South African English

Set of English dialects native to South Africans

South African English

Region| South Africa
Ethnicity| South Africans

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Indo-European

* Germanic
* West Germanic
* Ingvaeonic
* Anglo-Frisian
* Anglic
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* South African English

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Old English

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| Latin (English alphabet)
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ISO 639-3| –
Glottolog| `sout3331`
IETF| `en-ZA`
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.
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File:South Africa 2011 English speakers proportion map.svg

Geographical distribution of English in South Africa: proportion of the population that speaks English at home

0–20%

20–40%

40–60%

60–80%

80–100%

File:South Africa 2011 English speakers density map.svg

Geographical distribution of English in South Africa: density of English home-language speakers. The four high-density clusters correspond to the locations of Pretoria and Johannesburg, Durban, Port Elizabeth and Cape Town (clockwise).

<1 /km²

1–3 /km²

3–10 /km²

10–30 /km²

30–100 /km²

100–300 /km²

300–1000 /km²

1000–3000 /km²

>3000 /km²

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South African English (SAfrE, SAfrEng, SAE, en-ZA)[a] is the set of English language dialects native to South Africans.

## Contents

* 1 History
* 2 Varieties
* 2.1 Black South African English
* 2.1.1 Phonology
* 2.1.2 Grammar
* 2.1.3 History
* 2.1.4 Geography
* 2.1.5 Cape Flats English
* 2.2 Indian South African English
* 2.3 White South African English
* 3 Phonology
* 3.1 Vowels
* 3.2 Consonants
* 4 Lexicon
* 4.1 History of SAE dictionaries
* 4.2 Vocabulary
* 4.2.1 British lexical items
* 4.3 Expressions
* 5 Demographics
* 6 Examples of South African accents
* 7 References
* 7.1 Notes
* 7.2 Citations
* 7.3 Sources
* 8 Further reading

## History[edit | edit source]

British settlers first arrived in the South African region in 1795, when they established a military holding operation at the Cape Colony. The goal of this first endeavour was to gain control of a key Cape sea route, not to establish a permanent settler colony.[1] Full control of the colony was wrested from the Batavian Republic following the Battle of Blaauwberg in 1806. The first major influx of English speakers arrived in 1820. About 5,000 British settlers, mostly rural or working class, settled in the Eastern Cape.[1] Though the British were a minority colonist group, the Cape Colony governor, Lord Charles Somerset, declared English an official language in 1822.[1]

To spread the influence of English in the colony, officials began to recruit British schoolmasters and Scottish clergy to occupy positions in the education and church systems.[1] Another group of English speakers arrived from Britain in the 1840s and 1850s, along with the Natal settlers. These individuals were largely “standard speakers” like retired military personnel and aristocrats.[1]

A third wave of English settlers arrived between 1875 and 1904, and brought with them a diverse variety of English dialects. These last two waves did not have as large an influence on South African English (SAE), for "the seeds of development were already sown in 1820".[1] However, the Natal wave brought nostalgia for British customs and helped to define the idea of a "standard" variety that resembled Southern British English.[1]

When the Union of South Africa was formed in 1910, English and Dutch were the official state languages, though Afrikaans effectively replaced Dutch in 1925.[2] After 1994, these two languages along with nine other Southern Bantu languages achieved equal official status.[2]

SAE is an extraterritorial (ET) variety of English, or a language variety that has been transported outside its mainland home. More specifically, SAE is a Southern hemisphere ET originating from later English colonisation in the 18th and 19th centuries as Zimbabwean, Australian, and New Zealand English are Southern hemisphere ET varieties.[1]

SAE resembles British English more closely than it does American English due to the close ties that South African colonies maintained with the mainland in the 19th and 20th centuries. However, with the increasing influence of American pop-culture around the world via modes of contact like television, American English has become more familiar in South Africa. Indeed, some American lexical items are becoming alternatives to comparable British terms.[1]

## Varieties[edit | edit source]

### Black South African English[edit | edit source]

Black South African English, or BSAE, is spoken by individuals whose first language is an indigenous African tongue.[3] BSAE is considered a "new" English because it has emerged through the education system among second-language speakers in places where English is not the majority language.[3]

At least two sociolinguistic variants have been definitively studied on a post-creole continuum for the second-language Black South African English spoken by most Black South Africans: a high-end, prestigious "acrolect" and a more middle-ranging, mainstream "mesolect". The "basilect" variety is less similar to the colonial language (natively-spoken English), while the "mesolect" is somewhat more so.[1] Historically, BSAE has been considered a "non-standard" variety of English, inappropriate for formal contexts and influenced by indigenous African languages.[3]

