Peat

Accumulation of partially decayed vegetation

Not to be confused with peat moss, a plant from which peat often forms.

Not to be confused with Turf, the top layer of soil from which grass grows.

File:Peat (49302157252).jpg

A lump of peat

File:2013-05-03 Fotoflug Leer Papenburg DSCF6844.jpg

Peat stacks in Südmoslesfehn (district of Oldenburg, Germany) in 2013

File:Peat gatherers.JPG

Peat gatherers at Westhay, Somerset Levels in 1905

File:Torfabbau-.jpg

Peat extraction in East Frisia, Germany

Peat (/piːt/), also known as turf (/tɜːrf/), is an accumulation of partially decayed vegetation or organic matter. It is unique to natural areas called peatlands, bogs, mires, moors, or muskegs.[1][2] The peatland ecosystem covers 3.7 million square kilometres (1.4 million square miles)[3] and is the most efficient carbon sink on the planet,[2][4] because peatland plants capture carbon dioxide (CO2) naturally released from the peat, maintaining an equilibrium. In natural peatlands, the "annual rate of biomass production is greater than the rate of decomposition", but it takes "thousands of years for peatlands to develop the deposits of 1.5 to 2.3 m [4.9 to 7.5 ft], which is the average depth of the boreal [northern] peatlands",[2] which store around 415 gigatonnes (Gt) of carbon (about 46 times 2019 global CO2 emissions).[3] Globally, peat stores up to 550 Gt of carbon, 42% of all soil carbon, which exceeds the carbon stored in all other vegetation types, including the world's forests, although it covers just 3% of the land's surface.[5][6] Sphagnum moss, also called peat moss, is one of the most common components in peat, although many other plants can contribute. The biological features of sphagnum mosses act to create a habitat aiding peat formation, a phenomenon termed 'habitat manipulation'.[7] Soils consisting primarily of peat are known as histosols. Peat forms in wetland conditions, where flooding or stagnant water obstructs the flow of oxygen from the atmosphere, slowing the rate of decomposition.[8] Peat properties such as organic matter content and saturated hydraulic conductivity can exhibit high spatial heterogeneity.[9]

Peatlands, particularly bogs, are the primary source of peat;[10] although less-common wetlands including fens, pocosins, and peat swamp forests also deposit peat. Landscapes covered in peat are home to specific kinds of plants including Sphagnum moss, ericaceous shrubs, and sedges (see bog for more information on this aspect of peat). Because organic matter accumulates over thousands of years, peat deposits provide records of past vegetation and climate by preserving plant remains, such as pollen. This allows the reconstruction of past environments and the study of changes in land use.[11]

Peat is used by gardeners and for horticulture in certain parts of the world,[12] but this is being banned in some places.[13] By volume, there are about 4 trillion cubic metres of peat in the world.[14] Over time, the formation of peat is often the first step in the geological formation of fossil fuels such as coal, particularly low-grade coal such as lignite.[15]

Peat is not a renewable source of energy, due to its extraction rate in industrialized countries far exceeding its slow regrowth rate of 1 mm (0.04 in) per year,[16] and as it is also reported that peat regrowth takes place only in 30–40% of peatlands.[17] Centuries of burning and draining of peat by humans has released a significant amount of CO2 into the atmosphere,[18] and much peatland restoration is needed to help limit climate change.[19]

## Contents

* 1 Formation
* 2 Types of peat material
* 3 Peatlands distribution
* 4 General characteristics and uses
* 5 Characteristics and uses by nation
* 5.1 Finland
* 5.2 Ireland
* 5.3 Russia
* 5.4 The Netherlands
* 5.5 Estonia
* 5.6 India
* 5.6.1 Sikkim
* 5.7 United Kingdom
* 5.7.1 England
* 5.7.2 Northern Ireland
* 5.7.3 Scotland
* 5.7.4 Wales
* 5.8 Canada
* 6 Generic characteristics and uses
* 6.1 Agriculture
* 6.2 Freshwater aquaria
* 6.3 Balneotherapy
* 6.4 Peat archives
* 6.5 Peat hags
* 7 Environmental and ecological issues
* 7.1 Peat drainage
* 7.2 Peat fires
* 8 Protection
* 9 Restoration
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes
* 12 References
* 13 External links

## Formation[edit | edit source]

File:Peat Lewis.jpg

Peat in Lewis, Scotland

Peat forms when plant material does not fully decay in acidic and anaerobic conditions. It is composed mainly of wetland vegetation: principally bog plants including mosses, sedges, and shrubs. As it accumulates, the peat holds water. This slowly creates wetter conditions that allow the area of wetland to expand. Peatland features can include ponds, ridges, and raised bogs.[10] The characteristics of some bog plants actively promote bog formation. For example, sphagnum mosses actively secrete tannins, which preserve organic material. Sphagnum also have special water-retaining cells, known as hyaline cells, which can release water ensuring the bogland remains constantly wet which helps promote peat production.[20]

Most modern peat bogs formed 12,000 years ago in high latitudes after the glaciers retreated at the end of the last ice age.[21] Peat usually accumulates slowly at the rate of about a millimetre per year.[16] The estimated carbon content is 415 gigatonnes (457 billion short tons) (northern peatlands),[3] 50 Gt (55 billion short tons) (tropical peatlands) and 15 Gt (17 billion short tons) (South America).[22]

## Types of peat material[edit | edit source]

Peat material is either fibric, hemic, or sapric. Fibric peats are the least decomposed and consist of intact fibre. Hemic peats are partially decomposed and sapric are the most decomposed.[23]

Phragmites peat are composed of reed grass, Phragmites australis, and other grasses. It is denser than many other types of peat.

Engineers may describe a soil as peat which has a relatively high percentage of organic material. This soil is problematic because it exhibits poor consolidation properties – it cannot be easily compacted to serve as a stable foundation to support loads, such as roads or buildings.

## Peatlands distribution[edit | edit source]

In a widely cited article, Joosten and Clarke (2002) described peatlands or mires (which they claim are the same)[Notes 1][1] as

> the most widespread of all wetland types in the world, representing 50 to 70% of global wetlands. They cover over 4 million square kilometres [1.5 million square miles] or 3% of the land and freshwater surface of the planet. In these ecosystems are found one third of the world's soil carbon and 10% of global freshwater resources. These ecosystems are characterized by the unique ability to accumulate and store dead organic matter from Sphagnum and many other non-moss species, as peat, under conditions of almost permanent water saturation. Peatlands are adapted to the extreme conditions of high water and low oxygen content, of toxic elements and low availability of plant nutrients. Their water chemistry varies from alkaline to acidic. Peatlands occur on all continents, from the tropical to boreal and Arctic zones from sea level to high alpine conditions.

