Vegetarianism

Practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat

Vegetarianism

Description| Diet derived from plants, with or without eggs and dairy
Varieties| Ovo, lacto, ovo-lacto, veganism, raw veganism, fruitarianism, Buddhist vegetarianism, Jain vegetarianism, Jewish vegetarianism, Christian vegetarianism, Sattvic vegetarianism

Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slaughter.[1][2]

Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient animal life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, taste-related, or relate to other personal preferences.

There are many variations of the vegetarian diet: an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs. As the strictest of vegetarian diets, a vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy (and even extends to abstain the use of any animal derived product).

Maintenance of a vegetarian diet can be challenging. While avoidance of animal products may support health and ethical concerns, dietary supplements may be needed to prevent nutritional deficiency if all such products are shunned, particularly for vitamin B12. Packaged and processed foods may contain minor quantities of animal ingredients.[2][3] While some vegetarians scrutinize product labels for such ingredients, others do not object to consuming them, or are unaware of their presence.[2][4][5]

## Contents

* 1 Origin
* 2 History
* 3 Varieties
* 4 Health research
* 4.1 Bones
* 4.2 Diabetes
* 4.3 Cardiovascular system
* 4.4 Mental health
* 4.5 Eating disorders
* 4.6 Mortality risk
* 5 Diet composition and nutrition
* 5.1 Protein
* 5.2 Iron
* 5.3 Vitamin B12
* 5.4 Fatty acids
* 5.5 Calcium
* 5.6 Vitamin D
* 5.6.1 Vitamin D2
* 5.7 Choline
* 6 Ethics and diet
* 6.1 General
* 6.2 Ethics of killing for food
* 6.3 Dairy and eggs
* 6.4 Treatment of animals
* 7 Religion and diet
* 7.1 Baháʼí Faith
* 7.2 Buddhism
* 7.3 Christianity
* 7.3.1 Seventh-day Adventist
* 7.4 Hinduism
* 7.5 Islam
* 7.6 Jainism
* 7.7 Judaism
* 7.8 Rastafari
* 7.9 Sikhism
* 8 Environment and diet
* 9 Labor conditions and diet
* 10 Economics and diet
* 11 Demographics
* 11.1 Turnover
* 11.2 Country-specific information
* 12 See also
* 13 References

## Origin[edit | edit source]

The first written use of the term "vegetarian" originated in the early 19th century, when authors referred to a vegetable regimen diet.[6] Historically, 'vegetable' could be used to refer to any type of edible vegetation.[7] Modern dictionaries explain its origin as a compound of vegetable (adjective) and the suffix -arian (in the sense of agrarian).[8] The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847,[9] although it may have appeared in print before 1847.[9][10][11] The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves.[10][11][12] From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian".[10]

## History[edit | edit source]

Main article: History of vegetarianism

File:Tirthankar Parshvanath Bhagwan.jpg

Parshwanatha founded Jain vegetarianism in 9th century BCE, which is widely considered to be the earliest form of planned vegetarian diet.

The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from the 9th century BCE,[13] inculcating tolerance towards all living beings.[14][15] Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd and 24th tirthankaras in Jainism, respectively, revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism.[16][17][18] In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[19] The Acharanga Sutra from 5th century BCE advocates Jain-vegetarianism; and forbids the monks from walking on grass in order to avoid inflicting pain on them and prevent small insects dwelling inside from getting killed.[20]

> Vegetarianism in ancient India
> Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who are (held to be) wicked men, and live apart from others. ... In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell flesh meat.

— Faxian, Chinese pilgrim to India (4th/5th century CE), A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms (translated by James Legge)[21][22]

The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural, dated before 5th century CE, explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing as a common man's virtues.[23]: 156–171 [24]: 13 [25]: 127–129 Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism.[26][27]

Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual purification purposes. Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BCE. The Orphics, a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism.[28] Greek teacher Pythagoras, who promoted the altruistic doctrine of metempsychosis, may have practiced vegetarianism,[29] but is also recorded as eating meat.[30] A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears in Ovid's Metamorphoses, in which he advocates a form of strict vegetarianism.[31] It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period and, prior to the coinage of the word "vegetarianism", vegetarians were referred to in English as "Pythagoreans".[31] Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE–50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.[32]

File:Emperor Tenmu.jpg

Emperor Tenmu began bans on killing and eating meat in 675 CE in Japan.

In Japan in 675, the Emperor Tenmu prohibited the killing and the eating of meat during the busy farming period between April and September but excluded the eating of wild birds and wild animals. These bans and several others that followed over the centuries were overturned in the nineteenth century during the Meiji Restoration.[33] In China, during the Song Dynasty, Buddhist cuisine became popular enough that vegetarian restaurants appeared where chefs used ingredients such as beans, gluten, root vegetables and mushrooms to create meat analogues including pork, fowl, eggs and crab roe[34][35] and many meat substitutes used even today such as tofu, seitan and konjac originate in Chinese Buddhist cuisine.

File:India vegetarian labels.svg

Labeling is mandatory in India to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (brown).[36]

Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India.[37] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[38] Moreover, the medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers.[39] Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance,[40] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;[41] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived.[42]: 345–358 The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns.

## Varieties[edit | edit source]

A variety of vegan and vegetarian deli foods.

File:Veggie burger miikkahoo flickr creative commons.jpg

A vegetarian hamburger with potato slices.

Comparison of the main vegetarian diets  | Meat | Eggs | Dairy

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Ovo-lacto vegetarianism | No | Yes | Yes
Ovo vegetarianism | No | Yes | No
Lacto vegetarianism | No | No | Yes
Vegan diet  | No | No | No
Comparison of selected special diets (view template)  | Plants | Dairy | Eggs | Seafood | Poultry | All other animals

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|
|
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|

Semi-vegetarianism | Flexitarianism | Yes | Yes | Yes | Sometimes | Sometimes | Sometimes
Pollotarianism | Yes | Maybe | Yes | No | Yes | No
Pescetarianism | Yes | Maybe | Maybe | Yes | No | No
Vegetarianism | Lacto-ovo vegetarianism | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | No | No
Ovo vegetarianism | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | No
Lacto vegetarianism | Yes | Yes | No | No | No | No
Veganism | Yes | No | No | No | No | No

There are a number of vegetarian diets that exclude or include various foods:

* Fruitarianism permits only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.[43]
* Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.
* Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
* Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
* Ovo-lacto vegetarianism (or lacto-ovo vegetarianism) includes animal products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
* Sattvic diet (also known as yogic diet), a plant-based diet which may also include dairy and honey, but excludes eggs, red lentils, durian, mushrooms, alliums, blue cheeses, fermented foods or sauces, and alcoholic drinks. Coffee, black or green tea, chocolate, nutmeg, and any other type of stimulant (including excessively pungent spices) are sometimes excluded, as well.
* Veganism excludes all animal flesh and by-products, such as eggs, milk, honey (not always),[44] and items refined or manufactured through any such product, such as animal-tested baking soda or white sugar refined with bone char.
* Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above 118 °F (48 °C) to be considered "raw". Usually, raw vegan food is only ever "cooked" with a food dehydrator at low temperatures.