According to the Central Statistical Services, as of 1994[update] about 7 million black people spoke English in South Africa.[3] BSAE originated in the South African school system, when the 1953 Bantu Education Act mandated the use of native African languages in the classroom. When this law was established, most of the native English-speaking teachers were removed from schools. This limited the exposure that black students received to standard varieties of English. As a result, the English spoken in black schools developed distinctive patterns of pronunciation and syntax, leading to the formation of BSAE.[3]

Some of these characteristic features can be linked to the mother tongues of the early BSAE speakers. The policy of mother tongue promotion in schools ultimately failed, and in 1979, the Department of Bantu Education allowed schools to choose their own language of instruction. English was largely the language of choice, because it was viewed as a key tool of social and economic advancement.[3] BSAE has contrasting pronunciation and organization of vowels and consonants compared to the ones in standard English. For instance, “it lacks the tense/lax contrast and central vowels in the mesolectal variety.” [4]

#### Phonology[edit | edit source]

BSAE emerged from the influence of local native languages on the British English variety often taught in South African schools. After dispersing BSAE has been seen as three distinct subvarieties: the basilect, mesolect, and acrolect. Not much has yet been studied on the subvarieties of BSAE, and the distinctions between them aren’t yet fully defined. However, there are some notable pronunciation differences in the mesolect and acrolect.[4]

The vowels in BSAE can be realized as five key phonemes: /i/, pronounced in words like “FLEECE” or KIT, /u/ in “FOOT” or “GOOSE”, /ɛ/ in “TRAP”, “DRESS”, or “NURSE”, /ɔ/ in LOT or FORCE, and /a/ in . /i/ may occasionally be pronounced [ɪ] in the acrolectal variety, though there is no consistent change among speakers. One difference in the acrolect in comparison to the mesolect is that it often uses the phoneme /ʌ/ in place of /a/.[4] In addition, many vowels that are normally diphthongs in most varieties are monophthongs in BSAE. For example, “FACE” in standard American English is typically pronounced as /feɪs/ or /fɛis/, but in BSAE is typically pronounced /fɛs/.[4]

#### Grammar[edit | edit source]

Black South African English analysis has not been researched or utilized enough due to its contrasting methods to Southern British norms.[4] BSAE has contrasting pronunciation and organization of vowels and consonants compared to the ones in more commonly used languages such as other varieties of English. Due to English being an official language of South Africa, dialects that have contrary methods in language and pronunciation to English become isolated from the speech in that area. It has contrasting pronunciation and organization of vowels and consonants compared to the ones in standard English.[5] For instance, “it lacks the tense/lax contrast and central vowels in the mesolectal variety.” [4] In Black South African English, the length of vowel usage is changeable however, length can be understood as a stress placement.[4]

#### History[edit | edit source]

Historically, BSAE has been considered a "non-standard" variety of English, inappropriate for formal contexts, and influenced by indigenous African languages. BSAE, or Black South African English, has its roots in European colonialism of the African continent in the 19th century. As a result of English being pushed by the colonizers of the region, the British, English became widespread in the South African region after it became necessary for indigenous African communities to use for success under the British.[6] Much like in other colonies of the British, English became a necessity for advancement and economic security in the colony for indigenous Africans.[6]

According to the Central Statistical Services, as of 1994 about 7 million black people spoke English in South Africa. BSAE originated in the South African school system, when the 1953 Bantu Education Act mandated the use of native African languages in the classroom. When this law was established, most of the native English-speaking teachers were removed from schools. This limited the exposure that black students received to standard varieties of English. As a result, the English spoken in black schools developed distinctive patterns of pronunciation and syntax, leading to the formation of BSAE. Some of these characteristic features can be linked to the mother tongues of the early BSAE speakers. The policy of mother tongue promotion in schools ultimately failed, and in 1979, the Department of Bantu Education allowed schools to choose their own language of instruction. English was largely the language of choice, because it was viewed as a key tool of social and economic advancement.

#### Geography[edit | edit source]

About 20% of all coloured people in South Africa speak English as a home language.[7] They are primarily concentrated in the provinces of KwaZulu-Natal and northeastern parts of the Eastern Cape in the former Transkei with some transplants being found in Johannesburg. Many people from these regions migrated to Durban and Pietermaritzburg, where the most Anglophone coloureds can be found.[8]

Anglophone coloureds with European heritage have ancestry mostly from the British Isles, which, along with originating in regions with very few Afrikaans speaking people, contributed to English being the main language of the coloured people in the region. In addition, since Afrikaners are identified as the architects of apartheid, they are not held in high regard by the "coloured" people of Natal. Furthermore, since the Natal "coloureds" identify culturally with the English-speaking South Africans, they are antipathetic towards Afrikaans.[8]

The accent of Anglophone coloured people is influenced by their multiracial background, being descended from Europeans (British, German, and Afrikaners), blacks (Zulu and Xhosa), Indians (both Dravidian and Indo-Aryan) as well as other mixed people like St. Helenians, Mauritian Creoles and some Griquas. This has influenced the accent to be one of the most distinctive in Southern Africa.