File:PEATMAP.jpg

PEATMAP is a GIS shapefile dataset that shows a distribution of peatlands that covers the entire world

A more recent estimate from an improved global peatland map, PEATMAP,[24] based on a meta-analysis of geospatial information at global, regional and national levels puts global coverage slightly higher than earlier peatland inventories at 4.23 million square kilometres (1.63 million square miles) approximately 2.84% of the world land area.[25] In Europe, peatlands extend to about 515,000 km2 (199,000 sq mi).[26] About 60% of the world's wetlands are made of peat.

Peat deposits are found in many places around the world, including northern Europe and North America. The North American peat deposits are principally found in Canada and the Northern United States. Some of the world's largest peatlands include the West Siberian Lowland, the Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Mackenzie River Valley.[27] There is less peat in the Southern Hemisphere, in part because there is less land. That said, the vast Magellanic Moorland in South America (Southern Patagonia/Tierra del Fuego) is an extensive peat-dominated landscape.[27] Peat can be found in New Zealand, Kerguelen, the Falkland Islands, and Indonesia (Kalimantan [Sungai Putri, Danau Siawan, Sungai Tolak], Rasau Jaya (West Kalimantan), and Sumatra). Indonesia has more tropical peatlands and mangrove forests than any other nation on earth, but Indonesia is losing wetlands by 100,000 hectares (250,000 acres) per year.[28]

About 7% of all peatlands have been exploited for agriculture and forestry.[29] Under certain conditions, peat will turn into lignite coal over geologic periods of time.

## General characteristics and uses[edit | edit source]

File:Peat-Stack in Ness, Outer Hebrides, Scotland.jpg

A peat stack in Ness on the Isle of Lewis (Scotland)

File:Peatcuttingulsta.jpg

Worked bank in blanket bog, near Ulsta, Yell, Shetland Islands

File:Shovel-Falklands.jpg

Falkland Islanders shovelling peat in the 1950s

File:Feu de tourbe.JPG

Peat fire

Traditionally peat is cut by hand and left to dry in the sun. But for industrial uses, companies may use pressure to extract water from the peat, which is soft and easily compressed, and once dry can be used as fuel. In many countries, including Ireland and Scotland, peat was traditionally stacked to dry in rural areas and used for cooking and domestic heating.

Peat can be a major fire hazard and is not extinguished by light rain.[30] Peat fires may burn for great lengths of time, or smoulder underground and reignite after winter if an oxygen source is present. Because they are easily compressed under minimal weight, peat deposits pose major difficulties to builders of structures, roads, and railways. When the West Highland railway line was built across Rannoch Moor in western Scotland, its builders had to float the tracks on a multi-thousand-ton mattress of tree roots, brushwood, earth and ash.

Peatland can also be an important source of drinking water providing nearly 4% of all potable water stored in reservoirs. In the UK, 43% of the population receives drinking water sourced from peatlands, with the number climbing to 68% in Ireland. Catchments containing peatlands are the main source of water for large cities, including Dublin.[31]

In the Bronze and Iron Ages, people used peat bogs for rituals to nature gods and spirits.[32] Bodies of the victims of such sacrifices have been found in various places in Scotland, England, Ireland, and especially northern Germany and Denmark. They are almost perfectly preserved by the tanning properties of the acidic water (see Tollund Man for one of the most famous examples of a bog body). Peat wetlands also used to have a degree of metallurgical importance in the Early Middle Ages, being the primary source of bog iron used to create swords and armour. Many peat swamps along the coast of Malaysia serve as a natural means of flood mitigation, with any overflow being absorbed by the peat, provided forests are still present to prevent peat fires.[citation needed]

## Characteristics and uses by nation[edit | edit source]

### Finland[edit | edit source]

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File:Toppila power plant.JPG

The Toppila Power Station, a peat-fired facility in Oulu, Finland

The climate, geography, and environment of Finland favours bog and peat bog formation. Thus, peat is available in considerable quantities. It is burned to produce heat and electricity. Peat provides around 4% of Finland's annual energy production.[33]

Also, agricultural and forestry-drained peat bogs actively release more CO2 annually than is released in peat energy production in Finland. The average regrowth rate of a single peat bog, however, is indeed slow, from 1,000 up to 5,000 years. Furthermore, it is a common practice to forest used peat bogs instead of giving them a chance to renew. This leads to lower levels of CO2 storage than the original peat bog.

At 106 g CO2/MJ,[34] the carbon dioxide emissions of peat are higher than those of coal (at 94.6 g CO2/MJ) and natural gas (at 56.1). According to one study, increasing the average amount of wood in the fuel mixture from the current 2.6% to 12.5% would take the emissions down to 93 g CO2/MJ. That said, little effort is being made to achieve this.[35]

The International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) in 2006 urged the local and national governments of Finland to protect and conserve the remaining pristine peatland ecosystems. This includes the cessation of drainage and peat extraction in intact mire sites and the abandoning of current and planned groundwater extraction that may affect these sites. A proposal for a Finnish peatland management strategy was presented to the government in 2011, after a lengthy consultation phase.[36]

### Ireland[edit | edit source]

File:BordnaMona 2930.jpg

Industrial-milled peat production in a section of the Bog of Allen in the Irish Midlands: The 'turf' in the foreground is[citation needed] machine-produced for domestic use.

In the Republic of Ireland, a state-owned company called Bord na Móna was responsible for managing peat extraction. It processed the extracted peat into milled peat which was used in power stations and sold processed peat fuel in the form of peat briquettes which are[citation needed] used for domestic heating. These are oblong bars of densely compressed, dried, and shredded peat. Peat moss is[citation needed] a manufactured product for use in garden cultivation. Turf (dried out peat sods) is also commonly used in rural areas.[citation needed]

In January 2021 Bord na Móna announced that it had ceased all peat harvesting and cutting operations and would be moving its business to a climate solutions company.[37]

In 2022 the sale of peat for burning was prohibited, but some people are still allowed to cut and burn it.[38]

### Russia[edit | edit source]

File:Shatura steam power plant (2010).jpg

Shatura Power Station. Russia has the largest peat power capacity in the world

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Use of peat for energy production was prominent in the Soviet Union, especially in 1965. In 1929, over 40% of the Soviet Union's electric energy came from peat, which dropped to 1% by 1980.

File:Peat Briquette Factory.jpg

The Bor Peat Briquette Factory, Russia

In the 1960s, larger sections of swamps and bogs in Western Russia were drained for agricultural and mining purposes.[39]

### The Netherlands[edit | edit source]

File:500vc ex leg copy.jpg

Peat covered area (brown) 2,500 years ago in the Netherlands

2,500 years ago, the area now named the Netherlands was largely covered with peat. Drainage, causing compaction and oxidation and excavation have reduced peatlands (>40 cm (16 in) peat) to about 2,733 km2 (1,055 sq mi)[40] or 10% of the land area, mostly used as meadows. Drainage and excavation have lowered the surface of the peatlands. In the west of the country dikes and mills were built, creating polders so that dwelling and economic activities could continue below sea level, the first polder probably in 1533[41] and the last one in 1968. Harvesting of peat could continue in suitable locations as the lower peat layers below current sea level became exposed. This peat was deposited before the rise of the sea level in the Holocene. As a result, approximately 26% of the area[42] and 21% of the population[43] of the Netherlands are presently below sea level. The deepest point is in the Zuidplaspolder, 6.76 m (22.2 ft) below average sea level.