Within the "ovo-" groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilized eggs (with balut being an extreme example); however, such distinction is typically not specifically addressed.

Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened with bone char, cheeses that use animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones, and connective tissue), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients.[2][3][4] In the 21st century, 90% of rennet and chymosin used in cheesemaking are derived from industrial fermentation processes, which satisfy both kosher and halal requirements.[45]

Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet,[46][47][48] as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish,[49] or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat,[49][50] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[51] In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[47][52] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:

* Pescetarianism, which includes fish and possibly other forms of seafood.
* Pollotarianism, which includes chicken and possibly other poultry.

Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society, which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[51]

## Health research[edit | edit source]

> On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 – A report issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services[53]

File:Acorn Soup (4827753894).jpg

Acorn soup

File:Fruit Stall in Barcelona Market.jpg

A fruit stall in Barcelona

In western countries, the most common motive for people practicing vegetarianism is health consciousness.[54] The American Dietetic Association has stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet can be "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and may be beneficial in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases."[55] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals.[55][56]

### Bones[edit | edit source]

Studies have shown that a vegetarian diet may increase the risk of calcium deficiency and low bone mineral density.[57] A 2019 review found that vegetarians have lower bone mineral density at the femoral neck and lumbar spine compared to omnivores.[58] A 2020 meta-analysis found that infants fed a vegetarian diet containing milk and dairy products exhibit normal growth and development.[57] A 2021 review found no differences in growth between vegetarian and meat-eating children.[59]

### Diabetes[edit | edit source]

Vegetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to help people with type 2 diabetes.[55][60][61]

### Cardiovascular system[edit | edit source]

Meta-analyses have reported a reduced risk of death from ischemic heart disease and from cerebrovascular disease among vegetarians.[62]

### Mental health[edit | edit source]

Reviews of vegan and vegetarian diets showed a possible association with depression and anxiety, particularly among people under 26 years old.[63][64] Another review found no significant associations between a vegetarian diet and depression or anxiety.[65]

### Eating disorders[edit | edit source]

The American Dietetic Association discussed that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, indicating that vegetarian diets do not cause eating disorders, but rather "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder".[66]

### Mortality risk[edit | edit source]

A 2012 study found a reduced risk in all-cause mortality in vegetarians.[67] A 2017 review found a lower mortality (-25%) from ischemic heart disease.[68]

## Diet composition and nutrition[edit | edit source]

Main articles: Vegetarian nutrition and vegan nutrition

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12.[69] Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy).[70] High levels of dietary fiber, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[71] A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life.[72]

### Protein[edit | edit source]

Protein intake in vegetarian diets tends to be lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.[73] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and various European countries, confirmed vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[74]

### Iron[edit | edit source]

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents.[75] According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli, is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal.[76] Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, broccoli, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, jaggery, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.[77] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.[71] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%,[78] and 58%[79] of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.[80]

### Vitamin B12[edit | edit source]

Vitamin B12 is not generally present in plants but is naturally found in foods of animal origin.[81][82] Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from manufactured fortified foods (including plant-based products and breakfast cereals) and dietary supplements.[81][83][84] A strict vegan diet avoiding consumption of all animal products risks vitamin B12 deficiency, which can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia, a risk factor for several health disorders, including anemia, neurological deficits, gastrointestinal problems, platelet disorders, and increased risk for cardiovascular diseases.[81][85] The recommended daily dietary intake of B12 in the United States and Canada is 0.4 mcg (ages 0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female).[82] While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B12 is in microgram amounts, deficiency of the vitamin through strict practice of a vegetarian diet without supplementation can increase the risk of several chronic diseases.[81][85][82]

### Fatty acids[edit | edit source]

Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil, kiwifruit, hempseed, algae, chia seed, flaxseed, echium seed and leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, cabbage and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Olives (and olive oil) are another important plant source of unsaturated fatty acids. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid which the human body uses to synthesize the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. EPA and DHA can be obtained directly in high amounts from oily fish or fish oils. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.[86][clarification needed] Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[87][88]

### Calcium[edit | edit source]

Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.[89] Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.[90]

Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet.[91] Broccoli, bok choy, and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in the body.[89][90][92] Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher.[90][92] Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens, mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini.[89][91] Though calcium can be found in Spinach, swiss chard, beans and beet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body.[90] Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates.[90] See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages,[90] the Vegetarian Resource Group[91] and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics[89] for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian or vegan diet.

### Vitamin D[edit | edit source]

Further information: Vitamin D

Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.[93][94] Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of Vitamin D.[95] For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

#### Vitamin D2[edit | edit source]

* Plants
* Alfalfa (Medicago sativa subsp. sativa), shoot: 4.8 μg (192 IU) vitamin D2, 0.1 μg (4 IU) vitamin D3[96]
* Fungus, from USDA nutrient database,[97] per 100 g:
* Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw: Vitamin D2: 11.2 μg (446 IU)
* Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, grilled: Vitamin D2: 13.1 μg (524 IU)
* Mushrooms, shiitake, dried: Vitamin D2: 3.9 μg (154 IU)
* Mushrooms, shiitake, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.4 μg (18 IU)
* Mushrooms, portabella, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.3 μg (10 IU)
* Mushroom powder, any species, illuminated with sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light sources

Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol is found in fungus (except alfalfa which is a plantae) and created from viosterol, which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activates ergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as a sterol from ergot). Any UV-irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D2.[98] Human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement according to study.[99] For example, Vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable.[100] By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed[101] making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms,[102] or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested.[103]

### Choline[edit | edit source]

Main article: Choline

Choline is a nutrient that helps transfer signals between nerve cells and is involved in liver function. It is highest in dairy foods and meat but it is possible to be obtained through a vegan diet.[104]

## Ethics and diet[edit | edit source]

### General[edit | edit source]

Main article: Ethics of eating meat

With regard to the ethics of eating meat, scholars consider vegetarianism an ideology and a social movement.[105][106] Ethical reasons for choosing vegetarianism vary and are usually predicated on the interests of non-human animals. In many societies, controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practices involved in the processing of animals for food. Others still avoid meat out of concern that meat production places a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein.[107] Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat.

