Theodosius Dobzhansky

Russian-American geneticist and evolutionary biologist (1900–1975)

In this name that follows Eastern Slavic naming conventions, the patronymic is  Grigorovich and the family name is  Dobzhansky.

Theodosius Dobzhansky

ForMemRS

File:Theodosius Dobzhansky.jpg

c. 1966

Born|

Theodosius Grigorovich Dobzhansky

(1900-01-25)January 25, 1900

Nemirov, Russian Empire

Died| December 18, 1975(1975-12-18) (aged 75)

Davis, California, United States

Alma mater| University of Kyiv
Known for| Bateson–Dobzhansky–Muller model
Spouse| Natalia Sivertzeva (m. 1924, d. 1969)
Parents|

* Grigory Dobzhansky (father)
* Sophia Voinarsky (mother)

Awards|

* Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal (1941)
* Guggenheim Fellowship (1959)[1]
* National Medal of Science (1964)
* ForMemRS (1965)[2]
* Franklin Medal (1973)

Scientific career
Fields| Evolutionary biology, genetics
Institutions| University of Kiev (1921-1924)[3]
University of Leningrad (1924-1927)[3]
Columbia University (1927-1928, 1940-1962)[3]
California Institute of Technology (1928-1940)[3]
Rockefeller University (1962-1970)[3]
University of California, Davis (1971-1975)[3]
Doctoral advisor| Yuri Filipchenko
Doctoral students| Bruce Wallace
Influences| Thomas Hunt Morgan, Alfred Sturtevant

Theodosius Grigorovich Dobzhansky (Russian: Феодо́сий Григо́рьевич Добржа́нский; Ukrainian: Теодо́сій Григо́рович Добржа́нський; January 25, 1900 – December 18, 1975) was a prominent Ukrainian-American geneticist and evolutionary biologist, and a central figure in the field of evolutionary biology for his work in shaping the modern synthesis.[2][4] Dobzhansky was born in Nemirov, in the Russian Empire (present-day Nemyriv, Ukraine) and emigrated to the United States in 1927, aged 27.[5] A great-grandson of the Russian writer Feodor Dostoevsky.[6]

His 1937 work Genetics and the Origin of Species became a major influence on the modern synthesis. He was awarded the US National Medal of Science in 1964[7] and the Franklin Medal in 1973.

## Contents

* 1 Biography
* 1.1 Early life
* 1.2 America
* 1.3 Genetics and the Origin of Species
* 1.4 Debate about race
* 1.5 Final illness and the "Light of Evolution"
* 1.5.1 Religious beliefs
* 2 Publications
* 2.1 Books
* 2.2 Papers
* 2.3 Recensions
* 3 References
* 4 External links

## Biography[edit | edit source]

### Early life[edit | edit source]

Dobzhansky was born on January 25, 1900,[8] in Nemyriv, Russian Empire, now part of Ukraine, an only child. He was given a rare name, Theodosius, because he was born after his middle-aged parents prayed for a child to St. Theodosius of Chernigov. His father, Grigory Dobzhansky, was a mathematics teacher, and his mother was Sophia Voinarsky.[9] In 1910 the family moved to Kyiv.

At high school, Dobzhansky collected butterflies and decided to become a biologist.[10] In 1915, he met Victor Luchnik who convinced him to specialize in beetles instead. Dobzhansky attended the University of Kyiv between 1917 and 1921, where he then studied until 1924 specializing in entomology.[11] He then moved to St Petersburg to study under Yuri Filipchenko, where a Drosophila melanogaster laboratory had been established.

On August 8, 1924, Dobzhansky married geneticist Natalia "Natasha" Sivertzeva, who was working with I. I. Schmalhausen in Kyiv. The Dobzhanskys had one daughter, known under her married name as Sophie Coe, an anthropologist, food historian, and author, primarily known for her work on the history of chocolate.

Before emigrating to the United States, Dobzhansky published 35 scientific works on entomology and genetics.