#### Cape Flats English[edit | edit source]

Main article: Cape Flats English

A particular variety or sub-spectrum of South African English is Cape Flats English, originally and best associated with inner-city Cape Coloured speakers.[9]

### Indian South African English[edit | edit source]

Indian South African English (ISAE) is a sub-variety that developed among the descendants of Indian immigrants to South Africa.[1] The Apartheid policy, in effect from 1948 to 1991, prevented Indian children from publicly interacting with people of English heritage. This separation caused an Indian variety to develop independently from white South African English, though with phonological and lexical features still fitting under the South African English umbrella.[1] Indian South African English includes a "basilect", "mesolect", and "acrolect".[1] These terms describe varieties of a given language on a spectrum of similarity to the colonial version of that language: the "acrolect" being the most similar.[1]

Today, basilect speakers are generally older non-native speakers with little education; acrolect speakers closely resemble colonial native English speakers, with a few phonetic/syntactic exceptions; and mesolect speakers fall somewhere in-between.[1] In recent decades, the dialect has come much closer to the standard language through the model taught in schools. The result is a variety of English which mixes features of Indian, South African, Standard British, creole, and foreign language learning Englishes in a unique and fascinating way.[10]

ISAE resembles Indian English in some respects, possibly because the varieties contain speakers with shared mother tongues or because early English teachers were brought to South Africa from India, or both.[1] Four prominent education-related lexical features shared by ISAE and Indian English are: tuition(s), which means "extra lessons outside school that one pays for"; further studies, which means "higher education"; alphabets, which means "the alphabet, letters of the alphabet"; and by-heart, which means "to learn off by heart"; these items show the influence of Indian English teachers in South Africa.[1]

Phonologically, ISAE also shares several similarities with Indian English, though certain common features are decreasing in the South African variety. For instance, consonant retroflexion in phonemes like /ḍ/ and strong aspiration in consonant production (common in North Indian English) are present in both varieties, but declining in ISAE. Syllable-timed rhythm, instead of stress-timed rhythm, is still a prominent feature in both varieties, especially in more colloquial sub-varieties.[1]

### White South African English[edit | edit source]

Further information: White South African English phonology

Several white South African English varieties have emerged, accompanied by varying levels of perceived social prestige. Roger Lass describes white South African English as a system of three sub-varieties spoken primarily by White South Africans, called "The Great Trichotomy" (a term first used to categorise Australian English varieties and subsequently applied to South African English).[1] In this classification, the "Cultivated" variety closely approximates England's standard Received Pronunciation and is associated with the upper class; the "General" variety is a social indicator of the middle class and is the common tongue; and the "Broad" variety is most associated with the working class, low socioeconomic status, and little education.[1]

These three sub-varieties, Cultivated, General, and Broad, have also sometimes been called "Conservative SAE", "Respectable SAE", and "Extreme SAE", respectively.[1] Broad White SAE closely approximates the second-language variety of (Afrikaans-speaking) Afrikaners called Afrikaans English. This variety has been stigmatised by middle and upper class SAE speakers (primarily those of Anglo-Saxon origin) and is considered a vernacular form of SAE.[1]

## Phonology[edit | edit source]

This section contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Main article: South African English phonology

### Vowels[edit | edit source]

* Allophonic variation in the KIT vowel (from Wells' 1982 lexical sets). In some contexts, such as after /h/, the KIT vowel is pronounced [ɪ]; before tautosyllabic /l/ it is pronounced [ɤ]; and in other contexts it is pronounced [ə].[11] This feature is not present in Conservative SAE, and may have resulted from a vocalic chain shift in White SAE.[1]
* Pronunciation of the FLEECE vowel with the long monophthongal [iː]. In contrast, other Southern Hemisphere Englishes like Australian English and New Zealand English have diphthongised FLEECE ([ɪi ~ əi]).[11]
* Back PALM, with lip rounding in the broader dialects ([ɑː] or [ɒː]). This differs from Australian English and New Zealand English, which have central [aː] instead.[11]
* The trap-bath split, as in New Zealand English and partially also Australian English.[1]
* LOT is short, open, weakly rounded, and centralised, around [ɒ̽].[1]
* FOOT is short, half-closed back and centralised, around [ʊ].[1]
* NURSE tends to resemble the Received Pronunciation non-rhotic [ɜː] among Conservative SAE speakers, while the vowel is front, half-close, centralised [øː] in other varieties.[1]

