Apnea causes

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]; Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: : Ogheneochuko Ajari, MB.BS, MS [2] Marcelo R. Zacarkim, M.D. [3]

## Overview

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## Causes

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### Life Threatening Causes

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### Common Causes

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* Achondroplasia
* Adenotonsillar hypertrophy
* Amobarbital sodium
* Apnea of prematurity
* Arnold-Chiari malformation
* Central sleep apnea
* Obesity
* Upper airway obstruction

### Causes by Organ System

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Cardiovascular | 1q21.1 deletion, acromegaly, Arnold-Chiari malformation, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , arrythmias, atrial fibrillation, cardiac arrest, cyanotic congenital heart disease, diabetic autonomic neuropathy, Down syndrome, end stage renal disease, floppy eyelid syndrome, Guillain-Barré syndrome, heart failure, Hurler syndrome, hypothyroidism, Klippel-Feil syndrome, Marfan syndrome, myasthenia gravis, myocardial infarction, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, Pickwickian syndrome, pulmonary atresia, pulmonary edema,pulmonary embolism, pulmonary hypertension, right ventricular hypertrophy, secondary hypertension, shock, sleep deprivation, toxidrome, trisomy 13, Werdnig-Hoffman disease

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Chemical/Poisoning | Ammonium chloride, camphor, chloral hydrate, cyanide, eucalyptus oil poisoning, pepper spray, strychnine, tetramethylammonium hydroxide
Dental | Crouzon syndrome, mandibular hypoplasia, midfacial hypoplasia, narrow maxillary arch, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, osteopetrosis, Treacher Collins syndrome
Dermatologic | Acromegaly, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, diabetic autonomic neuropathy, floppy eyelid syndrome, Gaucher's disease, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, SADDAN
Drug Side Effect | Amobarbital sodium, Beractant, Benzodiazepines,bicisate dihydrochloride, bupivacaine, chlordiazepoxide, cytomegalovirus immune globulin, diazepam, general anesthetics, levobupivacaine, lidocaine, Meropenem, morphine, narcotic analgesics, oxymorphone, pancuronium, Paregoric, Pentobarbital, PGE1, Polymyxin B, pramipexole, propofol, pyrimidifen, ropivacaine, Secobarbital sodium, sertraline, sodium thiopental, Tiagabine, trazodone, use of sedatives (sleeping pills)
Ear Nose Throat | Achondroplasia, adenoid hypertrophy, adenotonsillar hypertrophy, angina tonsillaris, Apert syndrome, auriculo-condylar syndrome, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, campomelic syndrome, choanal stenosis, collapse of aryepiglottic folds, Crouzon syndrome, deviated septum, Down syndrome, edema of epiglottis, elongated and/or thickened palate and uvula, empty nose syndrome, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Hurler syndrome, Joubert syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, lingual cyst, lingual tonsillar hypertrophy, lymphoma of tonsils, macroglossia, Marfan syndrome, micrognathia, nasoseptal obstruction, oropharyngeal papillomatosis, osteopetrosis, Pierre Robin sequence, rhinitis, septal dislocation, septal hematoma, tracheal rupture, Treacher Collins syndrome, turbinate hypertrophy
Endocrine | Acromegaly, Down syndrome, Hyperpituitarism, hypothyroidism, Joubert syndrome, polycystic ovary syndrome, testosterone deficiency
Environmental | Smoking