### America[edit | edit source]

Dobzhansky immigrated to the United States in 1927 on a work-study scholarship from the International Education Board of the Rockefeller Foundation. Upon arriving in New York City on December 27, he joined the Drosophila Group at Columbia University working alongside Thomas Hunt Morgan and Alfred Sturtevant. Their work provided crucial information on Drosophila cytogenetics.[12] Additionally, Dobzhansky and his team helped establish Drosophila pseudoobscura, within the genus Drosophila, as a favorable model organism in evolutionary-biological studies ever since they published their influential works.[13][14] Dobzhansky’s original mindset (after studying alongside Yuri Filipchenko), was that there were serious doubts on using data obtained from phenomena happening in local populations (microevolution) and phenomena happening on a global scale (macroevolution). Filipchenko also believed that there were only two types of inheritance: Mendelian inheritance of variation within species, and Non-Mendelian inheritance of variation in a macroevolutionary sense. Dobzhansky later stated that Filipchenko “bet on the wrong horse”.[15]

He followed Morgan to the California Institute of Technology from 1930 to 1940. On the basis of his experiments, he articulated the idea that reproductive isolation can be caused by differences in presence of microbial symbionts between populations.[16] In 1937, he published one of the major works of the modern evolutionary synthesis, the synthesis of evolutionary biology with genetics, titled Genetics and the Origin of Species, which amongst other things, defined evolution as "a change in the frequency of an allele within a gene pool". Dobzhansky's work was instrumental in spreading the idea that it is through mutations in genes that natural selection takes place. Also in 1937, he became a naturalized citizen of the United States. During this time, he had a very public falling out with one of his Drosophila collaborators, Alfred Sturtevant, based primarily in professional competition.

He returned to Columbia University from 1940 to 1962. Among his students was geneticist Bruce Wallace.[17] In 1941, Dobzhansky was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences.[18] In 1943, the University of São Paulo awarded him an honorary doctorate.[19] He was one of the signatories of the 1950 UNESCO statement The Race Question. He then moved to the Rockefeller Institute (shortly to become Rockefeller University) until his retirement in 1971. In 1972 he was elected the founding president of the Behavior Genetics Association,[20] and was recognized by the society for his role in behavior genetics, and the founding of the society by the creation of the Dobzhansky Award (for a lifetime of outstanding scholarship in behavior genetics).

Dobzhansky’s work in the field of evolutionary genetics, with the help of Sewall Wright, integrated standards of the theoretical, natural historical, and experimental work.[12]

Dobzhansky was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1965.[2] In 1970, he published Genetics of the evolutionary process.[21]

Dobzhansky was renowned as the president of the Genetics Society of America in 1941, president of the American Society of Naturalists in 1950, president of the Society for the Study of Evolution in 1951, president of the American Society of Zoologists in 1963, a member of the Board of Directors of the American Eugenics Society in 1964, and president of the American Teilhard de Chardin Association in 1969.[11][15]

Dobzhansky’s research and studies allowed him to travel the world and receive honorary degrees in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Denmark, England, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Sweden.[22]

### Genetics and the Origin of Species[edit | edit source]

Theodosius Dobzhansky published three editions of his book Genetics and the Origin of Species. Although the book was meant for people with a background in biology, it was easily understood.[23] In the fields of genetics and evolution, Dobzhansky’s book is acknowledged as one of the most important books ever written. With each revision of Genetics and the Origin of Species, Dobzhansky added new material on crucial, up to date topics, and removed material he deemed to be no longer crucial. His book sparked trends in genetic research and theory.[24]

The first edition of Genetics and the Origin of Species (1937) highlighted the most recent discoveries in genetics and how they applied to the concept of evolution.[23] The book starts by addressing the problem of evolution and how modern discoveries in genetics could help find a solution. The book covers the chromosomal basis of Mendelian Inheritance, how the effects from changes in chromosomes greater than gene mutations are common and acceptable, and how mutations form racial and specific differences.[25] Dobzhansky explained how three levels could describe the processes of evolutionary population genetics: (1) the origin of raw materials by mutations of genes and chromosomes, (2) the changes in populations by changes in frequencies and combinations of mutations, (3) the fixation of changes by reproductive isolation.[24] To support his writing and research, the bibliography was twenty-eight pages long with around six hundred sources.[25]

In Dobzhansky’s second edition of Genetics and the Origin of Species (1941), four years had gone by and he was able to add more research and advancements made in genetics. Around half of the new research he found was added to the last two chapters in his book: Patterns of Evolution, and Species as Natural Units. In the second to last chapter, Patterns of Evolution, Dobzhansky explained how on the path to a new adaptation, a method could be used to where a species could go through a less adaptive stage. The last chapter, Species as Natural Units, Dobzhansky explained some of the contributions made in genetics to what was called “the new systematics.” Dobzhansky’s second edition of the book also had twice as many sources in the bibliography than the first edition.[23]