### Consonants[edit | edit source]

* In Conservative and Respectable SAE, /h/ is the voiceless glottal fricative [h]. In Extreme SAE, /h/ has a more breathy-voiced pronunciation, [ɦ], likely as a result of a Dutch/Afrikaans substrate. /h/ is sometimes deleted in Extreme SAE where it is preserved in Conservative and Respectable SAE. For instance, when it occurs initially in stressed syllables in words like "house", it is deleted in Extreme SAE.[1]
* Conservative SAE is completely non-rhotic like Received Pronunciation, while Respectable SAE has sporadic moments of rhoticity. These rhotic moments generally occur in /r/-final words. More frequent rhoticity is a marker of Extreme SAE.[1]
* Unaspirated voiceless plosives (like /p/, /t/, and /k/) in stressed word-initial environments.[11]
* Yod-assimilation: tune and dune tend to be realised as [t͡ʃʉːn] and [d͡ʒʉːn], instead of the Received Pronunciation [tjuːn] and [djuːn].[11]

## Lexicon[edit | edit source]

### History of SAE dictionaries[edit | edit source]

In 1913, Charles Pettman created the first South African English dictionary, entitled Africanderisms. This work sought to identify Afrikaans terms that were emerging in the English language in South Africa.[12] In 1924, the Oxford University Press published its first version of a South African English dictionary, The South African Pocket Oxford Dictionary. Subsequent editions of this dictionary have tried to take a "broad editorial approach" in including vocabulary terms native to South Africa, though the extent of this inclusion has been contested.[12]

South Africa’s Rhodes University and United Kingdom’s Oxford University worked together to produce the 1978 Dictionary of South African English, which adopted a more conservative approach in its inclusion of terms. This dictionary did include, for the first time, what the dictionary writers deemed “the jargon of townships”, or vocabulary terms found in Black journalism and literary circles.[12]

### Vocabulary[edit | edit source]

Unique SAE terms include:

* robot (traffic light)[13][14]
* tekkies (trainers, sneakers, or tennis shoes)[13][14]

SAE includes lexical items borrowed from other South African languages. The following list provides a sample of some of these terms:

* braai (barbecue) from Afrikaans[11]
* impimpi (police informant)[3]
* indaba (conference; meeting) from Zulu[11]
* kwela-kwela (taxi or police pick-up van)[3]
* madumbies (a type of edible root) found in Natal
* mama (term of address for a senior woman)[3]
* mbaqanga (type of music)[3]
* morabaraba (board game)[3]
* sgebengu (criminal) found in IsiXhosa and IsiZulu speaking areas[3]
* skebereshe (a loose woman) found in Gauteng
* y'all (the contraction of "you all") for second person plural pronouns in ISAE[11]
* aweh (a greeting or in agreement)
* skollie (an ill-mannered person or someone suspected of engaging in antisocial, possibly criminal, behaviour).[15]

#### British lexical items[edit | edit source]

SAE also contains several lexical items that demonstrate the British influence on this variety:

* arse, bum (ass)[1]
* chemist (drugstore)[1]
* dinner-jacket (tuxedo)[1]
* dustbin (garbage can)[1]
* petrol (gasoline)[1]
* silencer (muffler)[1]
* flat (apartment)

### Expressions[edit | edit source]

A range of SAE expressions have been borrowed from other South African languages, or are uniquely used in this variety of English. Some common expressions include:

* The borrowed Afrikaans interjection ag, meaning “oh!”, as in, “Ag, go away man”! (Equivalent to German “ach”). SAE uses a number of discourse markers from Afrikaans in colloquial speech.[11]
* The expression to come with, common especially among Afrikaans, as in “are they coming with?”[16] This is influenced by the Afrikaans phrase hulle kom saam, literally “they come together”, with saam being misinterpreted as with.[9]: 951 In Afrikaans, saamkom is a separable verb, similar to meekomen in Dutch and mitkommen in German, which is translated into English as “to come along”.[17] “Come with?” is also encountered in areas of the Upper Midwest of the United States, which had a large number of Scandinavian, Dutch and German immigrants, who, when speaking English, translated equivalent phrases directly from their own languages.[18]
* The use of the “strong obligative modal” must as a synonym for the polite should/shall. “Must” has “much less social impact” in SAE than in other varieties.[11]
* Now-now, as in “I'll do it now-now”. Likely borrowed from the Afrikaans nou-nou, this expression describes a time later than that referenced in the phrase “I'll do it now”.[11]
* Crayfish, used instead of lobster, likely comes from the Afrikaans “kreef”.[19]
* Kiff, as in "this ice cream is kiff." Used to express approval or joy from something, or to describe something that is in fashion.[20]
* A large amount of slang comes from British origin, such as “naff” (boring, dull or plain), or “China” (mate, friend) from cockney rhyming slang.

## Demographics[edit | edit source]

The South African National Census of 2011 found a total of 4,892,623 speakers of English as a first language,[21]: 23 making up 9.6% of the national population.[21]: 25 The provinces with significant English-speaking populations were the Western Cape (20.2% of the provincial population), Gauteng (13.3%) and KwaZulu-Natal (13.2%).[21]: 25 English was spoken across all ethnic groups in South Africa. The breakdown of English-speakers according to the conventional racial classifications used by Statistics South Africa is described in the following table.