Gastroenterologic | Aberrant subclavian artery abnormality, acromegaly, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Arnold-Chiari malformation, alcohol, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, Brun's syndrome, chronic airway-digestive inflammatory disease (CAID), diabetic autonomic neuropathy, Down syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux disease, Gaucher's disease, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Hurler syndrome, hypothyroidism, Joubert syndrome, osteopetrosis, polyposis, pulmonary edema, toxidrome, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Genetic | 1q21.1 deletion, Crouzon syndrome, Down's syndrome, Gaucher's disease, Genetics, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, Hunter syndrome, Hurler syndrome, Joubert syndrome, Marfan syndrome, osteopetrosis, Prader-Willi syndrome, Treacher Collins syndrome, trisomy 13, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Hematologic | Anemia of prematurity, Gaucher's disease, iron deficiency anemia, neonatal anemia, osteopetrosis, sickle cell disease
Iatrogenic | No underlying causes
Infectious Disease | Botulism, Brain abscess, bronchiolitis, encephalitis, meningitis, meningoencephalitis, pertussis, respiratory syncytial viral infection, septicemia
Musculoskeletal/Orthopedic | Achondroplasia, an acutely angled skull base, Acromegaly, Apert syndrome, Arnold-Chiari malformation, Aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , campomelic syndrome, chondrodystrophy, Crouzon syndrome, Down syndrome, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, flail chest, Gaucher's disease,Guillain-Barré syndrome, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, head and neck burns, Hunter syndrome, hypertonia, hypothyroidism, hypotonia , Joubert syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, lipoma of the neck, Marfan syndrome, myotonic dystrophy, osteopetrosis, Pickwickian syndrome, pulmonary edema, Rett syndrome, SADDAN, sickle cell disease, spinal cord injury, Treacher Collins syndrome, trisomy 13, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Neurologic | 1q21.1 deletion, acromegaly, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , benign familial infantile convulsion, brain abscess, brain stem dysfunction, brain stem injury, brain tumor, Brun's syndrome, cerebral hemorrhage, cerebral infarction, cerebral palsy, delayed sleep phase syndrome, diabetic autonomic neuropathy, down syndrome, encephalitis, excessive daytime sleepiness, fatigue, floppy eyelid syndrome, Gaucher's disease, glycine encephalopathy, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, head trauma, Hurler syndrome, hypertonia,hypotonia , increased intracranial pressure, Joubert syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, late-onset spinal muscular atrophy, leukomalacia, Marfan syndrome, medullary hemorrhage, medullary infarction, meningitis, meningoencephalitis, myasthenia gravis, myotonic dystrophy, myotubular myopathy, near drowning, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, periodic limb movement disorder, Pickwickian syndrome, pontine hemorrhage, post-traumatic stress disorder, Prader-Willi syndrome, prenatal asphyxia, REM sleep, restless legs syndrome, Rett syndrome, SADDAN, seizures, sleep deprivation, spinal cord injury, sudden infant death syndrome, toxidrome, transtentorial herniation, trisomy 13, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Nutritional/Metabolic | Achondroplasia, alcohol, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , body fat redistribution (BFR) syndrome, congenital central hypoventilation syndrome, gastroesophageal reflux disease, glycine encephalopathy, hypercapnia, hyperglycinemia , hypoventilation, iron deficiency anemia, neonatal anemia, obesity, organic acidemia, polycystic ovary syndrome, prenatal asphyxia, respiratory acidosis, septicemia, shock, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Obstetric/Gynecologic | Polycystic ovary syndrome
Oncologic | 1q21.1 deletion, Down syndrome, lymphoma of tonsils
Ophthalmologic | 1q21.1 deletion, Arnold-Chiari malformation, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , Crouzon syndrome,

diabetic autonomic neuropathy, Down syndrome, floppy eyelid syndrome, Gaucher's disease, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, Hurler syndrome, hypothyroidism, Joubert syndrome, leukomalacia, Marfan syndrome, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, osteopetrosis, secondary hypertension, Treacher Collins syndrome