File:The Netherlands compared to sealevel.png

The Netherlands compared to sealevel

In 2020, the Netherlands imported 2,156 million kg of peat (5.39 million m3 (400 kg/m3 dry peat) [44]): 44.5% from Germany (2020), 9.5% from Estonia (2018), 9.2% from Latvia (2020), 7.2% from Ireland (2018), 8.0% from Sweden (2019), 6.5% from Lithuania (2020), 5.1% from Belgium (2019) and 1.7% from Denmark (2019)); 1,35 million kg was exported.[45] Most is used in gardening and greenhouse horticulture.

Since the Netherlands did not have many trees to use as firewood or charcoal, one use the Dutch made of the available peat was to fire kilns to make pottery.[46] During World War II, the Dutch Resistance came up with an unusual use for peat. Since peat was so available in the fields, resistance fighters sometimes stacked peat into human-sized piles and used the piles for target practice.[47]

### Estonia[edit | edit source]

After oil shale in Estonia, peat is the second most mined natural resource.[48] The peat production sector has a yearly revenue of around €100 million and it is mostly export-oriented.[citation needed] Peat is extracted from around 14 thousand hectares (35,000 acres).[49]

### India[edit | edit source]

#### Sikkim[edit | edit source]

The mountains of the Himalaya and Tibetan Plateau contains pockets of high-altitude wetlands.[50] Khecheopalri is one of the Sikkim's most famous and diverse peatlands in the eastern Indian territory of Sikkim, which includes 682 species representing 5 kingdoms, 196 families, and 453 genera.[51]

### United Kingdom[edit | edit source]

#### England[edit | edit source]

England has around 1 million acres of peatland. Peatland in England store 584m tonnes of carbon in total but emit around 11m tonnes of CO2 every year due to degradation and draining. In 2021 only 124 people owned 60% of England's peat land.[52]

The extraction of peat from the Somerset Levels began during the Roman times and has been carried out since the Levels were first drained.[53] On Dartmoor, there were several commercial distillation plants formed and run by the British Patent Naphtha Company in 1844. These produced naphtha on a commercial scale from the high-quality local peat.[54]

Fenn's, Whixall and Bettisfield Mosses is an element of a post-Ice Age peat bog that straddles the England–Wales border and contains many rare plant and animal species due to the acidic environment created by the peat.[55] Only lightly hand-dug, it is now a national nature reserve and is being restored to its natural condition.

Industrial extraction of peat occurred at the Thorne Moor site, outside Doncaster near to the village of Hatfield. Government policy incentivised commercial removal to peat for agricultural use. This caused much destruction of the area during the 1980s. The removal of the peat resulted in later flooding further downstream at Goole due to the loss of water retaining peatlands.[56] Recently regeneration of peatland has occurred as part of the Thorne Moors project, and at Fleet Moss, organised by Yorkshire Wildlife Trust.[57]

#### Northern Ireland[edit | edit source]

In Northern Ireland, there is small-scale domestic turf cutting in rural areas, but areas of bogs have been diminished because of changes in agriculture. In response, afforestation has seen the establishment of tentative steps towards conservation such as Peatlands Park, County Armagh which is an Area of Special Scientific Interest.[58]

#### Scotland[edit | edit source]

Some Scotch whisky distilleries, such as those on Islay, use peat fires to dry malted barley. The drying process takes about 30 hours. This gives the whiskies a distinctive smoky flavour, often called "peatiness".[59][better source needed] The peatiness, or degree of peat flavour, of a whisky, is calculated in ppm of phenol. Normal Highland whiskies have a peat level of up to 30 ppm, and the whiskies on Islay usually have up to 50 ppm. In rare types like the Octomore,[60] the whisky can have more than 100 ppm of phenol. Scotch Ales can also use peat roasted malt, imparting a similar smoked flavor.

#### Wales[edit | edit source]

Wales has over 70,000 hectares of peatlands. Most of it is blanket peat bog in the highlands, but there are a few hundred hectares of peatland in lowland areas.[61] Some peatland areas in Wales are in poor condition. In 2020, the Welsh Government established a five-year peatland restoration initiative, which will be implemented by Natural Resources Wales (NRW).[62]

### Canada[edit | edit source]

Canada is the top exporter of peat by value. In 2021, top exporters of peat (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated, were Canada ($580,591.39K , 1,643,950,000 Kg), European Union ($445,304.42K , 2,362,280,000 Kg), Latvia ($275,459.14K , 2,184,860,000 Kg), Netherlands ($235,250.84K , 1,312,850,000 Kg), Germany ($223,414.66K , 1,721,170,000 Kg).[63]

## Generic characteristics and uses[edit | edit source]

### Agriculture[edit | edit source]

See also: Potting soil § Peat

In Sweden, farmers use dried peat to absorb excrement from cattle that are wintered indoors. The most important property of peat is retaining moisture in container soil when it is dry while preventing the excess of water from killing roots when it is wet. Peat can store nutrients although it is not fertile itself – it is polyelectrolytic with a high ion-exchange capacity due to its oxidized lignin. Peat is discouraged as a soil amendment by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, since 2003.[64] While bark-based peat-free potting soil mixes are on the rise, particularly in the UK, peat remains an important[citation needed] raw material for horticulture in some other European countries, Canada, as well as parts of the United States.

### Freshwater aquaria[edit | edit source]

Peat is sometimes used in freshwater aquaria. It is seen most commonly in soft water or blackwater river systems such as those mimicking the Amazon River basin. In addition to being soft in texture and therefore suitable for demersal (bottom-dwelling) species such as Corydoras catfish, peat is reported to have a number of other beneficial functions in freshwater aquaria. It softens water by acting as an ion exchanger; it also contains substances that are beneficial for plants, and for the reproductive health of fishes. Peat can prevent algae growth and kill microorganisms. Peat often stains the water yellow or brown due to the leaching of tannins.[65]

### Balneotherapy[edit | edit source]

Peat is[citation needed] widely used in balneotherapy (the use of bathing to treat disease). Many traditional spa treatments include peat as part of peloids. Such health treatments have an enduring tradition in European countries including Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, and Austria. Some of these old spas date back to the 18th century and are still active today. The most common types of peat application in balneotherapy are peat muds, poultices, and suspension baths.[66]

### Peat archives[edit | edit source]

Authors Rydin and Jeglum in Biology of Habitats described the concept of peat archives, a phrase coined by influential peatland scientist Harry Godwin in 1981.[67][68][69]

> In a peat profile there is a fossilized record of changes over time in the vegetation, pollen, spores, animals (from microscopic to the giant elk), and archaeological remains that have been deposited in place, as well as pollen, spores and particles brought in by wind and weather. These remains are collectively termed the peat archives.