Population group | First-language English speakers[21]: 26 | % of population group[21]: 27 | % of total English-speakers

|
|
|

Black African | 1,167,913 | 2.9 | 23.9
Coloured | 945,847 | 20.8 | 19.3
Indian or Asian | 1,094,317 | 86.1 | 22.4
White | 1,603,575 | 35.9 | 32.8
Other | 80,971 | 29.5 | 1.7
Total | 4,892,623 | 9.6 | 100.0

## Examples of South African accents[edit | edit source]

The following examples of South African accents were obtained from George Mason University:

* Native English: Male (Cape Town, South Africa)
* Native English: Female (Cape Town, South Africa)
* Native English: Male (Port Elizabeth, South Africa)
* Native English: Male (Nigel, South Africa)

## References[edit | edit source]

### Notes[edit | edit source]

1. ^ `en-ZA` Afrikaans: Suid Afrikaans Engels is the language code for South African English, as defined by ISO standards (see ISO 639-1 and ISO 3166-1 alpha-2) and Internet standards (see IETF language tag).

### Citations[edit | edit source]

1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai Mesthrie, Rajend, ed. (2002). Language in South Africa. Cambridge: University Press. ISBN 9780521791052. OCLC 56218975.
2. ^ a b Mesthrie, R. (2006). "South Africa: Language Situation". Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics. pp. 539–42. doi:10.1016/b0-08-044854-2/01664-3. ISBN 9780080448541.
3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l De Klerk, Vivian; Gough, David (2002). Language in South Africa. pp. 356–78. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511486692.019. ISBN 9780511486692. Cite error: The named reference ":4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. ^ a b c d e f g "Black South African English: phonology", Africa, South and Southeast Asia, De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 177–187, 2008-03-18, retrieved 2022-10-18
5. ^ Makalela, Leketi (2013). [DOI: 10.1111/weng.12007 "Black South African English on the Radio"]. World Englishes. 32 (1): 93–107. `{{cite journal}}`: Check `|url=` value (help)
6. ^ a b De Klerk, Vivian (November 1999). "Black South African English: Where to from here?". World Englishes. 18 (3): 311–324. doi:10.1111/1467-971x.00146. ISSN 0883-2919.
7. ^ Alexander, Mary (June 10, 2019). "What languages do black, coloured, Indian and white South Africans speak?". South Africa Gateway. Retrieved 18 July 2022.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
8. ^ a b Fynn, Lorraine Margaret (1991). The "Coloured" Community of Durban: A Study of Changing Perceptions of Identity (M.A. Thesis). Durban: University of Natal. hdl:10413/6802.
9. ^ a b Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W., eds. (2004). A Handbook of Varieties of English. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-017532-5.
10. ^ Crystal, David (1995). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge: University Press. p. 356\. ISBN 0521401798.
11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Bekker, Ian (1 January 2012). "The story of South African English: A brief linguistic overview". International Journal of Language, Translation and Intercultural Communication. 1: 139–150. doi:10.12681/ijltic.16. ISSN 2241-7214. Cite error: The named reference ":3" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
12. ^ a b c Taylor, Tim (1994). "Review of A Lexicon of South African Indian English". Anthropological Linguistics. 36 (4): 521–524. JSTOR 30028394.
13. ^ a b "The Real Reason South Africans Call Traffic Lights "Robots" - Biltong St Marcus". www.biltongstmarcus.co.uk. 2024-01-03. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
14. ^ a b Rensburg, Marzanne Janse van (2024-06-05). "Four South African words that would confuse foreigners". SA People. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
15. ^ Baloyi, Tshuxeko (2023-04-16). "South African slang word of the day: Skollie". The South African. Retrieved 2025-11-24.
16. ^ Mesthrie, Rajend, ed. (2008). Africa, South and Southeast Asia. Mouton de Gruyter. p. 475\. ISBN 9783110196382.
17. ^ Anon. (2012). Pharos tweetalinge skoolwoordeboek = Pharos bilingual school dictionary. Cape Town: Pharos. p. 251\. ISBN 978-1-86890-128-9.
18. ^ What's with 'come with'?, Chicago Tribune, 8 December 2010. Archived 21 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine.
19. ^ "Meet the West Coast rock lobster!". Two Oceans Aquarium. 2023-12-04. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
20. ^ Baloyi, Tshuxeko (2023-03-06). "South African slang word of the day: Kiff". The South African. Retrieved 2025-11-12.
21. ^ a b c d e Census 2011: Census in brief (PDF). Pretoria: Statistics South Africa. 2012. ISBN 9780621413885. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 May 2015.