Overdose/Toxicity | Barium, disopyramide toxicity, toxidrome
Psychiatric | Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome, Pickwickian syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder
Pulmonary | 1q21.1 deletion, aberrant subclavian artery abnormality, achondroplasia, acromegaly, adenoid hypertrophy, adenotonsillar hypertrophy, adult respiratory distress syndrome, ammonium chloride, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, an acutely angled skull base, anemia of prematurity, angina tonsillaris, Apert syndrome, apnea of prematurity, Arnold-Chiari malformation, aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency , arrythmias, asthma, ataxic respiration, atrial fibrillation, auriculo-condylar syndrome, barium, Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome, benign familial infantile convulsion, biot's respiration, body fat redistribution (BFR) syndrome, botulism, brain abscess, brain stem dysfunction, brain stem injury, brain tumor, bronchial rupture, bronchiolitis,bronchospasm, brun's syndrome, campomelic syndrome, cardiac arrest, central sleep apnea, cerebral hemorrhage, cerebral infarction, cerebral palsy, Cheyne-Stokes respiration, choanal stenosis, chondrodystrophy, chronic airway-digestive inflammatory disease (CAID), chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, collapse of aryepiglottic folds, congenital central hypoventilation syndrome, Crouzon syndrome, cyanotic congenital heart disease, delayed sleep phase syndrome, deviated septum, diabetic autonomic neuropathy, diffuse pneumonia, Down syndrome, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, edema of epiglottis, elongated and/or thickened palate and uvula, encephalitis, end stage renal disease, flail chest, floppy eyelid syndrome, foreign body aspiration, gastroesophageal reflux disease, Gaucher's disease, glycine encephalopathy, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Hallermann-Streiff syndrome, head trauma, hemothorax, hunter syndrome, hurler syndrome, hypercapnia, hyperglycinemia , hyperpituitarism, hypothyroidism, hypertonia, hypotonia , hypoventilation, increased intracranial pressure, infant respiratory distress syndrome, Joubert syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, laryngomalacia, late-onset spinal muscular atrophy, leukomalacia, Marfan syndrome, meconium aspiration syndrome, medullary hemorrhage, medullary infarction, meningitis, meningoencephalitis, micrognathia, midfacial hypoplasia, mucus plug, myocardial infarction, myotonic dystrophy, myotubular myopathy, nasal congestion, near drowning, neonatal anemia, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, obesity, open chest wounds, organic acidemia, oropharyngeal papillomatosis, [[osteopetrosis],parenchymal lung disease, periodic limb movement disorder, pertussis, Pickwickian syndrome, Pierre Robin sequence, pneumothorax, polycystic ovary syndrome, polyposis, pontine hemorrhage, post-traumatic stress disorder, Prader-Willi syndrome, prenatal asphyxia, pulmonary atresia, pulmonary edema, pulmonary embolism, pulmonary fibrosis, pulmonary hypertension, REM sleep, respiratory acidosis, respiratory syncytial viral infection, restless legs syndrome, Rett syndrome, rhinitis, right ventricular hypertrophy, SADDAN, secondary hypertension, seizures, septal dislocation, septal hematoma, septicemia, shock, sickle cell disease, sleep deprivation, smoking, spinal cord injury, sudden infant death syndrome, toxidrome, tracheal rupture, transtentorial herniation, Treacher Collins syndrome, trisomy 13, turbinate hypertrophy, upper airway obstruction, upper Airway Resistance Syndrome (UARS), vocal cord paralysis, Werdnig-Hoffman disease
Renal/Electrolyte | 1q21.1 deletion, diabetic autonomic neuropathy, end stage renal disease, Joubert syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome, nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, secondary hypertension, shock, trisomy 13
Rheumatology/Immunology/Allergy | Guillain-Barré syndrome, sleep deprivation
Sexual | Down syndrome, Klippel-Feil syndrome
Trauma | Head trauma, near drowning, septal dislocation, septal hematoma, tracheal rupture,
Urologic | Diabetic autonomic neuropathy, Klippel-Feil syndrome, trisomy 13
Miscellaneous | Aging, breastfeeding, fatigue, maternal beta blocker use, near drowning, smoking, sudden infant death syndrome

