity, language, and culture. The 19th- and 20th-century emphasis on defined borders contributed to an unprecedented concern with mapping, census-taking, and population registration, establishing the bureaucratic foundations of modern sovereignty.[2][14]

The cultural dimension of the nation state is equally important. States seeking to consolidate national identity often pursue linguistic unification, standardized education, and shared national symbols. Through public schooling, military conscription, and civic rituals, citizens are socialized into a common national narrative. The establishment of compulsory education systems in 19th-century Europe, particularly in France and Italy, played a decisive role in transforming local dialect communities into cohesive linguistic nations. Textbooks, literature, and civic ceremonies reinforced national myths, historical memory, and loyalty to the state.[28][29]

Language policy frequently became a central instrument of national integration. Governments promoted a dominant national language while discouraging regional or minority dialects. In France, the suppression of Breton, Occitan, and Alsatian languages served to reinforce a unified French identity. Similar processes occurred elsewhere in Europe—such as Italianization in Italy, Russification in the Russian Empire, and Magyarization in Hungary, each reflecting attempts to bind citizens to a single linguistic and cultural standard. While these measures sometimes achieved greater cohesion, they also provoked resistance and deepened regional or ethnic tensions.[30]

Economically, the nation state has often pursued integration and uniformity to strengthen its internal markets. The abolition of internal tariffs and tolls, the creation of national currencies, and the construction of transportation infrastructure such as railways and highways facilitated trade and communication across previously fragmented regions. In Germany, the formation of the Zollverein customs union in 1834 preceded political unification by promoting economic interdependence among German-speaking states. The French railway network, radiating outward from Paris, reflected the centralized structure of the French nation state and served as a metaphor for national unity.[17][27]

The administrative organization of the nation state also distinguishes it from older forms of governance. Modern states developed professional bureaucracies, centralized taxation, and uniform legal systems that replaced local or feudal jurisdictions. The bureaucratic model pioneered by 19th-century Prussia influenced governance across Europe and beyond, establishing standardized procedures for public administration, education, and military service. The resulting uniformity promoted efficiency but often reduced local autonomy, as regional identities were subordinated to national institutions.[31]

The creation of a common national culture often involved the selective reinterpretation of history. Governments and intellectuals crafted narratives that highlighted continuity, heroism, and sacrifice while minimizing internal divisions or periods of conflict. The process of “inventing tradition,” as described by Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, served to legitimize modern states by linking them to a glorified or mythologized past.[28] Public holidays, monuments, and national anthems became tools for reinforcing collective memory and shared belonging.

At the same time, cultural unification was often accompanied by the suppression of minority languages and customs. Policies of linguistic or cultural assimilation, known in different contexts as Francisation, Germanisation, Russification, or Turkification, sought to strengthen state cohesion but frequently marginalized indigenous and ethnic minorities. In some cases, these measures contributed to separatist movements, as suppressed groups reasserted their identities in opposition to central authority.[6][7]

The 20th century introduced new challenges to the classical model of the nation state. Decolonization created dozens of newly independent countries whose borders were inherited from imperial powers rather than aligned with existing cultural or ethnic divisions. These postcolonial states often faced difficulties in building national identity amid internal diversity and external pressures. At the same time, globalization and regional integration, exemplified by the European Union, have redefined the meaning of sovereignty, as decision-making authority increasingly operates across transnational networks. Despite these changes, the nation state remains the primary unit of political legitimacy in the international system.[11][26]

## Nation states in practice and diversity[edit | edit source]

See also: Monoethnicity

File:Ethnolinguistic map of China 1983.png

Ethnolinguistic map of mainland China and Taiwan, illustrating the distribution of recognized ethnic groups.[32]

In practice, few modern states fully embody the ideal of a unified nation whose political and cultural boundaries coincide. Instead, most contemporary nation states encompass multiple ethnicities, languages, or faith traditions, requiring active management of internal diversity. The degree of cohesion within such states depends not only on shared ancestry or culture but also on institutional structures that distribute political power and cultivate civic belonging. Sociologists such as Craig Calhoun and Anthony D. Smith have argued that the success of modern nation states lies in their capacity to integrate heterogeneous populations into a shared political identity without erasing distinct local or communal affiliations.[7][6]