In the third revision of Genetics and the Origin of Species (1951), Dobzhansky rewrote all ten chapters on: Isolating Mechanisms, Mutation in Populations, Organic Diversity, Heredity and Mutation, Race Formation, Selection, Adaptive Polymorphism, Hybrid Sterility, Species as Natural Units, and Patterns of Evolution. Dobzhansky decided to remove the chapter on Polyploidy in the third edition.[26] The new chapter on Adaptive Polymorphism highlighted Dobzhansky’s research since the second edition. He included precise, quantitative evidence on effective natural selection in laboratory and free populations.[24]

### Debate about race[edit | edit source]

Theodosius Dobzhansky and Ashley Montagu debated the use and validity of the term "race" over a period of many years without reaching an agreement. The debate has continued. Montagu argued that "race" was so laden with toxic associations that it was a word best eliminated from science completely. Dobzhansky strongly disagreed. He argued that science should not give in to the misuses to which it had been subjected. The two men never reached an agreement, which led Dobzhansky to say in 1961, while commenting on Montagu's autobiography, "The chapter on 'Ethnic group and race' is, of course, deplorable, but let us say that it is good that in a democratic country any opinion, no matter how deplorable, can be published" (Farber 2015 p. 3). The concept of "race" has been important in many life science disciplines; the modern synthesis revolutionized the concept of race, moving it from a strictly morphological definition based on "racial types" in humans, to a definition focused on populations differing in gene frequencies. This was done in hopes that its foundation in population genetics would undermine the deeply ingrained social prejudices associated with "race".[27]

Dobzhansky was confident that mixing races created no serious medical issues. Dobzhansky's experience with breeding fruit flies came into play when he made this conclusion. The only medical issue Dobzhansky found in this breeding was when certain crosses could lead to having infertile offspring. However, Dobzhansky noticed no such problems when humans from different populations reproduced. When anthropologists at the time were trying to compare the means of physical measurements of people from different races Dobzhansky argued that these means had no value because there was more variation between the individuals of each population than there was among the groups (Farber 2011 p. 63). However, Dobzhansky's work and beliefs on genetics and evolution created opposition with his views on race mixing. First, that race has to do with groups and not individuals and so in this instance it is not races that mix, it is individuals. Second, if races do not mix then they will become different species, so therefore they have to mix. All of the races that currently exist are products of past mixed races, so according to Dobzhansky there is no pure race. Third, when race had been discussed in the past it was all about comparing means of trait to which this made no sense to Dobzhansky (Farber 2011 p. 65-67).[28]

His concern with the interface between humans and biology may have come from different factors. The main factor would be the race prejudice that contributed in Europe that triggered WWII. His concern also dealt with religion in human life which he speaks about in his book The Biology of Ultimate Concern in 1967. "The pervasiveness of genetic variation provides the biological foundation of human individuality".[4] Dobzhansky talks about in great detail that "human nature has 2 dimensions: the biological, which mankind shares with the rest of life, and the cultural, which is exclusive to humans."[4] Both of these are believed to have come from "biological evolution and cultural evolution".[4]

Dobzhansky sought to put an end to the pseudoscience that purports genetic makeup to determine race, and thus rank in society. Harrison E. Salisbury wrote in a New York Times review of Dobzhansky's book Heredity and the Future of Man that Dobzhansky could not, together with other scientists, agree upon what defines a race. Dobzhansky stated that a true bloodline for man could not be identified. He did not believe that a person's genetic makeup decided whether or not he would be a great man but rather that man "has the rare opportunity 'to direct his evolution'".[29]

### Final illness and the "Light of Evolution"[edit | edit source]

Dobzhansky's wife Natasha died of coronary thrombosis on February 22, 1969.[30] Earlier (on June 1, 1968), Theodosius had been diagnosed with lymphocytic leukemia (a chronic form of leukemia), and had been given a few months to a few years to live. He retired in 1971, moving to the University of California, Davis where his student Francisco J. Ayala had been made assistant professor, and where he continued working as an emeritus professor. He published one of his most famous essays "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" in 1973, influenced by the paleontologist and priest Pierre Teilhard de Chardin.