### Causes in Alphabetical Order

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* 1q21.1 deletion
* Aberrant subclavian artery abnormality
* Achondroplasia[1]
* Acromegaly
* Adenoid hypertrophy
* Adenotonsillar hypertrophy
* Adult respiratory distress syndrome
* Aging[2]
* Alcohol
* Ammonium chloride
* Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
* An acutely angled skull base
* Anemia of prematurity[3]
* Angina tonsillaris
* Apert syndrome
* Apnea of prematurity[4]
* Arnold-Chiari malformation[5]
* Aromatic amino acid decarboxylase deficiency
* Arrhythmias[6]
* Asthma[7][8]
* Ataxic respiration
* Atrial fibrillation[9]
* Auriculo-condylar syndrome
* Barium
* Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome
* Benign familial infantile convulsion
* Benzodiazepines
* Bicisate dihydrochloride
* Biot's respiration
* Body fat redistribution (BFR) syndrome
* Botulism[10]
* Brain abscess
* Brain stem dysfunction
* Brain stem injury
* Brain tumor
* Breastfeeding
* Bronchial rupture
* Bronchiolitis
* Bronchospasm
* Brun's syndrome
* Bupivacaine
* Camphor
* Campomelic syndrome
* Cardiac arrest
* Central sleep apnea
* Cerebral hemorrhage[11]
* Cerebral infarction[11]
* Cerebral palsy
* Cheyne-Stokes respiration[12]
* Chloral hydrate
* Chlordiazepoxide
* Choanal stenosis
* Chondrodystrophy
* Chronic airway-digestive inflammatory disease (CAID)
* Chronic bronchitis
* Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
* Collapse of aryepiglottic folds
* Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome
* Crouzon syndrome
* Cyanide
* Cyanotic congenital heart disease
* Cytomegalovirus immune globulin
* Delayed sleep phase syndrome
* Deviated septum
* Diabetic autonomic neuropathy
* Diazepam
* Diffuse pneumonia
* Disopyramide toxicity
* Down syndrome
* Duchenne muscular dystrophy
* Edema of epiglottis
* Elongated and/or thickened palate and uvula
* Empty nose syndrome
* Encephalitis
* End stage renal disease
* Eucalyptus oil poisoning
* Excessive daytime sleepiness
* Fatigue
* Flail chest
* Floppy eyelid syndrome
* Foreign body aspiration
* Gastroesophageal reflux disease
* Gaucher's disease
* Gaucher's disease
* General anesthetics
* Genetics
* Glycine encephalopathy
* Guillain-Barré syndrome[13]
* Hallermann-Streiff syndrome
* Head and neck burns
* Head trauma
* Heart failure[6][14][12]
* Hemothorax
* Hunter syndrome
* Hurler syndrome
* Hypercapnia
* Hyperglycinemia
* Hyperpituitarism
* Hypertonia
* Hypothyroidism
* Hypotonia
* Hypoventilation
* Increased intracranial pressure

