Core promoters

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Editor-In-Chief: Henry A. Hoff

File:Preinitiation complex.pngThe diagram shows the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme attached to the DNA template strand. Credit: ArneLH.

A core promoter is that portion of the proximal promoter that contains the transcription start sites.

Biochemical definition: the minimal stretch of DNA sequence that is sufficient to direct accurate initiation of transcription. An acceptable range of the length of a core promoter is typically 60 to 120 base pairs.

Genomics definition: short sequences surrounding the transcription start sites (TSSs).

It contains a binding site for RNA polymerase (RNA polymerase I, RNA polymerase II, or RNA polymerase III) holoenzymes.

A vast network of regulatory factors that contribute to the initiation of transcription by RNA polymerase ultimately target any specific gene’s core promoter.

The core promoter includes the transcription start site(s) (TSS).

That portion of the core promoter that is upstream of the TSS is also part of the proximal promoter.

The core promoter is approximately -34 bp upstream from the TSS. "Several factors have been identified that bind to core promoters (reviewed in Smale, 1997)"[1][2].

## Contents

* 1 Genetics
* 2 Gene transcriptions
* 3 Promoters
* 4 Proximal promoters
* 5 Cores
* 6 Theoretical core promoters
* 7 Metal responsive elements
* 8 GC boxes
* 9 HY boxes
* 10 CAAT boxes
* 11 B recognition elements
* 12 EIF4E basal elements
* 13 TATA boxes
* 14 TBP-like factors
* 15 Downstream TFIIB recognition
* 16 Initiator elements
* 17 Transcription start sites
* 18 Downstream core elements
* 19 Motif ten elements
* 20 Downstream promoter elements
* 21 Hypotheses
* 22 See also
* 23 References
* 24 Further reading
* 25 External links

## Genetics

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Main article: Genetics

File:Bob, the guinea pig.jpgThis is an image of Bob, the guinea pig. Credit: selbst.

Genetics involves the expression, transmission, and variation of inherited characteristics.

## Gene transcriptions

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Main article: Gene transcriptions

DNA is a double helix of interlinked nucleotides surrounded by an epigenome. On the basis of biochemical signals, an enzyme, specifically a ribonucleic acid (RNA) polymerase, is chemically bonded to one of the strands (the template strand) of this double helix. The polymerase, once phosphorylated, begins to catalyze the formation of RNA using the template strand. Although the catalysis may have more than one beginning nucleotide (a start site) and more than one ending nucleotide (a stop site) along the DNA, each nucleotide sequence catalyzed that ultimately produces approximately the same RNA is part of a gene. The catalysis of each RNA representation from the template DNA is a transcription, specifically a gene transcription. The overall process is also referred to as gene transcription.

## Promoters

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Main article: Promoters

Def. a "section of DNA that controls the initiation of RNA transcription as a product of a gene"[3] is called a promoter.

## Proximal promoters

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Main article: Proximal promoters

Def a section of promoter DNA which includes the transcription start sites that is neighboring the start sites is called a proximal promoter.

## Cores

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Main article: Core promoters

Def. a central or most important part of something is called a core.

## Theoretical core promoters

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Def. "the factors, including RNA polymerase II itself, that are minimally essential for transcription in vitro from an isolated core promoter" is called the basal machinery, or basal transcription machinery.[4]

Def. one or more sequence motifs containing the transcription start sites (TSSs), juxtaposed to the motif containing the TSSs, or in the proximal promoter that are only found in this core of motifs is called a core promoter.

## Metal responsive elements

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Main article: Metal responsive elements

A metal responsive element (MRE), or TGC box, may occur in the core promoter of some human DNA genes.