Switzerland stands as one of the most enduring examples of a pluralistic nation state that reconciles diversity with unity. Founded as a medieval alliance of autonomous cantons, it evolved into a stable federal republic that accommodates four official languages: German, French, Italian, and Romansh, across 26 cantons. Rather than pursuing cultural uniformity, Switzerland institutionalized linguistic and religious pluralism through decentralized governance and direct democracy, allowing citizens to identify both with their canton and with the Swiss Confederation as a whole. Civic traditions, neutrality in foreign affairs, and a shared commitment to democratic participation sustain Swiss national identity across its linguistic divisions, demonstrating that cultural heterogeneity does not preclude political unity.[33]

Belgium, by contrast, reveals how linguistic and regional divisions can persist even within an advanced democratic framework. Established in 1830 as a neutral buffer between France, Prussia, and Britain, Belgium incorporated both Dutch-speaking Flemings in the north and French-speaking Walloons in the south, along with a small German-speaking community near the eastern border. Despite its shared monarchy and federal structure, competition over language, economic priorities, and political power has shaped its history. Repeated constitutional reforms have transformed Belgium into a deeply decentralized federation that seeks to balance competing regional interests while maintaining a shared state identity. Political tensions continue to surface, particularly from Flemish nationalist movements such as the New Flemish Alliance and Vlaams Belang, but Belgium’s endurance illustrates that negotiated compromise, rather than cultural homogenization, can sustain a complex multinational state.[34]

The disintegration of Yugoslavia during the 1990s demonstrated the destructive potential of ethnonationalism when multiethnic states fail to maintain equitable governance. Under Josip Broz Tito, Yugoslavia pursued a supranational socialist identity that downplayed ethnic distinctions among its six constituent republics. Following Tito’s death and the collapse of communism, nationalist leaders revived long-suppressed grievances and framed independence movements in explicitly ethnic terms. The ensuing conflicts, including the Croatian War of Independence, the Bosnian War, and the Kosovo War, produced extensive human suffering, mass displacement, and genocide as rival groups sought to carve out ethnically homogeneous territories. The Balkan experience revealed that while national self-determination can resolve some historical injustices, it can also generate cycles of violence when ethnic and territorial claims overlap.[35]

In Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet world, the breakup of multinational federations exposed similar dilemmas. In Moldova, debates over national identity remain influenced by its dual heritage as both a former Romanian province and a Soviet republic. According to political scientist Philip G. Roeder, Moldova exemplifies the “segment-state” phenomenon, in which Soviet administrative structures and linguistic policies forged new localized identities that persisted after independence. Despite cultural and linguistic affinities with Romania, Moldova developed its own state institutions, currency, and educational system, effectively consolidating a separate Moldovan national identity that complicates prospects for unification with Romania.[36]

The experience of large, multiethnic countries such as China and India further illustrates how nationalism can be defined in civic rather than purely ethnic terms. In China, the government promotes the concept of Zhonghua minzu, a unified Chinese nation encompassing 56 officially recognized ethnic groups, while maintaining the political dominance of the Han Chinese, who constitute over 90 percent of the population. This policy aims to reinforce national unity through a shared civilizational identity but has also generated tension in regions such as Xinjiang and Tibet, where ethnic and religious minorities continue to seek greater autonomy.[37] In India, nationalism emerged from the anti-colonial struggle as a civic ideal that transcended caste, language, and religion. The Constitution of India defines citizenship without reference to ethnicity, recognizing 22 scheduled languages and providing for regional autonomy across 28 states and 8 union territories. Although India faces periodic challenges from communal conflict and separatist movements, its democratic institutions and federal structure have sustained a sense of shared citizenship among its vast and diverse population.[38]