* Infant respiratory distress syndrome
* Iron deficiency anemia
* Joubert syndrome
* Klippel-Feil syndrome
* Laryngomalacia
* late-onset spinal muscular atrophy
* Leukomalacia
* Levobupivacaine
* Lidocaine
* Lingual cyst
* Lingual tonsillar hypertrophy
* Lipoma of the neck
* Lymphoma of tonsils
* Macroglossia
* Mandibular hypoplasia
* Marfan syndrome[15]
* Maternal beta-blocker use (transfer across placenta)
* Meconium aspiration syndrome
* Medullary hemorrhage
* Medullary infarction
* Meningitis
* Meningoencephalitis
* Micrognathia
* Midfacial hypoplasia
* Morphine
* Mucus plug
* Myasthenia gravis
* Myocardial infarction
* Myotonic dystrophy
* Myotubular myopathy
* Narcotic analgesics
* Narrow maxillary arch
* Nasal congestion
* Nasoseptal obstruction
* Near drowning
* Neonatal anemia
* Nonarteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy
* Obesity
* Open chest wounds
* Organic acidemia
* Oropharyngeal papillomatosis
* Osteopetrosis
* Oxymorphone[16]
* Pancuronium[17]
* Parenchymal lung disease
* Pepper spray
* Periodic limb movement disorder
* Pertussis
* PGE1
* Phrenic nerve paralysis
* Pickwickian syndrome
* Pierre Robin sequence
* Pneumococcal Vaccine 13-Valent (Prevnar 13): in infants and toddlers
* Pneumothorax
* Polycystic ovary syndrome
* Polyposis
* Pontine hemorrhage
* Post-traumatic stress disorder[18]
* Prader-Willi syndrome
* Prenatal asphyxia
* Propofol[17]
* Pulmonary atresia
* Pulmonary edema
* Pulmonary embolism
* Pulmonary fibrosis
* Pulmonary hypertension
* Pyrimidifen
* REM sleep
* Respiratory acidosis
* Respiratory syncytial viral infection
* Restless legs syndrome
* Rett syndrome
* Rhinitis
* Right ventricular hypertrophy
* Ropivacaine[19]
* Secondary hypertension
* Seizures
* Septal dislocation
* Septal hematoma
* Septicemia
* SADDAN
* Shock
* Sickle cell disease
* Sleep deprivation
* Smoking
* Sodium thiopental
* Spinal cord injury
* Strychnine
* Sudden infant death syndrome
* Testosterone deficiency
* Tetramethylammonium Hydroxide
* Tiagabine
* Toxidrome[20]
* Tracheal rupture
* Transtentorial herniation
* Trazodone[21]
* Treacher Collins syndrome
* Trisomy 13
* Turbinate hypertrophy
* Upper airway obstruction
* Upper airway resistance syndrome (UARS)[22]
* Use of sedatives (sleeping pills)
* Vocal cord paralysis
* Werdnig-Hoffman disease