"The metallothionein (MT) genes provide a good example of eucaryotic promoter architecture. MT genes specify the synthesis of low-molecular-weight metal-binding proteins. They are transcriptionally regulated by the metal ions cadmium and zinc (11), glucocorticoid hormones (18), interferon (14), interleukin-1 (22), and tumor promoters (2). The metal ion regulation of MTs is conferred by a short sequence element called the metal-responsive element (MRE [21]) or TGC box (31, 34), which functions as a metal ion-dependent enhancer."[5]

## GC boxes

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Main article: GC boxes

Def. a "sequence of contiguous guanine, guanine, guanine, cytosine, and guanine, in that order, along a DNA strand"[6] is called a GC box.

"[A] GC box is a distinct pattern of nucleotides found in the promoter region of some eukaryotic genes upstream of the TATA box and approximately 110 bases upstream from the transcription initiation site. It has a consensus sequence GGGCGG which is position dependent and orientation independent. The GC elements are bound by transcription factors and have similar functions to enhancers.[7]"[8]

"A large subclass of polymerase II promoters lacks both TATAA and CCAAT sequence motifs but contains multiple GC boxes. This promoter class includes several housekeeping genes (e.g., the genes encoding dihydrofolate reductase [DHFR] ..., hydroxymethylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase [39], hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase [33], and adenosine deaminase [46]) [and] nonhousekeeping genes (e.g., the transforming growth factor alpha [9, 23], rat malic enzyme [36], human c-Ha-ras [21], epidermal growth factor receptor [22], and nerve growth factor receptor [42] genes)."[9]

"[A] GC box-binding factor is required for transcription and ... a truncated promoter containing one GC box is transcriptionally inactive (44). ... the DNA-protein interactions occurring at the GC boxes in the DHFR promoter are functionally distinct and that factors binding to the GC boxes must interact in a position-dependent manner."[9]

"In promoters containing multiple GC boxes but lacking the TATAA box, transcription start sites may be single and specific, as observed in the nerve growth factor receptor gene (42) and the cellular retinol-binding protein gene (37), or there may be multiple heterogeneous start sites, such as those found in the c-myb (4), insulin receptor (45), and Ha-ras (21) genes. ... GC boxes are responsible for directing transcription from the major and the minor start sites. ... All TATAA-less promoters have at least two GC boxes"[9].

"A GC box sequence, one of the most common regulatory DNA elements of eukaryotic genes, is recognized by the Spl transcription factor; its consensus sequence is represented as 5'-G/T G/A GGCG G/T G/A G/A C/T-3' [or 5′-KRGGCGKRRY-3′] (Briggs et al., 1986)."[10]

## HY boxes

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Main article: HY boxes

A core responsive element is the hypertrophy region HY box between -89 and -60 nucleotides (nts) upstream from the transcription start site.[11]

## CAAT boxes

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Main article: CAAT boxes

"[A] CCAAT box (also sometimes abbreviated a CAAT box or CAT box) is a distinct pattern of nucleotides with GGCCAATCT consensus sequence that occur upstream by 75-80 bases to the initial transcription site. The CAAT box signals the binding site for the RNA transcription factor, and is typically accompanied by a conserved consensus sequence. It is an invariant DNA sequence at about minus 70 base pairs from the origin of transcription in many eukaryotic promoters. Genes that have this element seem to require it for the gene to be transcribed in sufficient quantities. It is frequently absent from genes that encode proteins used in virtually all cells. This box along with the GC box is known for binding general transcription factors. CAAT and GC are primarily located in the region from 100-150bp upstream from the TATA box. Both of these consensus sequences belong to the regulatory promoter. Full gene expression occurs when transcription activator proteins bind to each module within the regulatory promoter. Protein specific binding is required for the CCAAT box activation. These proteins are known as CCAAT box binding proteins/CCAAT box binding factors. A CCAAT box is a feature frequently found before eukaryote coding regions".[12]

## B recognition elements

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Main article: B recognition elements

"The B recognition element (BRE) is a DNA sequence found in the promoter region of most genes in eukaryotes and Archaea.[13][14] The BRE is a cis-regulatory element that is found immediately upstream of the TATA box, and consists of 7 nucleotides."[15]