Taken together, these examples show that the nation state is less a fixed model than a spectrum of political arrangements that balance unity with diversity. Successful states cultivate legitimacy through inclusive institutions, equitable governance, and recognition of plural identities, while failed or fragile states often collapse under the strain of exclusionary nationalism or ethnic division. The international order, though grounded in the formal equality of nation states, continues to evolve as globalization, migration, and supranational cooperation reshape the relationship between identity and sovereignty.[11][26]

## Exceptional and complex nation-state models[edit | edit source]

File:Ethnologue 18 linguistic diversity index BlankMap-World6.svg

Linguistic and ethnolinguistic diversity across national borders, illustrating internal heterogeneity of modern states.

Although the nation state model assumes a close alignment between cultural identity and political sovereignty, a number of modern states diverge from this ideal in distinctive ways. Their constitutions, demographic compositions, or historical arrangements make them “complex” nation states—entities that combine civic, religious, linguistic, or multinational elements within a single political framework.[11][26]

### Israel[edit | edit source]

The State of Israel was established in 1948 as a homeland for the Jewish people and defines itself as both a Jewish and democratic state. This dual character is reflected in its Basic Laws, particularly the 2018 Basic Law: Israel as the Nation-State of the Jewish People, which formally recognizes the country as the nation state of the Jewish people.[39][40] According to the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, approximately 75 percent of Israel’s population is Jewish, while about 20 percent are Arab citizens, including Muslims, Christians, and Druze.[41] Smaller communities include Armenians, Circassians, Samaritans, and non-Jewish spouses of Israeli citizens.[42] The country’s system thus embodies an explicitly religious-national concept of identity, integrated within democratic institutions.

### Kingdom of the Netherlands[edit | edit source]

The Kingdom of the Netherlands presents a unique structure among nation states, comprising four constituent countries under one monarchy: the Netherlands in Europe (including its Caribbean municipalities of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius, and Saba), along with Aruba, Curaçao, and Sint Maarten in the Caribbean. Each country is designated as a “land” under the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands and retains substantial autonomy in internal affairs while sharing a common head of state, citizenship, and foreign policy.[43][44] Dutch authorities consistently translate landen as “countries,” highlighting a federative conception distinct from the German or Austrian models of internal states.[45]

### Pakistan[edit | edit source]

Pakistan represents a nation state founded primarily on religious identity rather than ethnic homogeneity. Established during the 1947 Partition of India under the Two-Nation theory, it was conceived as a homeland for Muslims of the Indian subcontinent. Despite its ethnic and linguistic diversity, including Punjabis, Pashtuns, Sindhis, Baloch, and others, Pakistan’s cohesion has relied on Islam as a unifying principle and Urdu as a common national language.[46] The state’s identity remains intertwined with its Islamic ideological foundation, expressed in political rhetoric, constitutional references to Islam, and its role as a cultural and strategic center of the wider Muslim world.[47]

### Spain[edit | edit source]

The evolution of the Spanish nation state reflects a long process of centralization following medieval unification under the Catholic Monarchs in the late 15th century. Spain’s early modern state absorbed several historically autonomous kingdoms—Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Granada—each with its own institutions and languages. After the War of the Spanish Succession, the Nueva Planta decrees under Philip V abolished many regional privileges and imposed administrative uniformity. Over subsequent centuries, efforts to consolidate a single national identity often involved policies of linguistic and cultural assimilation, particularly toward Catalan-, Basque-, and Galician-speaking regions.[48] In the 20th century, Francoist Spain intensified these measures through prohibitions on regional languages and symbols, creating enduring tensions over cultural autonomy. Contemporary Spain recognizes autonomous communities and linguistic rights within a constitutional monarchy, yet debates over national pluralism—particularly in Catalonia and the Basque Country—remain central to its politics.[49]