### Ethics of killing for food[edit | edit source]

Main article: Bioethics

Ethical vegetarians believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value is not a sufficient cause.[108] Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behavior in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards.[109] Jeff McMahan proposes that denying the right to life and humane treatment to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary and discriminatory practice based on habit instead of logic.[110] Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has.[111]

### Dairy and eggs[edit | edit source]

One of the main differences between a vegan and a lacto-ovo vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.[112]

To produce milk from dairy cattle, farmers separate calves from their mothers soon after birth to retain cow milk for human consumption.[113]

### Treatment of animals[edit | edit source]

Main article: Animal rights

Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread of factory farming, faster communications,[citation needed] and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass-demand for meat cannot be satisfied without a mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-range farming or the consumption of game (particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated) could substantially alleviate consumer demand for mass-produced meat.[114]

## Religion and diet[edit | edit source]

Main article: Vegetarianism and religion

Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct, as do some [115] sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, but Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion.[116] Other denominations that advocate a vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement, the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas. Sikhism[117][118] does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[119]

### Baháʼí Faith[edit | edit source]

While there are no dietary restrictions in the Baháʼí Faith, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[120] He stated that there are no requirements that Baháʼís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.[120][121][122] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.[120] While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[123] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Baháʼís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Baháʼí practice and that Baháʼís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[120]

### Buddhism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Buddhist vegetarianism

File:Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India.jpg

Sign promoting vegetarianism at Key Monastery, Spiti, India.

Theravadins in general eat meat.[124] If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense.[125] However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh[126]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.[a][127]

In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.[128][129][130][131] However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, actually do eat meat.[132][133]

Meanwhile, Chinese, Korean, Vietnamese Buddhism (in some sectors of East Asian Buddhism) monks and nuns are expected to abstain from meat and, traditionally, to abstain from eggs and dairy as well.[134][135][136][137][138]

Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret the precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots.

### Christianity[edit | edit source]

Main article: Christian vegetarianism

Various groups within Christianity have practiced specific dietary restrictions for various reasons.[139] The Council of Jerusalem in around 50 AD, recommended Christians keep following some of the Jewish food laws concerning meat. The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the Ebionites' "errors".[140][141]

At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet.[142] Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[143] Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.[144]

Seventh-day Adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and ovo-lacto-vegetarian diets are recommended by the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Nutrition Council (GCNC). They have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes.[145] The GCNC has in addition adapted the USDA's food pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach.[145][146] However, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the SDA health message are unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.[147]

Additionally, some monastic orders follow a pescatarian diet, and members of the Eastern Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.[148] There is also a strong association between the Quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[149]

#### Seventh-day Adventist[edit | edit source]

Sanitarium products for sale.

Since the formation of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 1860s when the church began, wholeness and health have been an emphasis of the Adventist church, and has been known as the "health message" belief of the church.[150] Adventists are well known for presenting a health message that recommends vegetarianism and expects adherence to the kosher laws in Leviticus 11. Obedience to these laws means abstinence from pork, shellfish, and other animals proscribed as "unclean". The church discourages its members from consuming alcoholic beverages, tobacco or illegal drugs (compare Christianity and alcohol). In addition, some Adventists avoid coffee, tea, cola, and other beverages containing caffeine.

The pioneers of the Adventist Church had much to do with the common acceptance of breakfast cereals into the Western diet, and the "modern commercial concept of cereal food" originated among Adventists.[151] John Harvey Kellogg was one of the early founders of Adventist health work. His development of breakfast cereals as a health food led to the founding of Kellogg's by his brother William. In both Australia and New Zealand, the church-owned Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company is a leading manufacturer of health and vegetarian-related products, most prominently Weet-Bix.

Research funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health has shown that the average Adventist in California lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average Californian. The research, as cited by the cover story of the November 2005 issue of National Geographic, asserts that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans.[152] The cohesiveness of Adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan.[153] Since Dan Buettner's 2005 National Geographic story about Adventist longevity, his book, The Blue Zones: Lessons for Living Longer From the People Who've Lived the Longest, named Loma Linda, California a "blue zone" because of the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists. He cites the Adventist emphasis on health, diet, and Sabbath-keeping as primary factors for Adventist longevity.[154]

An estimated 35% of Adventists practice vegetarianism or veganism, according to a 2002 worldwide survey of local church leaders.[155][156] North American Adventist health study recruitments from 2001 to 2007 found a similar prevalence of vegetarianism/veganism. A small majority of Adventists, 54%, were conventional meat-eaters. Of the remaining 46% it was found that 28% were Ovo/Lacto-vegetarians, 10% were Pesco-vegetarians and 8% were vegans. It is common for Adventists who choose to eat meat to follow highly vegetarian diets; 6% of the "meat-eaters" group restricted their intake of meat/fish to no more than once per week.[157]

### Hinduism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Diet in Hinduism

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File:'8' A Thali, a traditional style of serving meal in India.jpg

Illustrative of vegetarian Hindu meals.

Though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community, location, custom and varying traditions. Historically and currently, a majority of Hindus eat meat.[158]

Some sects of Hinduism follow vegetarianism as an ideal. The reasons stated by them are: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[159] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad; and the conviction that a satvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body. A sattvic diet is lacto-vegetarian where it can include dairy, but excludes eggs.[160] A section of Hindus consider the cow as a holy animal whose slaughter for meat is forbidden.[161]

### Islam[edit | edit source]

See also: Animals in Islam and Islamic dietary laws

Some followers of Islam, or Muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflicting fatwas and differing interpretations of the Quran. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[162][163]

Sri Lankan Sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia. The former Indian president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was also famously a vegetarian.[164][165]

In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[166]

Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.[163]

### Jainism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Jain vegetarianism

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The food choices of Jains are based on the value of Ahimsa (non-violence).