"The Transcription Factor IIB (TFIIB) recognizes this sequence in the DNA, and binds to it. The fourth and fifth alpha helices of TFIIB intercalate with the major groove of the DNA at the BRE. TFIIB is one part of the preinitiation complex that helps RNA Polymerase II bind to the DNA."[15]

The consensus sequence is 5’-G/C G/C G/A C G C C-3’.[16]

The general consensus sequence using degenerate nucleotides is 5’-SSRCGCC-3’, where S = G or C and R = A or G.[17]

"The position in nucleotides (nt) relative to the transcription start site (TSS, +1)" is -35 for the BRE. Of human promoters, some "22-25% [are] BRE containing promoters ... the functional consensus sequences for BRE ... motif [is] still poorly defined."[17]

## EIF4E basal elements

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Main article: EIF4E basal elements

The EIF4E basal element, also eIF4E, (4EBE) is a basal promoter element for the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E. "Interactions between 4EBE and upstream activator sites are position, distance, and sequence dependent."[18]

## TATA boxes

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Main article: TATA boxes

Def. a "DNA sequence (cis-regulatory element) found in the promoter region of genes in archaea and eukaryotes"[19] is called a TATA box.

The TATA box can be an AT-rich sequence "located at a fixed distance upstream of the transcription start site"[4].

## TBP-like factors

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Main article: TBP-like factors

Notation: let the symbol TLF designate a TATA binding protein-like factor.

The human gene TBPL1 (TBP-like 1, also TLF and TRF2[4]), GeneID: 9519, encodes a protein that "does not bind to the TATA box and initiates transcription from TATA-less promoters."[20]

## Downstream TFIIB recognition

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Main article: Downstream TFIIB recognition

The downstream TFIIB recognition element (dBRE) has a consensus sequence in the transcription direction on the template strand of 3'-RTDKKKK-5', using degenerate nucleotides, or 3'-A/G-T-A/G/T-G/T-G/T-G/T-G/T-5'.[21]

dBRE is cis-TATA box, between the TATA box and the Inr or transcription start site (TSS) and trans-TSS.[21]

## Initiator elements

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Main article: Initiator elements

For RNA polymerase II holoenzyme to transcribe a gene, the gene's promoter must be located. After the promoter is located, the transcription start site (TSS) is pinpointed by using nucleotide sequences that include the TSS or perhaps allow distance measurement to the TSS. Within the promoter, most human genes lack a TATA box and have an initiator element (Inr) or downstream promoter element instead.

"RNA pol II itself recognizes features of the Inr which might assist the correct positioning of the polymerase on the promoter (Carcamo et al., 1991; Weis and Reinberg, 1997)."[1][22][23]

## Transcription start sites

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Main article: Transcription start sites

The transcription start site (TSS) is the location on the DNA template strand where transcription begins at the 3'-end of a gene.[24] This location corresponds to the 5'-end of the mRNA which by convention is used to designate DNA locations.[24] For example, the 5'-TATA-box-3' designation refers to the directionality of the mRNA and corresponds to the 3'-TATA-box-5' designation for nucleotides on the template strand.[24] The template strand is the DNA strand being transcribed by RNA polymerase.[24]

## Downstream core elements

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Main article: Downstream core elements

"[N]onredundant human promoter sequences 600 bp long (−499 to +100 bp around the TSS) [are available] from [the] Eukaryotic Promoter Database (EPD) release 75 (4, 68) (http://www.epd.isb-sib.ch/), and ... promoters sequences 1,200 bp long (−1,000 to +200 bp) [are available] from the Database of Transcriptional Start Sites (DBTSS) (59, 74, 75) (http://dbtss.hgc.jp/index.html)"[25].

The downstream core element (DCE) is a transcription core promoter sequence that is within the transcribed portion of a gene.

The consensus sequence for the DCE is CTTC...CTGT...AGC.[25] These three consensus elements are referred to as subelements: "SI is CTTC, SII is CTGT, and SIII is AGC."[25]

The number of nucleotides between each subelement can apparently vary down to none.