### United Kingdom[edit | edit source]

The United Kingdom is a composite state formed through successive unions among four historic nations: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. Although the U.K. functions as a unitary sovereign state, its component countries retain distinct legal systems, religious establishments, and cultural identities, reflecting their separate origins. The Acts of Union 1707 united England and Scotland under one parliament, while the Acts of Union 1800 brought Ireland into the union, later reduced to Northern Ireland after 1922.[50] Official documents describe the U.K. as a “country of countries,” and scholars often refer to it as a multinational state, recognizing the coexistence of multiple national identities under one political system. Ongoing debates over Scottish independence, Irish unification, and devolution underscore the complexity of maintaining unity within a multinational framework.[51]

### Broader implications[edit | edit source]

The examples above highlight that the nation state, though widely regarded as the global norm, manifests in diverse and evolving forms. Some states, like Israel and Pakistan, define themselves primarily through religious or civilizational identity, while others, such as Spain and the United Kingdom, embody layered national traditions within a single political entity. The Netherlands demonstrates a federative arrangement across continents, illustrating the flexibility of the nation state concept in adapting to history, geography, and political compromise. Collectively, these models show that the classical equation of one nation to one state rarely exists in pure form; most modern states navigate a dynamic balance between cultural diversity, historical continuity, and constitutional unity.[11][26]

## Contemporary challenges and transformations[edit | edit source]

File:World map of countries by ecological footprint.png

World map showing ecological footprints by country, illustrating how globalization links national development with global environmental impact.

In the 21st century, the concept of the nation state faces renewed scrutiny as globalization, technological integration, and supranational governance reshape traditional boundaries of sovereignty. Political theorist David Held describes this transition as one from territorially bounded authority to “overlapping systems of power and accountability,” in which decision-making in trade, security, and environmental policy increasingly occurs through transnational institutions such as the European Union, the World Trade Organization, and the United Nations. According to Held, these changes do not eliminate the state but reconfigure its functions, embedding it within multilayered systems of governance that extend beyond national borders.[11]

Economic globalization has weakened the historical link between territorial control and economic power. Political economist Philip G. Cerny observes that the modern state has evolved into a “competition state,” focusing on global market integration and the promotion of competitiveness rather than direct economic control. This change, he argues, reflects a broader “denationalization of economic policy” caused by transnational capital mobility and interdependence. Cerny concludes that while states remain the primary legal frameworks for economic activity, their ability to regulate markets independently has been significantly reduced.[52]

Sociologist Saskia Sassen characterizes these developments as a redistribution of authority rather than its decline. She identifies global cities such as New York, London, and Tokyo as “strategic sites” that host the central functions of finance and administration once reserved for national capitals. According to Sassen, these urban networks form a “global architecture of power” that operates across state borders but depends on state institutions for legitimacy and enforcement.Her analysis therefore portrays globalization as a transformation of sovereignty that relocates, rather than replaces, core state capacities.[53]

At the same time, the resurgence of nationalism and populism demonstrates that the nation state remains a central source of political identity. Sociologist Anthony D. Smith argued that national identities persist because they provide continuity, belonging, and moral purpose in times of uncertainty. Movements emphasizing sovereignty, border control, and cultural preservation, such as the Brexit campaign and similar trends in Europe and Asia, exemplify the ongoing appeal of state-centered identity in an interconnected world.[54]

Technological interdependence has further complicated national governance. The United Nations High-Level Panel on Digital Cooperation described the modern era as one of “digital interdependence,” in which cybersecurity, disinformation, and artificial intelligence require cross-border coordination even as national governments retain enforcement authority. States have responded by asserting “digital sovereignty,” regulating data flows and online content to preserve control over information within their jurisdictions.[55]

Transnational crises such as climate change, migration, and pandemics illustrate the continuing interdependence of nation states. Historian Mark Mazower notes that the COVID-19 pandemic and global climate governance exposed both the limits and the resilience of the nation-state model: governments reasserted border controls but depended on multilateral frameworks like the Paris Agreement for coordination. These patterns suggest that sovereignty is being reshaped rather than erased, as states adapt to global interdependence while maintaining domestic legitimacy.[26]