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## References

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1. ↑ Julliand S, Boulé M, Baujat G; et al. (2012). "Lung function, diagnosis, and treatment of sleep-disordered breathing in children with achondroplasia". Am. J. Med. Genet. A. 158A (8): 1987–93. doi:10.1002/ajmg.a.35441. PMID 22711495. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
2. ↑ Gałecki P, Florkowski A, Zboralski K, Pietras T, Szemraj J, Talarowska M (2011). "[Psychiatric and psychological complications in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome]". Pneumonol Alergol Pol (in Polish). 79 (1): 26–31. PMID 21190150.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
3. ↑ Zagol K, Lake DE, Vergales B; et al. (2012). "Anemia, apnea of prematurity, and blood transfusions". J. Pediatr. 161 (3): 417–421.e1. doi:10.1016/j.jpeds.2012.02.044. PMID 22494873. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
4. ↑ Zhao J, Gonzalez F, Mu D (2011). "Apnea of prematurity: from cause to treatment". Eur. J. Pediatr. 170 (9): 1097–105. doi:10.1007/s00431-011-1409-6. PMC 3158333. PMID 21301866. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
5. ↑ Campisi R, Ciancio N, Bivona L, Folisi C, Maria G (2013). "Type I Arnold-Chiari Malformation with Bronchiectasis, respiratory failure, and sleep disordered breathing: a case report". Multidiscip Respir Med. 8 (1): 15. doi:10.1186/2049-6958-8-15. PMID 23433005. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Vitulano N, Di Marco Berardino A, Re A; et al. (2013). "Obstructive sleep apnea and heart disease: the biomarkers point of view". Front Biosci (Schol Ed). 5: 588–99. PMID 23277071.CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
7. ↑ Shi J, Lv J, Wu H (2012). "[Th1/Th2 cytokines and its clinical significance in obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea syndrome children without allergic rhinitis and asthma]". Lin Chung Er Bi Yan Hou Tou Jing Wai Ke Za Zhi (in Chinese). 26 (23): 1073–6. PMID 23451475. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
8. ↑ Sundar KM, Daly SE, Pearce MJ, Alward WT (2010). "Chronic cough and obstructive sleep apnea in a community-based pulmonary practice". Cough. 6 (1): 2. doi:10.1186/1745-9974-6-2. PMC 2861010. PMID 20398333.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
9. ↑ Mansukhani MP, Calvin AD, Kolla BP; et al. (2013). "The association between atrial fibrillation and stroke in patients with obstructive sleep apnea: A population-based case-control study". Sleep Med. 14 (3): 243–6. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2012.08.021. PMID 23340087. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
10. ↑ McMahon M (1994). "Apnea in infantile botulism". J. Pediatr. 124 (1): 161. PMID 8283369. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Hoogstraate SR, Lequin MH, Huysman MA, Ahmed S, Govaert PP (2009). "Apnoea in relation to neonatal temporal lobe haemorrhage". Eur. J. Paediatr. Neurol. 13 (4): 356–61. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2008.07.005. PMID 18757218. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 Oldenburg O (2012). "Cheyne-stokes respiration in chronic heart failure. Treatment with adaptive servoventilation therapy". Circ. J. 76 (10): 2305–17. PMID 22972365.
13. ↑ Huntsman RJ, Sinclair DB, Bhargava R, Chan A (2005). "Atypical presentations of leigh syndrome: a case series and review". Pediatr. Neurol. 32 (5): 334–40. doi:10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2004.12.009. PMID 15866434. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
14. ↑ Kasai T, Motwani SS, Yumino D; et al. (2013). "Contrasting Effects of Lower Body Positive Pressure on Upper Airways Resistance and Partial Pressure of Carbon Dioxide in Men With Heart Failure and Obstructive or Central Sleep Apnea". J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2012.10.055. PMID 23375931. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
15. ↑ Rybczynski M, Koschyk D, Karmeier A; et al. (2010). "Frequency of sleep apnea in adults with the Marfan syndrome". Am. J. Cardiol. 105 (12): 1836–41. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2010.01.369. PMID 20538140. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
16. ↑ Copland VS, Haskins SC, Patz JD (1987). "Oxymorphone: cardiovascular, pulmonary, and behavioral effects in dogs". Am. J. Vet. Res. 48 (11): 1626–30. PMID 2449102. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Maciel RT, Fernandes FC, Pereira Ldos S (2008). "Anesthesia in a patient with multiple endocrine abnormalities. Case report". Rev Bras Anestesiol. 58 (2): 172–8. PMID 19378536.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
18. ↑ Arnetz BB, Templin T, Saudi W, Jamil H (2012). "Obstructive sleep apnea, posttraumatic stress disorder, and health in immigrants". Psychosom Med. 74 (8): 824–31. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31826bf1ec. PMID 23023679. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
19. ↑ Galante D (2005). "Preoperative apnea in a preterm infant after caudal block with ropivacaine and clonidine". Paediatr Anaesth. 15 (8): 708–9. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9592.2005.01683.x. PMID 16029411. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)
20. ↑ Nice A, Leikin JB, Maturen A, Madsen-Konczyk LJ, Zell M, Hryhorczuk DO (1988). "Toxidrome recognition to improve efficiency of emergency urine drug screens". Ann Emerg Med. 17 (7): 676–80. PMID 3382068. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
21. ↑ Heinzer RC, White DP, Jordan AS; et al. (2008). "Trazodone increases arousal threshold in obstructive sleep apnoea". Eur. Respir. J. 31 (6): 1308–12. doi:10.1183/09031936.00067607. PMC 2732198. PMID 18256066. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link) CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
22. ↑ Gold AR, Broderick JE, Gold MS, Amin MM (2013). "A comparison of inspiratory airflow dynamics during sleep between upper airway resistance syndrome patients and healthy controls". Sleep Breath. doi:10.1007/s11325-013-0817-4. PMID 23407917. Unknown parameter `|month=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)

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