Followers of Jainism believe that all living organisms, including microorganisms, are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses. They go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians, but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables, because they believe that root vegetables contain many more microorganisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence against these microorganisms is inevitable. They therefore prefer eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation involves killing fewer microorganisms. No products obtained from already-dead animals are allowed because of potential violence against decomposing microorganisms.[167][168] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.[169] Honey is forbidden, being the regurgitation of nectar by bees [170] and potentially containing eggs, excreta and dead bees. Many Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.[171]

### Judaism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Jewish vegetarianism

While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet.[172]

Rabbis may advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim).[173][174] Some Jewish vegetarian groups and activists believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.[175]

The book of Daniel starts in its first chapter with the benefits of vegetarianism. Due to its size, its late time of origin and its revealing content, the book is of particular importance for the time of the following exile, which lasts now for 2000 years and technically still goes on until the Temple in Jerusalem is rebuilt. A diet described as "pulse and water" is presented along benefits such as accordance with the biblical dietary laws, health, beauty, wisdom and visions. Vegetarianism can be seen as a safeguard around the dietary laws or the beautification of them.

Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among Israeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as "the most vegan country on Earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products.[176] Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.[177]

### Rastafari[edit | edit source]

Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[178] "Ital", which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.[179] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[180]

### Sikhism[edit | edit source]

Main article: Diet in Sikhism

At the Sikh langar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals.

The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,[181][182][183][184] but leave the decision of diet to the individual.[185] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)[186] from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.[181][185]

"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari[187] and Rarionwalay,[188] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).[189] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts.[185] In response to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[190][191] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[185] The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[184][185]

## Environment and diet[edit | edit source]

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

Further information: Food vs. feed

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contribute on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."[192]

In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO2 equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[193] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.

Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[194] Reactions of vegetarians vary.[195] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment".[196]

In May 2009, Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.[197]

Public opinion and acceptance of meat-free food is expected to be more successful if its descriptive words focus less on the health aspects and more on the flavor.[198]

## Labor conditions and diet[edit | edit source]

Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.[199] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[200][201][202] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[203] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[204] According to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world[clarification needed].[205]

## Economics and diet[edit | edit source]

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[206] According to estimates in 2016, adoption of vegetarianism would contribute substantially to global healthcare and environmental savings.[207]

## Demographics[edit | edit source]

Prejudice researcher Gordon Hodson argues that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm.[208]

### Turnover[edit | edit source]

Research suggests that, at least in the United States, vegetarianism has a high turnover rate, with less than 20% of adopters persisting for more than a year.[209] Research shows that lacking social support contributes to lapses.[210][211][better source needed] A 2019 analysis found that adhering to any kind of restricted diet (gluten-free, vegetarian, kosher, teetotal) was associated with feelings of loneliness and increased social isolation.[212]

Vegetarians or vegans who adopted their diet abruptly might be more likely to eventually abandon it when compared to individuals adopting their diet gradually with incremental changes.[213]

### Country-specific information[edit | edit source]

Main article: Vegetarianism by country

The rate of vegetarianism by country varies substantially from relatively low levels in countries such as the Netherlands (5%)[214] to more considerable levels in India (20–40%).[215][216] Estimates for the number of vegetarians per country can be subject to methodological difficulties, as respondents may identify as vegetarian even if they include some meat in their diet, and thus some researchers suggest the percentage of vegetarians may be significantly overestimated.[217]

## See also[edit | edit source]

* List of vegetarians
* Plant-based diet
* Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
* Vegetarian nutrition

## References[edit | edit source]

1. ^ "The rule of vegetarianism was the fifth of a list of rules which Devadatta had proposed to the Buddha. Devadatta was the founder of the tapasa movement in Buddhism and his special rules involved ascetic and austere practices (forest-dwelling, wearing only rags, etc). The Buddha rejected all the proposed revisions of Devadatta, and it was in this context that he reiterated the tikoiparisuddha rule. (On this see the author's Western Buddhism and a Theravada heterodoxy, BSQ Tracts on Buddhism."[125]

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* 1839: "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble, Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
* 1842: "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (Healthian, Apr. 34) The 1839 occurrence remains under discussion; the Oxford English Dictionary's 1839 source is in fact an 1863 publication: Fanny Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation 1838–1839. The original manuscript has not been located.
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* Vegans
* Fictional characters
* Vegetarian festivals
* Vegetarian organizations
* Vegetarian restaurants
* List of vegan media

Ethics|

| Secular|

* Animal rights
* Animal welfare
* Carnism
* Deep ecology
* Environmental vegetarianism
* Ethics of eating meat
* Meat paradox
* Nonviolence
* Replaceability argument
* Sentientism
* Speciesism
* Tirukkuṟaḷ

|

Religious|

* Buddhism
* Christianity (Seventh-day Adventist Church)
* Hinduism
* Sattvic
* Ahimsa
* Islam
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Pythagoreanism
* Rastafari
* Sikhism

Food
and drink|

* Agave nectar
* Chicken fillet roll
* Coconut burger
* Coconut milk
* Fruits
* Grains
* cereals
* legumes
* Gelatin substitutes
* Agar
* Carrageenan
* Gulaman
* Konjac jelly
* Microbial cellulose
* Jambon
* Meat analogue
* List of meat substitutes
* Miso
* Mochi
* Mock duck
* Nutritional yeast
* Plant cream
* Plant milk
* Quinoa
* Quorn
* Seitan
* Soy yogurt
* Tempeh
* Tofu
* Tofurkey
* Cheese
* Vegepet
* Vegetables
* Hot dog
* Vegetarian mark
* Sausage
* Sausage roll
* Beer
* Wine
* Veggie burger

Groups
and events|

| Vegan|

* American Vegan Society
* Beauty Without Cruelty
* Food Empowerment Project
* Go Vegan
* Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme
* Our Hen House
* Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
* Plamil Foods
* Vegan Awareness Foundation
* Vegan flag
* Vegan Outreach
* Vegan Prisoners Support Group
* The Vegan Society
* Veganmania
* Veganuary
* Veganz
* World Vegan Day

|

Vegetarian|

* Boston Vegetarian Society
* Christian Vegetarian Association
* European Vegetarian Union
* French Vegetarian Society
* Hare Krishna Food for Life
* International Vegetarian Union
* Jewish Veg
* Meat-free days
* Meatless Monday
* Friday Fast
* North American Vegetarian Society
* Order of the Golden Age
* ProVeg Deutschland
* ProVeg International
* ProVeg Nederland
* Swissveg
* Toronto Vegetarian Association
* Vegetarian Federal Union
* Vegetarian Society
* Vegetarian Society (Singapore)
* Veggie Pride
* Viva! Health
* World Esperantist Vegetarian Association
* World Vegetarian Day