> — Rydin, 2013

In Quaternary Palaeoecology, first published in 1980, Birks and Birks described how paleoecological studies "of peat can be used to reveal what plant communities were present (locally and regionally), what time period each community occupied, how environmental conditions changed, and how the environment affected the ecosystem in that time and place."[68][70]

Scientists continue to compare modern mercury (Hg) accumulation rates in bogs with historical natural-archives records in peat bogs and lake sediments to estimate the potential human impacts on the biogeochemical cycle of mercury, for example.[71] Over the years, different dating models and technologies for measuring date sediments and peat profiles accumulated over the last 100–150 years, have been used, including the widely used vertical distribution of 210Pb, the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-SMS),[72] and more recently the initial penetration (IP).[73] In some cases, naturally mummified human bodies, often called "bog bodies", such as the Tollund Man in Denmark, having been discovered in 1950 and dated to have lived during the 4th century BC after being mistaken for a recent murder victim, have been discovered and exhumed for scientific purposes; prior to that, another "bog body", the Elling Woman, had been discovered in 1938 in the same bog about 60 m (200 ft) from the Tollund Man. She is believed to have lived during the late 3rd century BC and was ultimately a ritual sacrifice.

### Peat hags[edit | edit source]

File:Peat haggs at start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig - geograph.org.uk - 1420692.jpg

Peat hags at the start of Allt Lagan a' Bhainne tributary on Eilrig

Peat "hags" are a form of erosion that occurs at the sides of gullies that cut into the peat or, sometimes, in isolation.[74] Hags may result when flowing water cuts downwards into the peat and when fire or overgrazing exposes the peat surface. Once the peat is exposed in these ways, it is prone to further erosion by wind, water, and livestock. The result is overhanging vegetation and peat. Hags are too steep and unstable for vegetation to establish itself, so they continue to erode unless restorative action is taken.[74]

## Environmental and ecological issues[edit | edit source]

File:Co2.recent.ch.png

Increase, and change relative to previous year, of the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide.

The distinctive ecological conditions of peat wetlands provide a habitat for distinctive fauna and flora. For example, whooping cranes nest in North American peatlands, while Siberian cranes nest in the West Siberian peatland. Such habitats also have many species of wild orchids and carnivorous plants. It takes centuries for a peat bog to recover from disturbance. (For more on biological communities, see wetland, bog or fen.)

The world's largest peat bog is located in Western Siberia. It is the size of France and Germany combined. Recent studies show that it is thawing for the first time in 11,000 years. As the permafrost melts, it could release billions of tonnes of methane gas into the atmosphere. The world's peatlands are thought to contain 180 to 455 billion metric tonnes of sequestered carbon, and they release into the atmosphere 20 to 45 million tonnes (22 to 50 million short tons; 20 to 44 million long tons) of methane annually. The peatlands' contribution to long-term fluctuations in these atmospheric gases has been a matter of considerable debate.[75]

One of the characteristics for peat is the bioaccumulations of metals often concentrated in the peat. Accumulated mercury is of significant environmental concern.[76]

### Peat drainage[edit | edit source]

Large areas of organic wetland (peat) soils are currently drained for agriculture, forestry, and peat extraction (i.e. through canals[77]). This process is taking place all over the world. This not only destroys the habitat of many species but also heavily fuels climate change.[78] As a result of peat drainage, the organic carbon – which built over thousands of years and is normally underwater – is suddenly exposed to the air. It decomposes and turns into carbon dioxide (CO2), which is released into the atmosphere.[79] The global CO2 emissions from drained peatlands have increased from 1,058 Mton in 1990 to 1,298 Mton in 2008 (a 20% increase). This increase has particularly taken place in developing countries, of which Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea are the fastest-growing top emitters. This estimate excludes emissions from peat fires (conservative estimates amount to at least 4,000 Mton/CO2-eq./yr for south-east Asia). With 174 Mton/CO2-eq./yr the EU is after Indonesia (500 Mton) and before Russia (161 Mton) the world's second-largest emitter of drainage-related peatland CO2 (excl. extracted peat and fires). Total CO2 emissions from the worldwide 500,000 km2 of degraded peatland may exceed 2.0 Gtons (including emissions from peat fires) which is almost 6% of all global carbon emissions.[80]

###  Peat fires[edit | edit source]

See also: Slash and burn and Arctic methane release

File:TOMS indonesia smog lrg.jpg

Smoke and ozone pollution from Indonesian fires, 1997

Peat has a high carbon content and can burn under low moisture conditions. Once ignited by the presence of a heat source (e.g., a wildfire penetrating the subsurface), it smoulders. These smouldering fires can burn undetected for very long periods of time (months, years, and even centuries) propagating in a creeping fashion through the underground peat layer.

Despite the damage that the burning of raw peat can cause, bogs are naturally subject to wildfires and depend on the wildfires to keep woody competition from lowering the water table and shading out many bog plants. Several families of plants including the carnivorous Sarracenia (trumpet pitcher), Dionaea (Venus flytrap), Utricularia (bladderworts) and non-carnivorous plants such as the sandhills lily, toothache grass and many species of orchid are now threatened and in some cases endangered from the combined forces of human drainage, negligence, and absence of fire.[81][82][83]

The recent burning of peat bogs in Indonesia, with their large and deep growths containing more than 50 billion tonnes (55 billion short tons; 49 billion long tons) of carbon, has contributed to increases in world carbon dioxide levels.[84] Peat deposits in Southeast Asia could be destroyed by 2040.[85][86]

It is estimated that in 1997, peat and forest fires in Indonesia released between 0.81 and 2.57 gigatonnes (0.89 and 2.83 billion short tons; 0.80 and 2.53 billion long tons) of carbon; equivalent to 13–40 percent of the amount released by global fossil fuel burning, and greater than the carbon uptake of the world's biosphere. These fires may be responsible for the acceleration in the increase in carbon dioxide levels since 1998.[87][88] More than 100 peat fires in Kalimantan and East Sumatra have continued to burn since 1997; each year, these peat fires ignite new forest fires above the ground.

In North America, peat fires can occur during severe droughts throughout their occurrence, from boreal forests in Canada to swamps and fens in the subtropical southern Florida Everglades.[89] Once a fire has burnt through the area, hollows in the peat are burnt out, and hummocks are desiccated but can contribute to Sphagnum recolonization.[90]

In the summer of 2010, an unusually high heat wave of up to 40 °C (104 °F) ignited large deposits of peat in Central Russia, burning thousands of houses and covering the capital of Moscow with a toxic smoke blanket. The situation remained critical until the end of August 2010.[91][92]

In June 2019, despite some forest fire prevention methods being put in place, peat fires[93] in the Arctic emitted 50 megatonnes (55 million short tons; 49 million long tons) of CO2, which is equal to Sweden's total annual emissions.[94] The peat fires are linked to climate change, as they are much more likely to occur nowadays due to this effect.[95][96]

## Protection[edit | edit source]

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See also: Global Peatlands Initiative

In June 2002, the United Nations Development Programme launched the Wetlands Ecosystem and Tropical Peat Swamp Forest Rehabilitation Project. This project was targeted to last for 5 years, and brings together the efforts of various non-government organisations.