A core promoter that contains all three subelements may be much less common than one containing only one or two.[25] "SI resides approximately from +6 to +11, SII from +16 to +21, and SIII from +30 to +34."[25]

SI as 3'-CTTC-5' can occur as 3 of 4 (CTT, TTC) or 4 of 4 (CTTC). SII as 3'-CTGT-5' can also occur as 3 of 4 (CTG, TGT) or 4 of 4 (CTGT). SIII as AGC is not known to vary.

DCE SIII can function independently of SI and SII.[25]

Transcription factor II D (TFIID), a transcription factor that is part of the RNA polymerase II holoenzyme, interacts with promoters containing only SIII of the DCE suggesting a critical spacing parameter between SIII and the TATA box, initiator element, or some combination of the two.[25] TFIID probably serves as a core promoter recognition complex.[25]

TAF1 interacts with the DCE in a sequence-dependent manner.[25]

The differences between core promoters with downstream elements may be explained by

1. "TATA- and DPE-dependent promoters are specific for particular enhancers"[25],
2. "preferences of activators for specific core promoter architectures"[25], and
3. "the presence of a DCE or [downstream core promoter element (DPE)] might be indicative of an architecture designed for specific regulatory networks, such as the regulation of housekeeping promoters versus tissue-specific promoters (or other highly regulated promoters) or the regulation of subsets of viral promoters."[25]

## Motif ten elements

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Main article: Motif ten elements

The motif ten element (MTE) is a downstream core promoter element that "promotes transcription by RNA polymerase II when it is located precisely at positions +18 to +27 relative to A+1 in the initiator (Inr) element."[26]

The motif 10 consensus sequence is CSARCSSAACGS [5'-C-C/G-A-A/G-C-C/G-C/G-A-A-C-G-C/G-3'].[26] By convention, the consensus sequence 5'-C-C/G-A-A/G-C-C/G-C/G-A-A-C-G-C/G-3' is stated as it would be translated into mRNA. In the direction of transcription on the template strand this consensus sequence becomes 3'-C-C/G-A-A/G-C-C/G-C/G-A-A-C-G-C/G-5'.

## Downstream promoter elements

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Main article: Downstream promoter elements

"The downstream promoter element (DPE) is a core promoter element ... present in other species including humans and excluding Saccharomyces cerevisiae.[27] Like all core promoters, the DPE plays an important role in the initiation of gene transcription by RNA polymerase II."[28]

The core sequence of the DPE is located precisely +28 to +32 nts relative to the A+1 nt in the Inr.[16]

## Hypotheses

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Main article: Hypotheses

1. Each portion of a DNA that becomes active has a core promoter.
2. The "minimal portion of the promoter required to properly initiate transcription".[29]

## See also

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* Gene promoter
* Genetics
* Gene transcription
* Transcription of A1BG
* Transcription start site

## References

[edit | edit source]