Companies|

* List of vegetarian and vegan companies

Books,
reports,
journals|

* An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty (1802)
* Vegetable Cookery (1812)
* A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813)
* Reasons for not Eating Animal Food (1814)
* Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824)
* Nature's Own Book (1835)
* Fruits and Farinacea (1845)
* The Pleasure Boat (1845)
* The Ethics of Diet (1883)
* What is Vegetarianism? (1886)
* Shelley's Vegetarianism (1891)
* Behind the Scenes in Slaughter-Houses (1892)
* Why I Am a Vegetarian (1895)
* Figs or Pigs? (1896)
* Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian (1903)
* The Meat Fetish (1904)
* The New Ethics (1907)
* A Fleshless Diet (1910)
* The Benefits of Vegetarianism (1927)
* Ten Talents (1968)
* Diet for a Small Planet (1971)
* Moosewood Restaurant and Cookbooks (1973)
* The Farm Vegetarian Cookbook (1975)
* Laurel's Kitchen (1976)
* Moosewood Cookbook (1977)
* Fit for Life (1985)
* Diet for a New America (1987)
* The Sexual Politics of Meat (1990)
* Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone (1997)
* The China Study (2005)
* Skinny Bitch (2005)
* Livestock's Long Shadow (2006)
* The Bloodless Revolution (2006)
* Eating Animals (2009)
* Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows (2009)
* Animal (De)liberation (2016)
* The End of Animal Farming (2018)
* Vegetable Kingdom (2020)
* Meat Atlas (annual)

Films|

* The Animals Film (1981)
* A Cow at My Table (1998)
* Meet Your Meat (2002)
* Peaceable Kingdom (2004)
* Earthlings (2005)
* A Sacred Duty (2007)
* Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead (2010)
* Planeat (2010)
* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* Vegucated (2011)
* Live and Let Live (2013)
* Cowspiracy (2014)
* What the Health (2017)
* Carnage (2017)
* Dominion (2018)
* Eating You Alive (2018)
* The Game Changers (2018)

Magazines|

* Naked Food
* Satya
* Vegetarian Times
* VegNews
* The Animals' Agenda

Academics,
authors,
physicians|

| Contemporary|

* Elisa Aaltola
* Carol J. Adams
* Martin Balluch
* Neal D. Barnard
* David Benatar
* Steven Best
* Yves Bonnardel
* Will Bonsall
* Will Bulsiewicz
* T. Colin Campbell
* Garth Davis
* Jan Deckers
* Alan Desmond
* Daniel Dombrowski
* Sue Donaldson
* Mylan Engel
* Gidon Eshel
* Caldwell Esselstyn
* Henry Firth
* Michael Allen Fox
* Gary L. Francione
* Joel Fuhrman
* Kristi Funk
* Greta Gaard
* Valéry Giroux
* Michael Greger
* A. Breeze Harper
* Oscar Horta
* Michael Huemer
* Melanie Joy
* Joel Kahn
* Michael Klaper
* Aph Ko
* Renan Larue
* Thomas Lepeltier
* Andrew Linzey
* Clair Linzey
* Howard Lyman
* Reed Mangels
* John A. McDougall
* James E. McWilliams
* Vesanto Melina
* Gemma Newman
* David Nibert
* Jack Norris
* David Olivier
* Dean Ornish
* David Pearce
* Tom Regan
* Richard H. Schwartz
* Jérôme Segal
* Peter Singer
* William O. Stephens
* David Sztybel
* Ian Theasby
* Kim A. Williams
* Corey Lee Wrenn
* Laura Wright
* Tzachi Zamir

|

Historical|

* William Alcott
* Bertrand P. Allinson
* Thomas Allinson
* William Axon
* Eduard Baltzer
* Horace A. Barrows
* Sidney H. Beard
* George Bedborough
* Ernest Bell
* Robert Bell
* Ragnar Berg
* Rynn Berry
* Maximilian Bircher-Benner
* George Black
* Ernest Bonnejoy
* Lucius Duncan Bulkley
* J. L. Buttner
* Paul Carton
* George Cheyne
* Henry S. Clubb
* Antonio Cocchi
* Empedocles
* Charles W. Forward
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Narasinh Narayan Godbole
* Lewis Gompertz
* Jeremiah Hacker
* John Haddon
* Walter Hadwen
* Alexander Haig
* Edward Hare
* Philippe Hecquet
* Martin Luther Holbrook
* Isaac Jennings
* John Harvey Kellogg
* Norman Kerr
* Daniel H. Kress
* William Lambe
* W. R. C. Latson
* Elmer Lee
* Al-Ma'arri
* Elmer McCollum
* Eli Peck Miller
* Harry Willis Miller
* J. Howard Moore
* Reuben D. Mussey
* Helen Nearing
* Scott Nearing
* Francis William Newman
* Josiah Oldfield
* Cyril V. Pink
* Rod Preece
* James Rachels
* Rollo Russell
* Henry Stephens Salt
* Russell Thacher Trall
* Ellen G. White
* Severin Wielobycki
* Howard Williams
* Frank Wokes
* Jon Wynne-Tyson

Related|

* Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
* Vegetarian characters in fiction
* List of vegan media
* Juice fasting
* Vegetarian and vegan dog diet
* Vegaphobia
* Plant-based diet
* Sustainable diet
* Low-carbon
* Planetary health
* Semi-vegetarianism
* Pescetarianism
* Pollotarianism

* v
* t
* e

Human nutrition and healthy diets

Main articles
Diet
Cuisine
Dietitian
Hunger
Leptin
Meal
Nutrition
Obesity
Staple food