In November 2002, the International Peatland (formerly Peat) Society (IPS) and the International Mire Conservation Group (IMCG) published guidelines on the "Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands – Backgrounds and Principles including a framework for decision-making". The aim of this publication is to develop mechanisms that can balance the conflicting demands on the global peatland heritage, to ensure its wise use to meet the needs of humankind.

In June 2008, the IPS published the book Peatlands and Climate Change, summarising the currently available knowledge on the topic. In 2010, IPS presented a "Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management", which can be applied worldwide for decision-making.

## Restoration[edit | edit source]

See also: Mire § Management and rehabilitation

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The UNEP is supporting peatland restoration in Indonesia.[97] Often, restoration is done by blocking drainage channels in the peatland, and allowing natural vegetation to recover.[98]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* Acid sulfate soil
* Acrotelm
* Climate change mitigation#Carbon sinks and removal
* Gytta
* Histosols
* Irish Peatland Conservation Council
* List of bogs
* Peat Cutting Monday
* Tropical peat
* Turbary
* Unified Soil Classification System
* Category:Peat-fired power stations

## Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ^ Supported by the "Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs (DGIS) under the Global Peatland Initiative Archived 2008-11-20 at the Wayback Machine, managed by Wetlands International in co-operation with the IUCN – Netherlands Committee, Alterra, the International Mire Conservation Group and the International Peatland Society."