Despite recurring predictions of decline, the nation state continues to serve as the dominant unit of legal and political authority. Held, Cerny, and Sassen each conclude that modern globalization has not displaced the state but transformed it into a participant within a complex network of shared governance and overlapping jurisdictions. The contemporary international system thus reflects both the endurance and the evolution of the nation state in a globalized world.[11][52][53]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Nationalism
* State (polity)
* Sovereignty
* Civic nationalism
* Ethnic nationalism
* Nation
* Globalization
* Westphalian sovereignty

* v
* t
* e

Ethnicity

Related concepts|

* Clan
* Ethnic group
* Ethnographic group
* Ethnolinguistic group
* Ethnoreligious group
* Ethnographic realism
* Hyphenated ethnicity
* Indigenous peoples
* Ingroups and outgroups
* Meta-ethnicity
* Metroethnicity
* Minority group
* Monoethnicity
* Nation
* Nationality
* Panethnicity
* Polyethnicity
* Population
* Race
* Symbolic ethnicity
* Tribe

Ethnology|

* Anthropology
* Ethnic studies
* Ethnoarchaeology
* Ethnobiology
* Ethnobotany
* Ethnomycology
* Ethnozoology
* Ethnoecology
* Ethnocinema
* Ethnogeology
* Ethnography
* Autoethnography
* Clinical
* Critical
* Cyber-
* Institutional
* Netnography
* Online
* Person-centered
* Salvage
* Transidioethnography
* Video
* Ethnohistory
* Ethnolinguistics
* Ethnology
* Ethnomathematics
* Ethnostatistics
* Ethnomedicine
* Ethnomethodology
* Ethnomuseology
* Ethnomusicology
* Ethnophilosophy
* Ethnopsychopharmacology
* Ethnopoetics
* Ethnoscience
* Ethnosemiotics
* Ethnotaxonomy

Groups by region|

* Africa
* Americas
* Indigenous
* Canada
* Greenland
* Mexico
* United States
* Central America
* Caribbean
* South America
* Asia
* Central Asia
* East Asia
* Northern Asia
* South Asia
* Southeast Asia
* West Asia
* Australia
* Aboriginal groups
* Torres Strait Islanders
* Europe
* Oceania
* Indigenous
* European

Identity and
ethnogenesis

* Cross-race effect
* Cultural assimilation
* Cultural identity
* Demonym
* Development
* Endonym
* Ethnic flag
* Ethnic option
* Ethnic origin
* Ethnic religion
* Ethnicity in census
* Ethnofiction
* Ethnonym
* Folk religion
* Historical
* Imagined community
* Kinship
* Legendary progenitor
* Lineage-bonded society
* Mythomoteur
* Mores
* Nation-building
* Nation state
* National language
* National myth
* Origin myth
* Pantribal sodality
* Statistext
* Tribal name
* Tribalism
* Detribalization
* Neo-Tribalism
* Urheimat
* White ethnic

Multiethnic society|

* Consociationalism
* Cultural appropriation
* Diaspora politics
* Dominant minority
* Ethnic democracy
* Ethnic enclave
* Ethnic interest group
* Ethnic majority
* Ethnic media
* Ethnic nationalism
* Ethnic pornography
* Ethnic theme park
* Ethnoburb
* Ethnocracy
* Ethnopluralism
* Ethnographic film
* Ethnographic village
* Indigenous rights
* Middleman minority
* Minority rights
* Model minority
* Multinational state

Ideology and
ethnic conflict

* Allophilia
* Ethnic bioweapon
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic hatred
* Ethnic joke
* Ethnic penalty
* Ethnic slur
* Ethnic stereotype
* Ethnic violence
* Ethnocentrism
* Ethnocide
* Ethnosymbolism
* Indigenism
* Indigenization
* Separatist movements
* Xenocentrism
* Xenophilia
* Xenophobia

* v
* t
* e

Types of state

* Chiefdom
* City-state
* Client state
* Confederation
* Duchy
* Earldom
* Empire
* Federation
* Khanate
* Kingdom
* Marquessate
* Principality
* Republic
* Viscountcy

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