### Sources[edit | edit source]

* Finn, Peter (2008). "Cape Flats English: Phonology*". In Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.). Africa, South and Southeast Asia. Kortmann, Bernd; Schneider, Edgar W.: Varieties of English. Vol. 4 of. de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110208429.
* Lass, Roger (2002), "South African English", in Mesthrie, Rajend (ed.), Language in South Africa, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 9780521791052

## Further reading[edit | edit source]

* Branford, William (1994), "9: English in South Africa", in Burchfield, Robert (ed.), The Cambridge History of the English Language, vol. 5: English in Britain and Overseas: Origins and Development, Cambridge University Press, pp. 430–496, ISBN 0-521-26478-2
* De Klerk, Vivian, ed. (1996), Focus on South Africa, John Benjamins Publishing, ISBN 90-272-4873-7
* Lanham, Len W. (1979), The Standard in South African English and Its Social History, Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag, ISBN 3-87276-210-9

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* Biodiversity
* Climate
* Climate change
* Districts
* Earthquakes
* Estuaries
* Forests
* Islands
* Lakes
* Mountain ranges
* Municipalities
* National parks
* Populated places
* Provinces
* Rivers
* Wildlife

Politics|

* Constitution
* Courts
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Human rights
* Law
* Law enforcement
* Military
* Parliament
* Political parties
* President
* State security

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Companies
* Communications
* Economic history
* Energy
* Foreign trade
* Mining industry
* Rand (currency)
* Stock exchange
* State-owned enterprises
* Taxation
* Tourism
* Trade unions
* Transportation
* Water and sanitation

Society|

* Crime
* Education
* Feminism
* Health
* Healthcare
* Immigration
* Intersex
* Languages
* LGBT
* Racism
* Religion
* Sexual violence
* Slum clearance
* Smoking
* Social movements
* Xenophobia

Culture|

* Architecture
* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* HIV/AIDS
* Homelessness
* Literature
* Media
* Music
* National symbols
* Public holidays
* Sports
* World Heritage Sites
* heritage sites

Demographics|

* South African Bantu-speaking peoples
* Ndebele
* Pedi
* Sotho
* Swazi
* Tsonga
* Tswana
* Venda
* Xhosa
* Zulu
* Khoisan
* Khoekhoe
* San people
* Whites
* Afrikaners
* British
* Coloureds
* Cape Coloureds
* Cape Malays
* Griquas
* Indians
* Chinese

* Outline
* Index

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Languages of South Africa

* Pan South African Language Board
* Commission for Cultural, Religious and Linguistic Community Rights
* Department of Arts and Culture

Official|

| West Germanic|

* Afrikaans
* English

|

Southern Bantu|

| Sotho–Tswana|

* Northern Sotho (Sesotho sa Leboa)
* Southern Sotho (Sesotho)
* Tswana (Setswana)

|

Nguni|

* Southern Ndebele (isiNdebele)
* Swazi (siSwati)
* Xhosa (isiXhosa)
* Zulu (isiZulu)

Tswa–Ronga|

* Tsonga (Xitsonga)

Venda|

* Venda (Tshivenḓa)

Recognised
unofficial languages
mentioned in the
1996 constitution|

| Indigenous|

* Bhaca
* Khoe
* Khoisan
* Lala
* Lozi
* Nama
* Nhlangwini
* Northern Ndebele
* Phuthi
* Tuu

|

Foreign|

* German
* Greek
* Gujarati
* Hindi
* Portuguese
* Malay (historical)
* Tamil
* Telugu
* Urdu

Religious|

* Arabic
* Hebrew
* Sanskrit

Other|

| LGBT slang|

* Gayle
* IsiNgqumo

|

Other|

* Tsotsitaal and Camtho
* Oorlams Creole
* Fanagalo
* Pretoria Sotho
* Scamto
* SA Sign Language
* Angloromani
* Kaaps

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Zimbabwe

Official languages|

* Zimbabwean English
* Chewa
* Chibarwe
* Kalanga
* Koisan
* Nambya
* Ndau
* Ndebele
* Shona
* Sotho
* Tonga
* Tsonga
* Tswana
* Venda
* Xhosa
* Zimbabwe Sign

Unofficial languages|

* Kunda
* Tsoa
* Tswa

Immigrant languages|

* French
* Punjabi
* Hindi
* Chinese
* Portuguese

* v
* t
* e

Germanic languages

According to contemporary philology

West

| Anglo-Frisian|

| Anglic|

* English
* dialects
* Old English
* Middle English
* Early Modern English
* Fingallian
* Yola
* Scots
* Early Scots
* Middle Scots

|

Frisian|

| Historical forms|

* Old Frisian
* Middle Frisian

|

East Frisian|

* Ems
* Saterland Frisian
* Weser
* Wangerooge Frisian
* Wursten Frisian

North Frisian|

* Insular
* Eiderstedt
* Föhr–Amrum
* Föhr
* Amrum
* Heligolandic
* Sylt
* Mainland
* Bökingharde
* Mooring
* Halligen
* Goesharde
* Northern
* Central
* Southern
* Karrharde
* Strand
* Wiedingharde