By 1975, his leukemia had become more severe, and on November 11 he traveled to San Jacinto, California, for treatment and care. Working till his last day as a Professor of Genetics, Dobzhansky died (from heart failure) on December 18, 1975, in Davis, California.[12] He was cremated, and his ashes were scattered in the Californian wilderness.[citation needed]

#### Religious beliefs[edit | edit source]

Ernst Mayr stated: "On the other hand, famous evolutionists such as Dobzhansky were firm believers in a personal God."[31] Dobzhansky himself spoke of God as creating through evolution, and was a communicant of the Eastern Orthodox Church.[32]

Although Dobzhansky came from a long line of Eastern Orthodox priests, later in life, he had doubts about a conventional afterlife. He stated that if a Heaven did exist, it would not be a place where one could find all the answers about life in an instant. It would rather be a place where performing experiments would give rise to precise and explicit results.[11][15]

## Publications[edit | edit source]

During his career, Dobzhansky published widely in books and peer reviewed scientific journals:

### Books[edit | edit source]

* Sinnott, E.W., Dunn, L.C and Dobzhansky, Th. 1925. Principles of Genetics. McGraw-Hill. (5 editions: 1925, 1932, 1939, 1950, 1958; Dobzhansky co-editor only on 1950 & 1958 editions).
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1937. Genetics and the Origin of Species. Columbia University Press, New York. (2nd ed., 1941; 3rd ed., 1951)
* The Biological Basis of Human Freedom (1954).
* Dunn, L. C., & Dobzhansky, Th. 1946. Heredity, Race, and Society. The New American Library of World Literature, Inc., New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1955. Evolution, Genetics, & Man. Wiley & Sons, New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1962. Mankind Evolving. Yale University Press, New Haven, Connecticut.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1966. Heredity and the Nature of Man. Harcourt, Brace & World Inc., New York, New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1967. The Biology of Ultimate Concern. New American Library, New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1970. Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. Columbia University Press, New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1973. Genetic Diversity and Human Equality. Basic Books, New York.
* Dobzhansky, Th., F.J. Ayala, G.L. Stebbins & J.W. Valentine. 1977. Evolution. W.H. Freeman, San Francisco.
* Dobzhansky, Th. 1981. Dobzhansky's Genetics of Natural Populations I-XLIII. R.C. Lewontin, J.A. Moore, W.B. Provine & B. Wallace, eds. Columbia University Press, New York. (reprints the 43 papers in this series, all but two of which were authored or co-authored by Dobzhansky)
* Dobzhansky, Th., & Boesiger, E. 1983. Human Culture, A Moment in Evolution. Columbia University Press, New York.

### Papers[edit | edit source]

* Dobzhansky, Th. (1973). "Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution" (PDF). The American Biology Teacher. 35 (3): 125–129. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.324.2891. doi:10.2307/4444260. JSTOR 4444260. S2CID 207358177.
* Dobzhansky, Th.; Pavlovsky, O. (1957). "An experimental study of interaction between genetic drift and natural selection". Evolution. 11 (3): 311–319. doi:10.2307/2405795. JSTOR 2405795.

### Recensions[edit | edit source]

* Dobzhansky, Th. Wrote a recension of "The origin of races" by the anthropologist Carleton S. Coon.[33] Dobzhansky rejected Coon's theory of independent origin of identical mutations, but he did agree that selection favored a sapiens-like genotype in all proto-human populations, and expressed the theory that all sapiens-alleles existed at a low frequency in all erectus-populations, and that the statistical composition of the gene pool shifted from erectus to sapiens in multiple populations independently.