1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Gillian E. Chalkley and C. Peter Verrijzer (September 1, 1999). "DNA binding site selection by RNA polymerase II TAFs: a TAFII250-TAFII150 complex recognizes the Initiator". The EMBO Journal. 18 (17): 4835–45. PMID 10469661. Retrieved 2012-04-26. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help)
2. ↑ S. T. Smale (1997). "Transcription initiation from TATA-less promoters within eukaryotic protein-coding genes". Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1351: 73–88. `|access-date=` requires `|url=` (help)
3. ↑ Ceyockey (28 January 2005). promoter. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2012-09-29.
4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Stephen T. Smale and James T. Kadonaga (July 2003). "The RNA Polymerase II Core Promoter" (PDF). Annual Review of Biochemistry. 72 (1): 449–79. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161520. PMID 12651739. Retrieved 2012-05-07.
5. ↑ Robert D. Andersen, Susan J. Taplitz, Sandy Wong, Greg Bristol, Bill Larkin, and Harvey R. Herschman (October 1987). "Metal-Dependent Binding of a Factor In Vivo to the Metal-Responsive Elements of the Metallothionein 1 Gene Promoter" (PDF). Molecular and Cellular Biology. 7 (10): 3574–81. doi:10.1128/​MCB.7.10.3574 Check `|doi=` value (help). Retrieved 2013-04-15. zero width space character in `|doi=` at position 9 (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ↑ Msh210 (23 February 2010). "GC box". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
7. ↑ Klug WS, Cummings MR, Spencer CA, Palladina, MA (2009). Concepts of Genetics: Ninth Edition. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin Cummings. pp. 463–464. ISBN 978-0-321-54098-0.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
8. ↑ "GC box, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. June 23, 2012. Retrieved 2013-01-27.
9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Michael C. Blake, Robert C. Jambou, Andrew G. Swick, Jeanne W. Kahn, and Jane Clifford Azizkhan (December 1990). "Transcriptional Initiation Is Controlled by Upstream GC-Box Interactions in a TATAA-Less Promoter". Molecular and Cellular Biology. 10 (12): 6632–41. doi:10.1128/​MCB.10.12.6632 Check `|doi=` value (help). PMID 2247077. Retrieved 2013-01-27. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help); zero width space character in `|doi=` at position 9 (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
10. ↑ H Imataka, K Sogawa, KI Yasumoto, Y Kikuchi, K Sasano, A Kobayashi, M Hayami, and Y Fujii-Kuriyama (October 1992). "Two regulatory proteins that bind to the basic transcription element (BTE), a GC box sequence in the promoter region of the rat P-4501A1 gene". The EMBO Journal. 11 (10): 3663–71. PMID 1356762. Retrieved 2013-01-27. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
11. ↑ Akiro Higashikawa, Taku Saito, Toshiyuki Ikeda, Satoru Kamekura, Naohiro Kawamura, Akinori Kan, Yasushi Oshima, Shinsuke Ohba, Naoshi Ogata, Katsushi Takeshita, Kozo Nakamura, Ung-Il Chung, Hiroshi Kawaguchi (January 2009). "Identification of the core element responsive to runt-related transcription factor 2 in the promoter of human type x collagen gene". Arthritis & Rheumatism. 60 (1): 166–78. doi:10.1002/art.24243. PMID 19116917. Retrieved 2013-06-18.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
12. ↑ "CAAT box". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. April 8, 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-14.
13. ↑ Lagrange T, Kapanidis AN, Tang H, Reinberg D, Ebright RH (1998). "New core promoter element in RNA polymerase II-dependent transcription: sequence-specific DNA binding by transcription factor IIB". Genes & Development. 12 (1): 34–44. doi:10.1101/gad.12.1.34. PMC 316406. PMID 9420329.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
14. ↑ Littlefield O, Korkhin Y, Sigler PB (1999). "The structural basis for the oriented assembly of a TBP/TFB/promoter complex". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA. 96 (24): 13668–73. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.24.13668. PMC 24122. PMID 10570130.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "B recognition element, In: Wikipedia". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. January 30, 2013. Retrieved 2013-01-30.