Dieting|

| Basic types|

* Omnivore
* Plant-based

|

Regional diets|

* Western
* Mediterranean

Sustainable diets|

* Low carbon
* Planetary health

Religious diets|

* Buddhist
* Christian
* Hindu
* Islamic
* Jain
* Jewish
* Rastafari
* Sikh

Vegetarianism
and veganism|

* Fruitarianism
* Meat analogue
* Milk substitute
* Raw vegan
* Tofu

Semi-vegetarianism|

* Ovo-lacto vegetarianism
* Pescetarian
* Pollotarian

Supplement diets|

* Bodybuilding supplements
* Meal replacement
* Therapeutic food

Non-solid diets|

* Liquid diets
* Very-low-calorie diet

Specific
restrictions|

* Calorie restriction
* Cardiac diet
* Diabetic diet
* Fluid restriction diet
* Gluten-free
* Gluten-free and casein-free
* Intermittent fasting
* Low-sodium
* Low-FODMAP
* Low-carbohydrate
* Low-fat
* Low-fiber/low-residue diet
* Monotrophic diet
* NPO
* Renal diet
* Soft diet
* Specific carbohydrate

Other diets|

* Entomophagy
* Cotton ball
* Pica
* DASH
* Inuit
* MIND
* Time-restricted feeding
* Raw foodism
* U.S. military

Fad diets|

* Cambridge
* Macrobiotic
* Master Cleanse
* Junk food
* Superfood
* Slow-Carb

List of diets|

* Diet food

Nutrition|

| Amino acids|

* Alanine
* Arginine
* Asparagine
* Aspartic acid
* Cysteine
* Glutamic acid
* Glutamine
* Glycine
* Histidine
* Isoleucine
* Leucine
* Lysine
* Methionine
* Phenylalanine
* Proline
* Selenocysteine
* Serine
* Threonine
* Tryptophan
* Tyrosine
* Valine

|

Vitamins|

* Vitamin A
* Vitamin B1
* Vitamin B2
* Vitamin B3
* Vitamin B5
* Vitamin B6
* Vitamin B7
* Vitamin B9
* Vitamin B12
* Vitamin C
* Vitamin D
* Vitamin E
* Vitamin K

Minerals|

* Calcium
* Chlorine
* Chromium
* Cobalt
* Copper
* Iodine
* Iron
* Magnesium
* Manganese
* Molybdenum
* Nickel
* Phosphorus
* Potassium
* Selenium
* Sodium
* Vanadium
* Zinc

Nutritional
advice|

* 5 A Day
* Dairy Council of California
* Food pyramid
* Fruits & Veggies – More Matters
* Healthy eating pyramid
* Latin American Diet Pyramid
* French paradox
* Mediterranean Diet Pyramid
* MyPlate
* MyPyramid
* Vegetarian Diet Pyramid

* Category
* Commons
* Cookbook
* Portal Food portal, Health and fitness portal

* v
* t
* e

Animal rights

Topics (overviews, concepts, issues, cases)

| Overviews|

* Animal rights movement
* Animal rights by country or territory
* Anarchism and animal rights
* Animal rights and punk subculture
* Animal cruelty–Holocaust analogies
* Animal rights in Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism
* Christianity and animal rights
* History of animal rights
* List of international animal welfare conventions
* Moral status of animals in the ancient world
* Timeline of animal welfare and rights
* Universal Declaration on Animal Welfare

|

Concepts|

* Abolitionism
* Ahimsa
* Animal cognition
* Animal consciousness
* Animal ethics
* Animal–industrial complex
* Animal law
* Animal protectionism
* Animal welfare
* Animal-free agriculture
* Anthrozoology
* Argument from marginal cases
* Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness
* Carnism
* Equal consideration of interests
* Ethics of eating meat
* Ethics of uncertain sentience
* Ethology
* Insects in ethics
* Meat paradox
* Nonviolence
* Open rescue
* Opposition to hunting
* Personism
* Replaceability argument
* Sentiocentrism
* Speciesism
* Veganism
* Vegaphobia
* Vegetarianism

Issues|

| Animal agriculture|

* Animal product
* Battery cage
* Bile bear
* Chick culling
* Concentrated animal feeding operation
* Fish farming
* Fur farming
* Fur trade
* Insect farming
* Intensive animal farming
* Intensive pig farming
* Livestock
* Poultry farming
* Slaughterhouse
* Wildlife farming

|

Animal testing|

* Animal testing on non-human primates
* Animal testing regulations
* Labcorp Drug Development
* Great ape research ban
* Green Scare
* Huntingdon Life Sciences
* Model organism
* Nafovanny
* Operation Backfire
* Vivisection

Animal welfare|

* Animal euthanasia
* Cruelty to animals
* Pain in animals
* Pain in amphibians
* Pain in cephalopods
* Pain in crustaceans
* Pain in fish
* Pain in invertebrates
* Pain and suffering in laboratory animals
* Welfare of farmed insects

Fishing|

* Commercial fishing
* Fishing bait
* Recreational fishing

Wild animals|

* Culling wildlife
* Hare coursing
* Hunting
* International primate trade
* Ivory trade
* Predation problem
* Wild animal suffering
* Wildlife management

Other|

* Abandoned pets
* Animal sacrifice
* Animal slaughter
* Animal trial
* Animals in sport
* Live food

Cases|

* Brown Dog affair
* Cambridge University primates
* McLibel case
* Monkey selfie copyright dispute
* Pit of despair
* SHAC
* Silver Spring monkeys
* University of California, Riverside 1985 laboratory raid
* Unnecessary Fuss
* War of the currents

Observances|

* World Day for the End of Speciesism
* World Day for Laboratory Animals
* World Day for the End of Fishing

Advocates (academics, writers, activists)

| Academics
and writers|

| Contemporary|

* Carol J. Adams
* Aysha Akhtar
* Kristin Andrews
* Tom Beauchamp
* Marc Bekoff
* Steven Best
* Paola Cavalieri
* Stephen R. L. Clark
* Alasdair Cochrane
* J. M. Coetzee
* Alice Crary
* David DeGrazia
* Daniel Dombrowski
* Sue Donaldson
* Josephine Donovan
* Mylan Engel
* Catia Faria
* Lawrence Finsen
* Gary L. Francione
* Robert Garner
* Valéry Giroux
* John Hadley
* Oscar Horta
* Dale Jamieson
* Kyle Johannsen
* Melanie Joy
* Hilda Kean
* Will Kymlicka
* Renan Larue
* Thomas Lepeltier
* Andrew Linzey
* Clair Linzey
* Dan Lyons
* David Nibert
* Martha Nussbaum
* Siobhan O'Sullivan
* Clare Palmer
* David Pearce
* Evelyn Pluhar
* Mark Rowlands
* Richard D. Ryder
* Steve F. Sapontzis
* Jeff Sebo
* Jérôme Segal
* Peter Singer
* Gary Steiner
* Cass Sunstein
* David Sztybel
* Michael Tye
* Tatjana Višak
* Paul Waldau
* Steven M. Wise
* Corey Lee Wrenn