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ a b Joosten, Hans; Clarke, Donal (2002). Wise Use of Mires and Peatlands: Background and Principles including a Framework for Decision-Making (PDF) (Report). Totnes, Devon. ISBN 951-97744-8-3.
2. ^ a b c Hugron, Sandrine; Bussières, Julie; Rochefort, Line (2013). Tree plantations within the context of ecological restoration of peatlands: practical guide (PDF) (Report). Laval, Québec, Canada: Peatland Ecology Research Group (PERG). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 October 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2014.
3. ^ a b c McGrath, Matt (2020-08-10). "Warming world 'devastating' for frozen peatlands". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-08-11.
4. ^ "Peatlands and climate change". IUCN. 2017-11-06. Retrieved 2019-08-16.
5. ^ "Peatlands and climate change". IUCN. November 6, 2017.
6. ^ "Climate change and deforestation threaten world's largest tropical peatland". Carbon Brief. January 25, 2018.
7. ^ Walker, M.D. 2019. Sphagnum; the biology of a habitat manipulator. Sicklebrook publishing, Sheffield, U.K.
8. ^ Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 497 p. Chapter 1.
9. ^ Ahmad, Sate; Liu, Haojie; Beyer, Florian; Kløve, Bjorn; Lennartz, Bernd (25 February 2020). "Spatial heterogeneity of soil properties in relation to microtopography in a non-tidal rewetted coastal mire" (PDF). Mires and Peat. 26 (4): 1–18. doi:10.19189/MaP.2019.GDC.StA.1779.
10. ^ a b Gorham, E (1957). "The development of peatlands". Quarterly Review of Biology. 32 (2): 145–66. doi:10.1086/401755. S2CID 129085635.
11. ^ Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 497 pp. 323–25
12. ^ "A growing concern: peat is bad for the planet – and for plants". The Guardian. 2021-06-06. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
13. ^ Bek, David; Turner, Margi Lennartsson. "Peat compost to be banned – luckily, green alternatives are just as good for your garden". The Conversation. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
14. ^ World Energy Council (2007). "Survey of Energy Resources 2007" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-10. Retrieved 2008-08-11.
15. ^ "Is coal still being formed today?". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 18 February 2013. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
16. ^ a b Keddy, P.A. 2010. Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2nd edition). Cambridge University Press, UK. Cambridge. 497 p. Chapter 7.
17. ^ "Aspects of treating peat as renewable or non-renewable natural resource" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-01-21. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
18. ^ "The History of Domestic Peat Fuel Exploitation in Relation to Carbon & Climate Change". UKEconet-Wildtrack Publishing. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
19. ^ "How scientists are restoring boreal peatlands to help keep carbon in the ground". World Economic Forum. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
20. ^ Walker, M.D. 2019. Sphagnum: the biology of a habitat manipulator. Sicklebrook Press. 978-0-359-41313-3
21. ^ Vitt, D.H., L.A. Halsey and B.J. Nicholson. 2005. The Mackenzie River basin. pp. 166–202 in L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 488 p.
22. ^ Zicheng Yu, Julie Loisel, Daniel P. Brosseau, David W. Beilman, Stephanie J. Hunt. 2010. Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum. Geophysical Research Letters, Vol 37, L13402
23. ^ "5. CLASSIFICATION". www.fao.org. Retrieved 2017-03-28.
24. ^ Xu, Jiren; Morris, Paul J.; Liu, Junguo; Holden, Joseph (2017). "F840". PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis. University of Leeds. doi:10.5518/252.
25. ^ Xu, Jiren; Morris, Paul J.; Liu, Junguo; Holden, Joseph (2018). "PEATMAP: Refining estimates of global peatland distribution based on a meta-analysis" (PDF). CATENA. 160: 134–140. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2017.09.010.
26. ^ IUCN UK Commission of Inquiry on Peatlands Archived 2014-03-07 at the Wayback Machine Full Report, IUCN UK Peatland Programme October 2011
27. ^ a b Fraser, L.H. Fraser and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World's Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p. and P.A. Keddy (eds.). 2005. The World’s Largest Wetlands: Ecology and Conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. 488 p.
28. ^ "Waspada Online". Retrieved 25 October 2015.
29. ^ "World Energy Resources: Peat – World Energy Council 2013" (PDF). Volcano Wood Fuels. World Energy Council. Retrieved 2016-02-25.
30. ^ Lin, Shaorun; Cheung, Yau Kuen; Xiao, Yang; Huang, Xinyan (2020-07-20). "Can rain suppress smoldering peat fire?". Science of the Total Environment. 727: 138468. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.727m8468L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138468. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32334212. S2CID 216146063.
31. ^ Xu, Jiren; Morris, Paul J.; Liu, Junguo; Holden, Joseph (2018). "Hotspots of peatland-derived potable water use identified by global analysis" (PDF). Nature Sustainability. 1 (5): 246–253. doi:10.1038/s41893-018-0064-6. ISSN 2398-9629. S2CID 134230602.
32. ^ "NOVA | The Perfect Corpse | PBS". www.pbs.org.
33. ^ "Statistics Finland - Energy supply and consumption".
34. ^ The CO2 emission factor of peat fuel Archived 2010-07-07 at the Wayback Machine. Imcg.net. Retrieved on 2011-05-09.
35. ^ "VTT 2004: Wood in peat fuel – impact on the reporting of greenhouse gas emissions according to IPCC guidelines" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2006-12-20.
36. ^ Salomaa, Anne; Paloniemi, Riikka; Ekroos, Eri (2018). "The case of conflicting Finnish peatland management – Skewed representation of nature, participation and policy instruments". Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 223: 694–702. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.06.048. PMID 29975897.
37. ^ O'Doherty, Caroline (14 January 2021). "Bord na Móna confirms it has ended peat harvesting for good". Independent. Retrieved 15 January 2021.
38. ^ Dublin, Barry Hartigan in. "A burning issue for Ireland as the sale of peat is outlawed". The Sunday Post. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
39. ^ Serghey Stelmakovich. "Russia institutes peat fire prevention program". Archived from the original on June 18, 2010. Retrieved August 9, 2010.
40. ^ Joosten, Hans; Tanneberger, Franziska; Moen, Asbjørn. 2017. Mires and peatlands of Europe. Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany. 780 p. Chapter "Netherlands".
41. ^ Reh, W., Steenbergen, C., Aten, D. 2007. Sea of Land, The polder as an experimental atlas of Dutch landscape architecture. 344 pp, Uitgeverij Architectura & Natura. ISBN 9789071123962
42. ^ Schiermeier, Quirin (2010). "Few fishy facts found in climate report". Nature. 466 (170): 170. doi:10.1038/466170a. PMID 20613812.
43. ^ "Milieurekeningen 2008" (PDF). Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
44. ^ "Common substances, materials, foods and gravels". www.aqua-calc.com.
45. ^ CBS (opendata.cbs.nl), Goederensoorten naar land; minerale brandstoffen en chemie (tr. "Goods by country; mineral fuels and chemistry")
46. ^ Prins, Marcel & Steenhuis, Peter Henk, "Hidden," Arthur A. Levine Books, New York, copyright 2011, page 205.
47. ^ Ibid, page 204.
48. ^ "Peat". Turbaliit. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
49. ^ "Ministeerium: seisvad turbamaardlad on mõistlik taas kasutusele võtta" ERR, 25 April 2020 (in Estonian)
50. ^ O'Neill, Alexander; et al. (25 February 2020). "Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland". Wetlands Ecology & Management. 28 (2): 375–388. doi:10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7. S2CID 211081106.
51. ^ O'Neill, A. R. (2019). "Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas". Global Ecology and Conservation. 20 (e00715): 19. doi:10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715.
52. ^ "Just 124 people own most of England's deep peat – its largest carbon store". The Guardian. 2021-11-15. Retrieved 2021-11-15.
53. ^ "Somerset Peat Paper – Issues consultation for the Minerals Core Strategy" (PDF). Somerset County Council. September 2009. p. 7\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 March 2012. Retrieved 30 November 2011.
54. ^ Dartmoor Peat, Dartmoor history
55. ^ "Mawndiroedd Fenn's, Whixall a Bettisfield". Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-27.
56. ^ Walker, M. D. Sphagnum. Sicklebrook Press. ISBN 978-0-359-41313-3
57. ^ "Giving peat a(nother) chance | Yorkshire Wildlife Trust". www.ywt.org.uk. Retrieved 14 January 2021.
58. ^ "Peatlands Park ASSI". NI Environment Agency. Retrieved 14 August 2010.[permanent dead link]
59. ^ "Peat and Its Significance in Whisky". Retrieved 25 October 2015.
60. ^ "Octomore 5 Years 03.1". Retrieved 25 October 2015.
61. ^ "Welsh Peatland Sustainable Management Scheme (SMS) Project". National Trust. Retrieved 2022-09-06.
62. ^ "Natural Resources Wales / The National Peatland Action Programme". naturalresources.wales. Retrieved 2022-09-06.
63. ^ "Peat; (including peat litter), whether or not agglomerated exports by country in 2021". WITS - World Integrated Solution. World Bank. Retrieved 19 May 2022.
64. ^ "Peat-free compost at Kew". RBG Kew. 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-09-16. Retrieved 2011-06-24.
65. ^ Scheurmann, Ines (1985). Natural Aquarium Handbook, The. (trans. for Barron's Educational Series, Hauppauge, New York: 2000). Munich, Germany: Gräfe & Unzer GmbH.
66. ^ International Peatland Society[permanent dead link] Peat Balneology, Medicine and Therapeutics
67. ^ Godwin, Sir Harry (1981). The archives of the peat bogs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
68. ^ a b Rydin, Håkan; Jeglum, John K. (18 July 2013) [8 Jun 2006]. The Biology of Peatlands. Biology of Habitats (2 ed.). University of Oxford Press. p. 400\. ISBN 978-0198528722.
69. ^ Keddy, P.A. (2010), Wetland Ecology: Principles and Conservation (2 ed.), Cambridge, UK.: Cambridge University Press, pp. 323–325
70. ^ Birks, Harry John Betteley; Birks, Hilary H. (2004) [1980]. Quaternary Palaeoecology. Blackburn Press. pp. 289 pages.
71. ^ Biester, Harald; Bindler, Richard (2009), Modelling Past Mercury Deposition from Peat Bogs – The Influence of Peat Structure and 210Pb Mobility (PDF), Working Papers of the Finnish Forest Research Institute, retrieved 21 October 2014
72. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). www.elmvalefoundation.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2014-10-22.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
73. ^ Modeling the downward transport of 210Pb in mires and repercussions on the deriv. EGU General Assembly. Bibcode:2013EGUGA..1511054O.
74. ^ a b Peat Hags Archived 2016-07-12 at the Wayback Machine at www.yppartnership.org.uk, website of the Yorkshire Peat Partnership. Retrieved 9 July 2016.
75. ^ MacDonald, Glen M.; Beilman, David W.; Kremenetski, Konstantine V.; Sheng, Yongwei; Smith, Laurence C. & Velichko, Andrei A. (2006). "Rapid early development of circumarctic peatlands and atmospheric CH4 and CO2 variations". Science. 314 (5797): 285–288. Bibcode:2006Sci...314..285M. doi:10.1126/science.1131722. PMID 17038618. S2CID 45020372.
76. ^ Mitchell, Carla P. J.; Branfireun, Brian A. & Kolka, Randall K. (2008). "Spatial Characteristics of Net Methylmercury Production Hot Spots in Peatlands" (PDF). Environmental Science and Technology. American Chemical Society. 42 (4): 1010–1016. Bibcode:2008EnST...42.1010M. doi:10.1021/es0704986. PMID 18351065. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2008.
77. ^ "Peatland drainage through canals".
78. ^ "Peatlands and climate change". IUCN. 2017-11-06. Retrieved 2020-01-23.
79. ^ Content from Wetlands.org, Wetlands International | Peatlands and CO2 Emissions
80. ^ Wetlands.org[permanent dead link], The Global Peat CO2 Picture, Wetlands International and Greifswald University, 2010
81. ^ Michael Kevin Smith. "Meadowview Biological Research Station – Preserving and Restoring Pitcher Plant Bogs". Retrieved 25 October 2015.
82. ^ "New lily species found in eastern N.C. Sandhills". Retrieved 25 October 2015.
83. ^ toothache-grass www.dmr.state.ms.us[permanent dead link]
84. ^ Lim, XiaoZhi. "Vast Peat Fires Threaten Health and Boost Global Warming". Scientific American. Retrieved 2019-08-16.
85. ^ "Asian peat fires add to warming". BBC News. 2005-09-03. Retrieved 2010-05-22.
86. ^ Joel S. Levine (31 December 1999). Wildland fires and the environment: a global synthesis. UNEP/Earthprint. ISBN 978-92-807-1742-6. Retrieved 9 May 2011. web link Archived 2005-09-02 at the Wayback Machine
87. ^ Cat Lazaroff, Indonesian Wildfires Accelerated Global Warming Archived 2019-09-08 at the Wayback Machine, Environment News Service
88. ^ Fred Pearce Massive peat burn is speeding climate change, New Scientist, 6 November 2004
89. ^ "Florida Everglades". U.S. Geological Survey. 15 January 2013. Archived from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 11 June 2013.
90. ^ Fenton, Nicole; Lecomte, Nicolas; Légaré, Sonia & Bergeron, Yves (2005). "Paludification in black spruce (Picea mariana) forests of eastern Canada: Potential factors and management implications". Forest Ecology and Management. 213 (1–3): 151–159. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2005.03.017.
91. ^ "Fog from peat fires blankets Moscow amid heat wave". BBC. 26 July 2010.
92. ^ "Russia begins to localize fires, others rage". Associated Press. 30 July 2010.
93. ^ Hines, Morgan. "Thanks to climate change, parts of the Arctic are on fire. Scientists are concerned". USA TODAY.
94. ^ "'Unprecedented': more than 100 Arctic wildfires burn in worst ever season". The Guardian. July 26, 2019.
95. ^ Cormier, Zoe. "Why the Arctic is smouldering". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2019-08-28.
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97. ^ Environment, U. N. (2020-08-10). "UNEP supports project to restore peatlands in Indonesia". UN Environment. Retrieved 2020-08-11.
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## External links[edit | edit source]