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ "Theodosius Dobzhansky". John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.
2. ^ a b c Ford, E. B. (1977). "Theodosius Grigorievich Dobzhansky. 25 January 1900 -- 18 December 1975". Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society . 23: 58–89. doi:10.1098/rsbm.1977.0004. PMID 11615738.
3. ^ a b c d e f "Theodosius Dobzhansky 1900-1975" (PDF). Retrieved 13 August 2015.
4. ^ a b c d Ayala, Francisco J. (1985). "Theodosius Dobzhansky". Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. 55: 163–213.
5. ^ Adams, M., ed. (1994). The Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky : essays on his life and thought in Russia and America. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-03479-9.
6. ^ Bogdanov N. N., Rogovoy A. I. Genealogy of Dostoevsky: in search of lost links. M.: "Old Basmannaya". 2010. p. 256\. ISBN 978-5-904043-41-4.
7. ^ "The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details - NSF - National Science Foundation". Nsf.gov. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
8. ^ "Theodosius Dobzhansky". Biography.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
9. ^ Ford, p 59.
10. ^ Ayala, p163.
11. ^ a b c Vucinich, Alexander (1995). "Review of The Evolution of Theodosius Dobzhansky: Essays on His Life and Thought in Russia and America". Slavic Review. 54 (3): 778–779. doi:10.2307/2501792. JSTOR 2501792.
12. ^ a b c Lewontin, R. C. (1976). "Theodosius Dobzhansky. 1900 - 1975". BioScience. 26 (2): 155. doi:10.2307/1297333. JSTOR 1297333.
13. ^ King, Robert (2012-12-06). Dobzhansky T, Powell JR:Drosophila pseudoobscura and its American relatives, D. persimilis and D. miranda. Hand Book of Genetics. Edited by: King RC. 1975, New York: Plenum, 3: 537-587. ISBN 9781461571483.
14. ^ Powell JR. Progress and Prospects in Evolutionary Biology: The Drosophila Model. 1997, New York: Oxford Univ Press.
15. ^ a b c Hull, David L. (1994). Adams, Mark B. (ed.). "Evolutionist". Science. 266 (5190): 1589–1590. doi:10.1126/science.266.5190.1589. JSTOR 2885197. PMID 17841721.
16. ^ Acquiring genomes: a theory of the origins of species By Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan, Basic Books (2003) p. 94, ISBN 0-465-04392-5
17. ^ "In Memory of Bruce Wallace: 1920–2015". Journal of Heredity. 106 (3): 331–332. 2015-05-01. doi:10.1093/jhered/esv024. ISSN 0022-1503.
18. ^ "Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal". National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 1 August 2012. Retrieved 16 February 2011.
19. ^ "Honorary Doctorates between the decades of 1940s and 1950s from the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil" (PDF).
20. ^ "Historical table of BGA Meetingsl". Bga.org. Archived from the original on 4 June 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2017.
21. ^ Genetics of the evolutionary process By Theodosius Dobzhansky, Columbia University Press (1970), ISBN 0-231-08306-8
22. ^ "Theodosius Dobzhansky (1900-1975)". The American Naturalist. 111 (977): 1–2. 1977. doi:10.1086/283133. JSTOR 2459974. S2CID 36378854.
23. ^ a b c Zirkle, Conway (1942). "Review of Genetics and the Origin of Species". Isis. 34 (2): 181. doi:10.1086/347782. JSTOR 226232.
24. ^ a b c Simpson, G. G. (1952). Dobzhansky, Theodosius (ed.). "Evolutionary Genetics". Evolution. 6 (2): 246–247. doi:10.2307/2405629. JSTOR 2405629.
25. ^ a b Zirkle, Conway (1939). "Review of Genetics and the Origin of Species". Isis. 30 (1): 128–131. doi:10.1086/347504. JSTOR 225596.
26. ^ Andrews, Ted F. (1952). "Review of Genetics and the Origin of Species". The American Biology Teacher. 14 (7): 196. doi:10.2307/4438411. JSTOR 4438411.
27. ^ Farber, Paul Lawrence (2015). "Dobzhansky and Montagu's Debate on Race: The Aftermath". Journal of the History of Biology. 49 (4): 1–15. doi:10.1007/s10739-015-9428-1. PMID 26463495. S2CID 27698937.
28. ^ Farber, Paul Lawrence (2011). Mixing Races: From Scientific Racism to Modern Evolutionary Ideas. Baltimore, Maryland: The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 60–68. ISBN 9780801898136.
29. ^ [1][dead link]
30. ^ Ayala, Francisco Jos_; Fitch, Walter M. (1997-01-01). Genetics and the Origin of Species: From Darwin to Molecular Biology, 60 Years After Dobzhansky. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-05877-3.
31. ^ Shermer, M.; Sulloway, F.J. (2000). "The grand old man of evolution". Skeptic. 8 (1): 76–82.
32. ^ Collins, Francis S (2006). The Language of God: A Scientist Presents Evidence for Belief. New York: Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-8639-8.
33. ^ Jackson, John P. (2001). ""In Ways Unacademical": The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's "The Origin of Races"". Journal of the History of Biology. 34 (2): 247–285. doi:10.1023/A:1010366015968. JSTOR 4331661. S2CID 86739986.