|

Historical|

* Jeremy Bentham
* David Renaud Boullier
* Brigid Brophy
* Peter Buchan
* Mona Caird
* Priscilla Cohn
* Henry Crowe
* Herman Daggett
* Richard Dean
* Wilhelm Dietler
* William Hamilton Drummond
* Edward Payson Evans
* Thomas Ignatius Maria Forster
* John Galsworthy
* Thomas G. Gentry
* Arthur Helps
* John Hildrop
* John Zephaniah Holwell
* Soame Jenyns
* Karl Christian Friedrich Krause
* John Lawrence
* Charles R. Magel
* Mary Midgley
* J. Howard Moore
* José Ferrater Mora
* Leonard Nelson
* Edward Nicholson
* Rod Preece
* Humphrey Primatt
* James Rachels
* Tom Regan
* Nathaniel Peabody Rogers
* Bernard Rollin
* Henry Stephens Salt
* Arthur Schopenhauer
* Laurids Smith
* John Styles
* Thomas Tryon
* Johann Friedrich Ludwig Volckmann
* Mary Anne Warren
* Adam Gottlieb Weigen
* Johann Heinrich Winckler
* Jon Wynne-Tyson

Activists|

| Contemporary|

* Massinissa Akandouch
* James Aspey
* Greg Avery
* Matt Ball
* Martin Balluch
* Carole Baskin
* Barbi Twins
* Brigitte Bardot
* Bob Barker
* Gene Baur
* Yves Bonnardel
* Joey Carbstrong
* Jake Conroy
* Rod Coronado
* Karen Davis
* Karen Dawn
* Chris DeRose
* John Feldmann
* Bruce Friedrich
* Juliet Gellatley
* Tal Gilboa
* Antoine Goetschel
* Mark Gold
* Brigitte Gothière
* Wayne Hsiung
* Ronnie Lee
* Howard Lyman
* Evanna Lynch
* Bill Maher
* Keith Mann
* Jim Mason
* Dan Mathews
* Jo-Anne McArthur
* Luísa Mell
* Ingrid Newkirk
* Heather Nicholson
* Jack Norris
* David Olivier
* Alex Pacheco
* Craig Rosebraugh
* Nathan Runkle
* Jasmin Singer
* Kim Stallwood
* Marianne Thieme
* Darren Thurston
* Wendy Turner-Webster
* Jerry Vlasak
* Louise Wallis
* Gary Yourofsky
* That Vegan Teacher

|

Historical|

* Cleveland Amory
* Henry B. Amos
* Ernest Bell
* Frances Power Cobbe
* Royal Dixon
* Robert Enke
* Emarel Freshel
* André Géraud
* Lewis Gompertz
* James Granger
* Barry Horne
* Marie Huot
* Lizzy Lind af Hageby
* Norm Phelps
* Jill Phipps
* Hans Ruesch
* Catherine Smithies
* Henry Spira
* Andrew Tyler

Movement (groups, parties)

| Groups|

| Contemporary|

* Animal Aid
* Animal Ethics
* Animal Justice Project
* Animal Legal Defense Fund
* Animal Liberation
* Animal Liberation Front
* Anonymous for the Voiceless
* Centre for Animals and Social Justice
* Chinese Animal Protection Network
* Cruelty Free International
* Direct Action Everywhere
* Equanimal
* Farm Animal Rights Movement
* Faunalytics
* Great Ape Project
* Hunt Saboteurs Association
* In Defense of Animals
* Korea Animal Rights Advocates
* L214
* Last Chance for Animals
* Mercy for Animals
* New England Anti-Vivisection Society
* Oxford Centre for Animal Ethics
* People for Animals
* People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals
* Sentience Politics
* Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
* United Activists for Animal Rights
* United Poultry Concerns
* UPF-Centre for Animal Ethics
* Voice for Animals Humane Society

|

Historical|

* Animal Defence and Anti-Vivisection Society
* Humanitarian League (1891–1919)
* Oxford Group

Parties|

* Animal Justice Party (Australia)
* Animal Politics EU (Europe)
* Animal Protection Party of Canada (Canada)
* Animal Welfare Party (UK)
* Animal Justice Party of Finland (Finland)
* Animalist Party Against Mistreatment of Animals (Spain)
* DierAnimal (Belgium)
* Human Environment Animal Protection (Germany)
* Italian Animalist Party (Italy)
* Party for Animal Welfare (Ireland)
* Party for the Animals (Netherlands)
* People Animals Nature (Portugal)
* V-Partei³ (Germany)

Media (books, films, periodicals, albums)

| Books|

* Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824)
* Animals' Rights (1892)
* Evolutional Ethics and Animal Psychology (1897)
* The Universal Kinship (1906)
* The New Ethics (1907)
* Animals, Men and Morals (1971)
* Animal Liberation (1975)
* The Case for Animal Rights (1983)
* Morals, Reason, and Animals (1987)
* Do Animals Have Rights? (1998)
* The Lives of Animals (1999)
* Striking at the Roots (2008)
* An American Trilogy (2009)
* An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory (2010)
* Animal Rights Without Liberation (2012)
* Political Animals and Animal Politics (2014)
* Animal (De)liberation (2016)
* Sentientist Politics (2018)
* Wild Animal Ethics (2020)

|

Films|

* The Animals Film (1981)
* A Cow at My Table (1998)
* Shores of Silence (2000)
* The Witness (2000)
* Meet Your Meat (2002)
* Legally Blonde 2 (2003)
* The Meatrix (2003)
* Peaceable Kingdom (2004)
* Earthlings (2005)
* Behind the Mask (2006)
* Your Mommy Kills Animals (2007)
* The Cove (2009)
* Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home (2009)
* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* Vegucated (2011)
* An Apology to Elephants (2013)
* Speciesism: The Movie (2013)
* The Ghosts in Our Machine (2013)
* Unlocking the Cage (2016)
* Dominion (2018)
* Seaspiracy (2021)