West Frisian|

* Hindeloopen
* Schiermonnikoog
* Westlauwers–Terschellings
* Mainland West Frisian
* Clay Frisian
* Wood Frisian
* Westereendersk
* Terschelling

Low German|

| Historical forms|

* Old Saxon
* Middle Low German

|

West Low German|

* Dutch Low Saxon
* Stellingwarfs
* Tweants
* Gronings
* Drèents
* Gelders-Overijssels
* Achterhooks
* Sallaans
* Urkers
* Veluws
* Northern Low Saxon
* East Frisian Low Saxon
* Schleswigsch
* Holsteinisch
* Oldenburgish
* North Hanoveranian
* Dithmarsch
* Emsländisch
* Eastphalian
* Westphalian
* East Westphalian
* South Westphalian

East Low German|

* Mecklenburgisch-Vorpommersch
* Brandenburgisch
* North Markish
* Central Markish
* South Markish
* Central Pomeranian
* East Pomeranian
* Low Prussian
* Plautdietsch / Mennonite Low German

Low Franconian|

| Standard variants|

* Dutch
* Frankish
* Old Dutch
* Middle Dutch
* Afrikaans (Kaaps)

|

West Low Franconian|

* Central Dutch
* Hollandic
* South Guelderish
* West Flemish
* French Flemish
* Zeelandic
* East Flemish
* Brabantian
* Surinamese Dutch
* Jersey Dutch
* Mohawk Dutch
* Stadsfries/Bildts/Amelands/Midslands
* Yiddish Dutch

East Low Franconian|

* Meuse-Rhenish
* Limburgish
* Southeast Limburgish

High German|

| Historical forms|

* Old High German
* Middle High German
* Early New High German

|

Standard German|

* German Standard German
* Austrian Standard German
* Swiss Standard German

Non-standard variants
and creoles|

* Namibian German
* Namibian Black German
* Berlinerisch
* Unserdeutsch
* Barossa German
* Belgranodeutsch
* Paraná-Wolga-Deutsch
* Rotwelsch
* Lotegorisch
* Yenish
* Yiddish
* Eastern
* Litvish
* Poylish
* Ukrainish
* Galitzish
* Western
* Alsatian Yiddish
* Scots Yiddish
* Klezmer-loshn
* Ganovim
* Balagole
* Katsoves
* Lachoudisch

Central German|

| West Central German|

* Central Franconian
* Ripuarian
* Colognian
* Moselle Franconian
* Luxembourgish
* Transylvanian Saxon
* Hunsrückisch
* Hunsrik
* Rhine Franconian
* Lorraine Franconian
* Palatine
* Volga German
* Pennsylvania German
* Central Hessian
* East Hessian
* North Hessian
* Amana German

|

East Central German|

* Thuringian
* Upper Saxon
* North Upper Saxon
* Ore Mountainian
* Silesian German
* High Prussian
* Wymysorys
* Halcnovian

Upper German|

* Alemannic
* Low Alemannic
* Alsatian
* Coloniero
* High Alemannic
* Swiss German
* Highest Alemannic
* Walser German
* Swabian
* Bavarian
* Northern Bavarian
* Central Bavarian
* Viennese German
* Southern Bavarian
* South Tyrolean
* Cimbrian
* Mòcheno
* Hutterite German
* South Franconian
* East Franconian
* Vogtlandian
* Langobardic

North and East

| North|

| Historical forms|

* Proto-Norse
* Old Norse
* Old West Norse
* Old East Norse
* Old Gutnish

|

West|

* Norwegian
* Bergensk
* Kebabnorsk
* Sognamål
* Trøndersk
* Valdris
* Vestlandsk
* Vikværsk
* Bokmål (written)
* Nynorsk (written)
* Old Norwegian
* Middle Norwegian
* Faroese
* Icelandic
* Old Icelandic
* Middle Icelandic
* Greenlandic Norse
* Norn

East|

* Swedish
* Swedish dialects
* Danish
* Bornholmsk
* Gøtudanskt
* Insular Danish
* Jutlandic
* South Jutlandic
* South Schleswigish
* Perkerdansk
* Old Danish
* Middle Danish
* Dalecarlian
* Elfdalian

* Gutnish
* Mainland Gutnish
* Fårö Gutnish

East|

* Gothic (Crimean Gothic)
* Burgundian
* Vandalic

Philology

| Language subgroups|

* North
* East
* West
* Elbe (Irminonic)
* Weser-Rhine (Istvaeonic)
* North Sea (Ingvaeonic)

* Northwest
* Gotho-Nordic
* South

|

Reconstructed|

* Proto-Germanic
* Proto-Germanic grammar
* Germanic parent language
* Ancient Belgian language