16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Alan K. Kutach, James T. Kadonaga (July 2000). "The Downstream Promoter Element DPE Appears To Be as Widely Used as the TATA Box in Drosophila Core Promoters" (PDF). Molecular and Cellular Biology. 20 (13): 4754–64. PMID 10848601. Retrieved 2012-07-15.
17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 Chuhu Yang, Eugene Bolotin, Tao Jiang, Frances M. Sladek, Ernest Martinez. (March 7, 2007). "Prevalence of the initiator over the TATA box in human and yeast genes and identification of DNA motifs enriched in human TATA-less core promoters". Gene. 389 (1): 52–65. doi:10.1016/j.gene.2006.09.029. PMID 17123746.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
18. ↑ Mary Lynch, Li Chen, Michael J. Ravitz, Sapna Mehtani, Kevin Korenblat, Michael J. Pazin and Emmett V. Schmidt (August 2005). "hnRNP K Binds a Core Polypyrimidine Element in the Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 4E (eIF4E) Promoter, and Its Regulation of eIF4E Contributes to Neoplastic Transformation". Molecular and Cellular Biology. 25 (15): 6436–53. doi:10.1128/​MCB.25.15.6436-6453.2005 Check `|doi=` value (help). Retrieved 2013-03-17. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help); zero width space character in `|doi=` at position 9 (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
19. ↑ "TATA box, In: Wiktionary". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. June 17, 2013. Retrieved 2014-05-07.
20. ↑ National Center for Biotechnology Information (April 28, 2012). "TBPL1 TBP-like 1 [ Homo sapiens ]". 8600 Rockville Pike, Bethesda MD, 20894 USA: U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 2012-04-30.
21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 Wensheng Deng, Stefan G.E. Roberts (October 15, 2005). "A core promoter element downstream of the TATA box that is recognized by TFIIB". Genes & Development. 19 (20): 2418–23. doi:10.1101/gad.342405. PMID 16230532. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help)
22. ↑ J. Carcamo, L. Buckbinder and D. Reinberg (1991). "The initiator directs the assembly of a transcription factor IID-dependent transcription complex". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci, USA. 88: 8052–6. `|access-date=` requires `|url=` (help)
23. ↑ L. Weis and D. Reinberg (1997). "Accurate positioning of RNA polymerase II on a natural TATA-less promoter is independent of TATA-binding protein associated factors and initiator-binding proteins". Mol. Cell. Biol. 17: 2973–84. `|access-date=` requires `|url=` (help)
24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Marketa J. Zvelebil, Jeremy O. Baum (2008). Dom Holdsworth, ed. Understanding bioinformatics. New York: Garland Science. p. 772\. ISBN 978-0815340249.
25. ↑ 25.00 25.01 25.02 25.03 25.04 25.05 25.06 25.07 25.08 25.09 25.10 25.11 Dong-Hoon Lee, Naum Gershenzon, Malavika Gupta, Ilya P. Ioshikhes, Danny Reinberg and Brian A. Lewis (November 2005). "Functional Characterization of Core Promoter Elements: the Downstream Core Element Is Recognized by TAF1". Molecular and Cellular Biology. 25 (21): 9674–86. doi:10.1128/MCB.25.21.9674-9686.2005. PMID 16227614. Retrieved 2010-10-23.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 Chin Yan Lim, Buyung Santoso, Thomas Boulay, Emily Dong, Uwe Ohler, and James T. Kadonaga (July 1, 2004). "The MTE, a new core promoter element for transcription by RNA polymerase II". Genes & Development. 18 (13): 1606–17. doi:10.1101/gad.1193404. PMID 15231738. Retrieved 2013-02-10. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help)CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
27. ↑ Tamar Juven-Gershon, James T. Kadonaga (March 15, 2010). "Regulation of Gene Expression via the Core Promoter and the Basal Transcriptional Machinery". Developmental Biology. 339 (2): 225–9. doi:10.1016/j.ydbio.2009.08.009. PMC 2830304. PMID 19682982.
28. ↑ "Downstream promoter element". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. May 6, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
29. ↑ Cquan (2 October 2006). "Promoter (genetics)". San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2016-01-09.