The Wikibook Historical Geology has a page on the topic of: Peat and coal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peat.

Look up peat in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikisource has the text of The New Student's Reference Work article "Peat".

* International Peatland Society
* International Mire Conservation Group
* Irish Peatland Conservation Council
* Gardening without peat Royal Horticultural Society
* Peat-free gardens RSPB
* Massive peat burn is speeding climate change From The New Scientist
* Peatlands articles on the BBC
* Meadowview Biological Research Station
* Peat and Peatlands Bibliography

* v
* t
* e

Geotechnical engineering

Offshore geotechnical engineering

Investigation
and
instrumentation|

| Field (in situ)|

* File:Core sample.svg Core drill

* File:Cone penetration test.svg Cone penetration test

* File:Geo-electrical sounding.svg Geo-electrical sounding

* File:In situ permeameter test.svg Permeability test

* File:Load test.svg Load test
* Static
* Dynamic
* Statnamic

* File:Pore pressure measurement.svg Pore pressure measurement
* Piezometer
* Well

* File:Ram sounding.svg Ram sounding

* File:Rock control drilling.svg Rock control drilling

* File:Rotary pressure sounding.svg Rotary-pressure sounding

* File:Rotary weight sounding.svg Rotary weight sounding

* File:Sample series.svg Sample series

* File:Screw plate test.svg Screw plate test

* Deformation monitoring
* File:Inclinometer.svg Inclinometer
* File:Settlement recordings.svg Settlement recordings

* File:Shear vane test.svg Shear vane test

* File:Simple sounding.svg Simple sounding

* File:Standard penetration test.svg Standard penetration test

* File:Total sounding.svg Total sounding

* File:Trial pit.svg Trial pit

* File:Visible rock.svg Visible bedrock

* Nuclear densometer test

* Exploration geophysics

* Crosshole sonic logging

* Pile integrity test

* Wave equation analysis

|

Laboratory
testing|

* Soil classification
* Atterberg limits
* California bearing ratio
* Direct shear test
* Hydrometer
* Proctor compaction test
* R-value
* Sieve analysis
* Triaxial shear test
* Oedometer test
* Hydraulic conductivity tests
* Water content tests

Soil|

| Types|

* Clay
* Silt
* Sand
* Gravel
* Peat
* Loam
* Loess

|

Properties|

* Hydraulic conductivity
* Water content
* Void ratio
* Bulk density
* Thixotropy
* Reynolds' dilatancy
* Angle of repose
* Friction angle
* Cohesion
* Porosity
* Permeability
* Specific storage
* Shear strength
* Sensitivity

Structures
(Interaction)|

| Natural features|

* Topography
* Vegetation
* Terrain
* Topsoil
* Water table
* Bedrock
* Subgrade
* Subsoil

|

Earthworks|

* Shoring structures
* Retaining walls
* Gabion
* Ground freezing
* Mechanically stabilized earth
* Pressure grouting
* Slurry wall
* Soil nailing
* Tieback
* Land development
* Landfill
* Excavation
* Trench
* Embankment
* Cut
* Causeway
* Terracing
* Cut-and-cover
* Cut and fill
* Fill dirt
* Grading
* Land reclamation
* Track bed
* Erosion control
* Earth structure
* Expanded clay aggregate
* Crushed stone
* Geosynthetics
* Geotextile
* Geomembrane
* Geosynthetic clay liner
* Cellular confinement
* Infiltration

Foundations|

* Shallow
* Deep

Mechanics|

| Forces|

* Effective stress
* Pore water pressure
* Lateral earth pressure
* Overburden pressure
* Preconsolidation pressure

|

Phenomena/
problems|

* Permafrost
* Frost heaving
* Consolidation
* Compaction
* Earthquake
* Response spectrum
* Seismic hazard
* Shear wave
* Landslide analysis
* Stability analysis
* Mitigation
* Classification
* Sliding criterion
* Slab stabilisation
* Bearing capacity * Stress distribution in soil

Numerical analysis
software|

* SEEP2D
* STABL
* SVFlux
* SVSlope
* UTEXAS
* Plaxis

Related fields|

* Geology
* Geochemistry
* Petrology
* Earthquake engineering
* Geomorphology
* Soil science
* Hydrology
* Hydrogeology
* Biogeography
* Earth materials
* Archaeology
* Agricultural science
* Agrology

* v
* t
* e

Coal

Coal types by grade
(lowest to highest)|

* Xylit
* Peat1
* Lignite
* Sub-bituminous coal
* Bituminous coal
* Anthracite
* Graphite1

File:Coal anthracite.jpg

Coal combustion|

* Black coal equivalent
* Char
* Coal pollution mitigation
* Coal preparation plant
* Coal-seam fire
* Coke
* Coal tar
* Energy value
* Flue gas
* Fly ash

Coal mining|

* Coalfields
* Coal dust
* Coal gas
* Coal refuse
* Coal slurry
* Coal homogenization
* Coal liquefaction
* Health and environmental impact of the coal industry
* History
* Mining regions
* Peak coal
* Refined coal
* Coal town

Note: [1] Peat is considered a precursor to coal. Graphite is only technically considered a coal type.