Diachronic features|

* Grimm's law
* Verner's law
* Holtzmann's law
* Sievers's law
* Kluge's law
* Germanic substrate hypothesis
* West Germanic gemination
* High German consonant shift
* Germanic a-mutation
* Germanic umlaut
* Germanic spirant law
* Ingvaeonic nasal spirant law
* Great Vowel Shift

Synchronic features|

* Germanic verb
* Germanic strong verb
* Germanic weak verb
* Preterite-present verb
* Grammatischer Wechsel
* Indo-European ablaut

* Italics indicate extinct languages
* Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

* v
* t
* e

Dialects and accents of Modern English by continent

Europe|

| Great
Britain|

| England|

| North|

* Cheshire
* Cumbria
* Barrow
* Lancashire
* Liverpool
* Manchester
* Northumbria
* Pitmatic
* Sunderland
* Tyneside
* Teesside
* Yorkshire

|

Midlands|

* East Midlands
* West Midlands
* Birmingham
* Black Country
* Stoke-on-Trent

South|

* East Anglia
* London & Thames Estuary
* Cockney
* Multicultural
* Received Pronunciation
* West Country
* Cornwall
* Dorset

Scotland|

* Glasgow
* Highlands

Wales|

* Abercraf
* Cardiff
* Gower
* Port Talbot

Ireland|

* Dublin
* South-West
* Ulster

* Channel Islands
* European Union
* Gibraltar
* Isle of Man

Americas|

| North
America|

| Canada|

* Aboriginal
* Atlantic
* Lunenburg
* Newfoundland
* Central and Western
* Ottawa Valley
* Pacific Northwest
* Quebec

|

United
States|

* Midland
* New England
* Boston
* Eastern
* Maine
* Western
* New York City
* accent
* North
* Inland North
* North-Central
* Philadelphia
* Baltimore
* South
* Appalachia
* High Tider
* New Orleans
* Older
* Texas
* West
* California
* Pacific Northwest
* Western Pennsylvania

Social and
ethno-cultural|

* African-American
* Vernacular
* American Indian
* Cajun
* Chicano
* General American
* Miami Latino
* New York Latino
* Pennsylvania Dutch
* Yeshiva

Caribbean|

* The Bahamas
* Barbados
* Bequia
* Cayman Islands
* Bay Islands
* Jamaica
* Puerto Rico
* Saba
* Samaná, Dominican Republic
* Trinidad and Tobago

* Bermuda
* Falkland Islands

Oceania|

| Australia|

* accent
* variation
* Aboriginal
* South
* Torres Strait
* West

|

* Fiji
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Solomon Islands

Africa|

* Cameroon
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Kenya
* Liberia
* Malawi
* Namibia
* Nigeria
* Sierra Leone
* South Africa
* accent
* Cape Flats
* South Atlantic
* Uganda
* Zimbabwe

Asia|

* Bangladesh
* Brunei
* Hong Kong
* India
* regional and occupational
* Malaysia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka

Related|

* English language
* Basic
* Comparison of American and British English
* E-Prime
* Engrish
* English as a lingua franca
* English-based creole languages
* Globish
* Gogate
* Nerrière
* International
* Learning
* Linguistic purism in English
* List of English-based pidgins
* Mid-Atlantic accent
* Non-native pronunciations of English
* Plain
* Standard

* v
* t
* e

English-speaking world

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Further links

| Articles|

* English-speaking world
* History of the English language
* British Empire
* English in the Commonwealth of Nations
* Anglosphere

|

Lists|

* List of countries by English-speaking population
* List of countries where English is an official language

|  |

* Countries and territories where English is the national language or the native language of the majority

Africa|

* Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Americas|

* Anguilla
* Antigua and Barbuda
* The Bahamas
* Barbados
* Belize
* Bermuda
* British Virgin Islands
* Canada
* Cayman Islands
* Dominica
* Falkland Islands
* Grenada
* Guyana
* Jamaica
* Montserrat
* Saba
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Sint Eustatius
* Sint Maarten
* South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Turks and Caicos Islands
* United States
* United States Virgin Islands

Europe|

* Guernsey
* Ireland
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* United Kingdom

Oceania|

* Australia
* New Zealand
* Norfolk Island
* Pitcairn Islands

* Countries and territories where English is an official language, but not the majority first language

Africa|

* Botswana
* Cameroon
* Eswatini
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Malawi
* Mauritius
* Namibia
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* Sierra Leone
* Somaliland
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

Americas|

* Puerto Rico

Asia|

* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Hong Kong
* India
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Singapore

Europe|

* Gibraltar
* Akrotiri and Dhekelia
* Malta

Oceania|

* American Samoa
* Cook Islands
* Fiji
* Guam
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* Niue
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tokelau
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Dependencies shown in italics.
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