## External links[edit | edit source]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Theodosius Dobzhansky.

* Colloquium on Genetics and the Origin of Species with a biography Archived 2008-08-20 at the Wayback Machine
* Chapter 1 from Genetics and the Origin of Species Archived 2008-09-28 at the Wayback Machine
* Theodosius Dobzhansky: A Man For All Seasons Archived 2008-06-27 at the Wayback Machine by Francisco J. Ayala
* The Theodosius Dobzhansky Papers Archived 2011-08-07 at the Wayback Machine American Philosophical Society
* National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
* Works by Theodosius Dobzhansky at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) File:Speaker Icon.svg

Awards

Preceded by

George B. Kistiakowsky

|  Recipient of the Elliott Cresson Medal
1973  | Succeeded by

Nikolai Nikolaevich Bogoliubov

* v
* t
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United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

| 1960s|

1964
Neal Elgar Miller

|

1980s|

1986
Herbert A. Simon
1987
Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988
Milton Friedman

1990s|

1990
Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991
George A. Miller
1992
Eleanor J. Gibson
1994
Robert K. Merton
1995
Roger N. Shepard
1996
Paul Samuelson
1997
William K. Estes
1998
William Julius Wilson
1999
Robert M. Solow

2000s|

2000
Gary Becker
2003
R. Duncan Luce
2004
Kenneth Arrow
2005
Gordon H. Bower
2008
Michael I. Posner
2009
Mortimer Mishkin

2010s|

2011
Anne Treisman
2014
Robert Axelrod
2015
Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

| 1960s|

1963
C. B. van Niel
1964
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965
Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966
Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967
Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968
Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969
Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr

|

1970s|

1970
Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973
Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974
Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975
Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976
Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979
Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss

1980s|

1981
Philip Handler
1982
Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983
Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986
Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987
Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988
Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989
Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood

1990s|

1990
Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991
Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Robert W. Kates
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992
Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993
Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994
Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995
Alexander Rich
1996
Ruth Patrick
1997
James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998
Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999
David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis

2000s|

2000
Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001
Francisco J. Ayala
George F. Bass
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
Gene E. Likens
Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002
James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003
J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004
Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005
Anthony Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006
Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008
Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009
Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner

2010s|

2010
Ralph L. Brinster
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011
Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2012
May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2013
Rakesh K. Jain
2014
Stanley Falkow
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin

Chemistry

| 1960s|

1964
Roger Adams

|

1980s|

1982
F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983
Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986
Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987
William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988
William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989
Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell

1990s|

1990
Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991
Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992
Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993
Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994
George S. Hammond
1995
Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996
Norman Davidson
1997
Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998
John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999
Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon

2000s|

2000
John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001
Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002
John I. Brauman
2004
Stephen J. Lippard
2005
Tobin J. Marks
2006
Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007
Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008
Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009
Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox

2010s|

2010
Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011
Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2012
Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2013
Geraldine L. Richmond
2014
A. Paul Alivisatos

Engineering sciences

| 1960s|

1962
Theodore von Kármán
1963
Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964
Charles S. Draper
Othmar H. Ammann
1965
Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966
Claude E. Shannon
1967
Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968
J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969
Jack St. Clair Kilby

|

1970s|

1970
George E. Mueller
1973
Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974
Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975
Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976
Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979
Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo

1980s|

1982
Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983
Bill Hewlett
George Low
John G. Trump
1986
Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
Tung-Yen Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987
Robert Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988
Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989
Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier

1990s|

1990
Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991
George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992
Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993
Alfred Y. Cho
1994
Ray W. Clough
1995
Hermann A. Haus
1996
James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
Eli Ruckenstein
1999
Kenneth N. Stevens

2000s|

2000
Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001
Andreas Acrivos
2002
Leo Beranek
2003
John M. Prausnitz
2004
Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005
Jan D. Achenbach
2006
Robert S. Langer
2007
David J. Wineland
2008
Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009
Amnon Yariv

2010s|

2010
Shu Chien
2011
John B. Goodenough
2012
Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Norbert Wiener
1964
Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965
Oscar Zariski
1966
John Milnor
1967
Paul Cohen
1968
Jerzy Neyman
1969
William Feller

|

1970s|

1970
Richard Brauer
1973
John Tukey
1974
Kurt Gödel
1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth

1980s|

1982
Marshall H. Stone
1983
Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988
Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989
Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer

1990s|

1990
George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991
Alberto Calderón
1992
Allen Newell
1993
Martin David Kruskal
1994
John Cocke
1995
Louis Nirenberg
1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman

2000s|

2000
John Griggs Thompson
Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
Carl R. de Boor
2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
David B. Mumford

2010s|

2010
Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011
Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2012
Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2013
Michael Artin

Physical sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967
Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky

|

1970s|

1970
Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s|

1982
Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987
Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988
D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
Jack Steinberger
1989
Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel

1990s|

1990
Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991
Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992
Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993
Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994
Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995
Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996
Wallace S. Broecker
1997
Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998
Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999
James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff

2000s|

2000
Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001
Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002
Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003
G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004
Robert N. Clayton
2005
Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006
Daniel Kleppner
2007
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008
Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009
Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington

2010s|

2011
Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2012
Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2014
Shirley Ann Jackson
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