Periodicals|

| Journals|

* Animal Sentience
* Between the Species
* Cahiers antispécistes
* Etica & Animali
* Journal of Animal Ethics
* Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism

|

Magazines|

* Arkangel
* Bite Back
* Muutoksen kevät
* No Compromise
* Satya

Albums|

* Animal Liberation (1987)
* Tame Yourself (1991)
* Manifesto (2008)
* Salvation of Innocents (2014)
* Onward to Freedom (2014)

* Category ( 9 )

* v
* t
* e

Simple living

Practices|

* Barter
* Cord-cutting
* DIY ethic
* Downshifting
* Dry toilet
* Fasting
* Forest gardening
* Freeganism
* Frugality
* Gift economy
* Intentional community
* Local currency
* Low-impact development
* No frills
* Off-the-grid
* Permaculture
* Regift
* Sattvic diet
* Self-sufficiency
* Subsistence agriculture
* Sustainable living
* Sustainable sanitation
* Veganism
* Vegetarianism
* War tax resistance
* WWOOF

Religious and spiritual|

* Amish
* Aparigraha
* Asceticism
* Cynicism
* Detachment
* Distributism
* Jesus movement
* Mendicant
* Mindfulness
* Monasticism
* New Monasticism
* Plain dress
* Plain people
* Quakers
* Rastafari
* Temperance
* Testimony of simplicity
* Tolstoyan movement
* Twelve Tribes communities

Secular movements|

* Back-to-the-land
* Car-free
* Environmental
* Hippie
* Open Source Ecology
* Slow
* Small house
* Tiny house
* Transition town

Notable writers|

* Wendell Berry
* Ernest Callenbach
* G. K. Chesterton
* Duane Elgin
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Richard Gregg
* Tom Hodgkinson
* Harlan Hubbard
* Satish Kumar
* Helen Nearing
* Scott Nearing
* Peace Pilgrim
* Nick Rosen
* Dugald Semple
* E. F. Schumacher
* George Skene Keith
* Henry David Thoreau
* Leo Tolstoy
* Valluvar

Modern-day adherents|

* Mark Boyle
* Rob Greenfield
* Ted Kaczynski
* Pentti Linkola
* Jim Merkel
* Peace Pilgrim
* Suelo
* Thomas
* Varg Vikernes

Media|

* "Anekdote zur Senkung der Arbeitsmoral"
* Escape from Affluenza
* The Good Life
* The Moon and the Sledgehammer
* Mother Earth News
* The Power of Half
* Small Is Beautiful
* Walden

Related|

* Affluenza
* Agrarianism
* Amateurism
* Anarcho-primitivism
* Anti-consumerism
* Appropriate technology
* Bohemianism
* Consumerism
* Critique of work
* Deep ecology
* Degrowth
* Ecological footprint
* Food miles
* Front Porch Republic
* Green anarchism
* The good life
* Global warming
* Hedonophobia
* Intentional living
* commune
* Rainbow Gathering
* Itinerant
* Low-technology
* Nonviolence
* Peak oil
* Sustainability
* Work–life interface

* v
* t
* e

Meat

Poultry|

* Cassowary
* Chicken
* Duck
* Emu
* Goose
* Ostrich
* Pigeon
* Quail
* Rhea
* Turkey

Food meat
Platter of seafood

Livestock|

* Alpaca
* Beef
* Beefalo
* Bison
* Buffalo
* Camel
* Cat
* Goat
* Dog
* Donkey
* Elephant
* Escargot
* Frog
* Guinea pig
* Horse
* Lamb and mutton
* Llama
* Pork
* Veal
* Yak
* Żubroń

Game|

* Alligator
* Bat
* Bear
* Boar
* Crocodile
* Iguana
* Kangaroo
* Monkey
* Pangolin
* Rat
* Hare
* Rabbit
* Snake
* Turtle
* Venison
* Wolf

Fish|

* Anchovy
* Basa
* Bass
* Carp
* Catfish
* Cod
* Crappie
* Eel
* Flounder
* Grouper
* Haddock
* Halibut
* Herring
* Kingfish
* Mackerel
* Mahi Mahi
* Marlin
* Milkfish
* Orange roughy
* Pacific saury
* Perch
* Pike
* Pollock
* Salmon
* Sardine
* Shark
* Sole
* Swai
* Swordfish
* Tilapia
* Trout
* Tuna
* Walleye

Shellfish and
other seafood|

* Abalone
* Calamari
* Clam
* Crab
* Crayfish
* Dolphin
* Lobster
* Mussel
* Octopus
* Oyster
* Scallop
* Seal
* Shrimp/prawn
* Sea urchin
* Whale

Insects|

* Black soldier fly maggots
* Cicada
* Crickets
* Grasshoppers (locust)
* Mealworm
* Silkworm
* Mopane worm
* Palm grub

Cuts and
preparation|

* Aged
* Bacon
* Barbecued
* Biltong
* Braised
* Burger
* Charcuterie
* Chop
* Corned
* Cured
* Cutlet
* Dried
* Dum
* Fillet/supreme
* Fried
* Ground
* Ham
* Kebab
* Liver
* Luncheon meat
* Marinated
* Meatball
* Meatloaf
* Offal
* Pickled
* Poached
* Roasted
* Salt-cured
* Salumi
* Sausage
* Smoked
* Steak
* Stewed
* Tandoor
* Tartare

List articles|

| Meat dishes|

* Beef
* Chicken
* Fish
* Goat
* Lamb
* Pork
* Ham
* Seafood
* Veal
* Steaks
* Meatball
* Smoked foods
* Sausage

|

Other|

* Countries by meat consumption
* Food and drink prohibitions
* Meat substitutes

Ethics and psychology|

* Ethics of eating meat
* Carnism
* Animal rights
* Psychology of eating meat
* Meat paradox

Alternatives|

* Vegetarianism
* Semi-vegetarianism
* Pescetarianism
* Pollotarianism
* Plant-based diet
* Meat analogue
* Veganism

Related
subjects|

* Arachnophagy
* Bushmeat
* Butcher
* Cannibalism
* Case-ready meat
* Cultured meat
* Entomophagy
* Factory farming
* Feed conversion ratio
* Environmental impact
* Marbled
* Meat cutter
* Meat science
* Meat tenderness
* Non-vegetarian
* Pink slime
* Preservation
* Raw meat
* Red meat
* Slaughter
* Slaughterhouse
* White meat

*   * Category: Meat

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