* v
* t
* e

Non-timber forest products

Animal products|

* Furs
* Honey
* Pine honey
* Wild game

* Berries
* Tree fruit

* Banana
* Bilberry
* Binukaw
* Blackberry
* Blueberry
* Breadfruit
* Cocoa bean
* Coconut
* Durian
* Gambooge
* Huckleberry
* Jackfruit
* Juniper berry
* Lingonberry
* Raspberry
* Strawberry
* Tamarind
* Woodland strawberry

Edible plants / roots|

* Betel
* Fiddlehead ferns
* Heart of palm
* Mahuwa flowers
* Sago palm
* queen
* Sassafras
* filé powder
* root beer
* Saw palmetto
* Wild ginseng
* Wild onions
* Bear garlic
* Canada onion
* Crow garlic
* Twincrest onion
* Pacific mountain onion
* Ramps

Mushrooms|

* Bare-toothed russula
* Bay bolete
* Birch bolete
* Cep
* Chanterelle
* Honey mushroom
* Lingzhi
* Matsutake
* Meadow mushroom
* Morel
* Oyster mushroom
* Parasol mushroom
* Red cap
* Saffron milk cap
* Slippery jack
* Truffle
* Yellow knight

* Nuts
* Spices

* Allspice
* Areca nut
* Bay leaf
* Black pepper
* Brazil nut
* Cinnamon
* Clove
* Hazelnut
* Malva nut
* Nutmeg
* Pine nut
* Vanilla

* Oil
* Waxes

* Allanblackia
* Babassu
* Bacuri
* Candlenut
* Capuacu
* Carnauba
* Chaulmoogra (Hydnocarpus wightiana)
* Cocoa butter
* Eucalyptol
* Eucalyptus
* Illipe
* Japan wax
* Kokum
* Kombo
* Kpangnan
* Kusum
* Mafura
* Mahua
* Mango butter
* Murumuru
* Nagkesar
* Palm (kernel)
* Phulwara
* Pilu
* Pongamia
* Sal-seed (Shorea robusta)
* Sandalwood
* Shea butter
* Tamanu
* Tea-seed
* Tea-tree
* Tucuma
* Ucuuba
* Vateria indica

Resins|

* Benzoin
* Birch tar
* Camphor
* Creosote
* Frankincense
* Gamboge
* Kauri
* Lacquer
* Mastic
* Myrrh
* Pine tar
* Pitch
* Rosin
* Turpentine
* Varnish

Sap / Gum / etc.|

* Birch syrup
* Chicle
* chewing gum
* Coconut sugar
* Date sugar
* Fruit syrup
* Gum arabic
* Gutta-percha
* Kino
* Latex
* Maple sugar
* Maple syrup
* Palm sugar
* Palm wine
* akpeteshie
* ogogoro
* Rubber
* Spruce gum

Other|

* Amadou
* Bamboo
* edible
* musical instruments
* textiles
* Birch bark
* Birch beer
* Cork
* Ferns
* Forage
* Gambier
* Moss
* Natural dyes
* henna
* Peat
* Quinine
* Rattan
* Shellac
* Tanbark
* tannin
* Tendu leaves
* Thatching
* Vegetable ivory
* Willow bark

Related|

* Dehesa (Iberian agroforestry)
* Forest farming / gardening
* Honey hunting
* Indian forest produce
* Mushroom hunting
* Naval stores
* Resin extraction
* Rubber tapping
* Wildcrafting

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Firefighting

Personnel and organization|

* Battalion chief
* Chief firefighter
* Fire captain
* Fire chief
* Station officer
* Retained firefighter
* Fire marshal
* Fire police
* Firefighter assist and search team
* Handcrew
* Special operations firefighter
* Volunteer fire department
* Women in firefighting
* Fire department ranks by country

Facilities|

* Fire department
* list
* Fire lookout tower
* Fire station

Apparatus|

* Airport crash tender
* Fire bike
* Fire car
* Fire engine
* Fireboat
* Firefighting apparatus
* Hazardous materials apparatus
* Light and air unit
* Quint
* Rescue vehicle
* Water tender

Equipment|

* Bunker gear
* Escape chair
* Fire extinguisher
* Fire hose
* Fire hydrant
* Fire proximity suit
* Fire retardant
* Fire shelter
* Fireman's pole
* Fireman's switch
* Flame retardant
* Fog nozzle
* Halligan bar
* Hard suction hose
* Hazmat suit
* Heat detector
* Hose bridge
* Hydraulic rescue tools ("Jaws of life")
* Kelly tool
* Nomex
* New York roof hook
* PASS device
* The pig
* Portable water tank
* Rotary saw
* Self-contained breathing apparatus
* Siren
* Smoke detector
* Thermal imaging camera

Terminology|

* Backdraft
* Dead man zone
* Deluge gun
* Door breaching
* Draft
* Fire class
* Fire control
* Fire safety
* Fire triangle
* Fireman's carry
* Firewall
* Flash fire
* Gaseous fire suppression
* Stop, drop and roll
* Structure fire
* barn fire
* Two-in, two-out
* Ventilation

Miscellaneous|

* Candidate Physical Ability Test
* Fire camp
* Fire engine red
* Fire photography
* Fire protection engineering
* Geography of firefighting
* History of firefighting
* International Association of Fire Fighters
* International Firefighters' Day
* List of firefighting films
* Muster
* Saint Florian
* World Firefighters Games
* World Police and Fire Games

Wildfires|

| General|

* Wildfire emergency management
* Wildfire suppression

|

Equipment
and tactics|

* Aerial firefighting
* Controlled burn
* Driptorch
* Fire flapper
* Fire hose
* Fire lookout tower
* Fire rake
* Fire retardant
* Fire retardant gel
* Fire trail
* Firebreak
* Firefighting apparatus
* Firefighting foam
* Helicopter bucket
* Hose pack
* McLeod
* Modular Airborne FireFighting System
* Pulaski
* Wildfire suppression equipment and personnel
* Wildland fire engine
* Wildland water tender

Personnel|

* Fire lookout
* Handcrew
* Helitack
* Hotshot crew
* Smokejumper
* Wildland fire module

By location|

* Ancient Rome
* Australia
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Lists|

* Glossary of wildfire terms
* List of wildfires

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* File:Symbol question.svg Glossary
* File:Symbol question.svg Index
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