## Further reading

[edit | edit source]

* Stephen T. Smale and James T. Kadonaga (July 2003). "The RNA Polymerase II Core Promoter". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 72 (1): 449–79. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161520. PMID 12651739. Retrieved 2012-05-07. Unknown parameter `|pdf=` ignored (help)

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* Eukaryotic initiation factors
* Evolution
* Exaptation
* Excision repair cross-complementing
* Factors
* Fatty acids
* Ferredoxin
* Foldings
* Foods
* Forkhead boxes
* Functional groups
* Genome surveillance complexes
* Genealogy
* Genes
* Genetics
* Gene transcriptions
* Genomes
* Genomics
* Glycoproteins
* Glycosides
* Glycosidic bond
* Guanines
* Hair color gene expressions
* Helicases
* Heredity
* History of agriculture
* Greek and Roman histories of biology
* Homeostasis
* Human amino acid synthesis
* Human DNAs
* Human genes
* Human RNA
* Human teeth
* Human temperatures
* Immunoglobulin domain cl11960
* Immunoglobulin domain genes
* Immunoglobulin like domain cd05751
* Immunoglobulin like domain pfam13895
* Immunoglobulin like domain smart00410
* Immunoglobulin receptor superfamily genes
* Immunoglobulin supergene family
* Inhibitory peptides
* Insulators
* Intranuclear localizations
* Introduction to Cell Biology
* Introduction to polymer chemistry
* Lamarckism
* Leucine zipper
* Localization
* Major histocompatibility complex class I gene family
* Major histocompatibility complex class II gene family
* Major histocompatibility complex class III gene family
* Mammalogy
* Mathematical molecular biology
* Mediator complexes
* Medicine
* Melanocytes
* Membranes
* Metagenomes
* Molecular biology
* Molecular genetics
* Nitrogen metabolism
* Nucleotide Synthesis
* Origin of life
* Orthomolecular medicine
* Osteoarthritis
* Paleanthropology
* Paleontology
* Phosphate biochemistry
* Phosphate budgets
* Phosphate reactions
* Post translational modifications
* Principles of biosynthesis
* Protein isoform
* Proteins
* Proteomics
* Regulations
* Ribonucleotides
* Ribosomes
* RNA polymerases
* RNA polymerase II holoenzymes
* RNA polymerase II holoenzyme complexes
* RNA translations
* Salinity
* Stroke management
* Teeth
* TFIIA
* Transports
* Vascular endothelial growth factor A
* What is a human?
* Upregulations
* Upstream and downstream
* ZSCAN22
* Zoology

Transcription resources|

* A1BG gene transcription core promoters
* A1BG gene transcriptions
* A1BG regulatory elements and regions
* A1BG response element gene transcriptions
* A1BG response element negative results
* A1BG response element positive results
* ABA-response element gene transcriptions
* Abf1 regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* A box gene transcriptions
* Abscisic acid-responsive elements
* ACGT-containing element gene transcriptions
* Activating protein gene transcriptions
* Activating transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Adenylate–uridylate rich element gene transcriptions
* Adr1p gene transcriptions
* Aft1p gene transcriptions
* AGC box gene transcriptions
* AGCE gene transcriptions
* Alpha-amylase conserved element gene transcriptions
* Amino acid response element gene transcriptions
* AARE-like
* Androgen response element gene transcriptions
* Angiotensinogen core promoter element gene transcriptions
* Antioxidant-electrophile responsive element gene transcriptions
* AP-2 (Roesler) elements
* ATA box gene transcriptions
* Auxin response factor gene transcriptions
* B box gene transcriptions
* Bioinformatics tool gene transcriptions
* Box gene transcriptions
* B recognition element upstream
* Bridge gene transcriptions
* CAAT box gene transcriptions
* CACA elements
* CadC binding domain gene transcriptions
* Calcineurin-responsive transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Calcium-response element gene transcriptions
* cAMP response element gene transcriptions
* C and D boxes gene transcriptions
* Carbohydrate response element gene transcriptions
* Carbon source-responsive element gene transcriptions
* Carcinoembryonic antigen gene family
* CARE gene transcriptions
* CArG box gene transcriptions
* CAT box gene transcriptions
* CAT-box-like elements
* Cat8p gene transcriptions
* Cbf1 regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* C box gene transcriptions
* CCCTC-binding factor gene transcriptions
* C-EBP box gene transcriptions
* Cell-cycle box gene transcriptions
* Cell cycle regulation gene transcriptions
* CENP-B box gene transcriptions
* CGCG box gene transcriptions
* Circadian control element gene transcriptions
* "Class C" (Leal) samplings
* Cold-responsive element gene transcriptions
* Complement copy gene transcriptions
* Complement-inverse copy gene transcriptions
* Consensus sequence gene transcriptions
* Constitutive decay elements
* Copper response element gene transcriptions
* Core promoter gene transcriptions
* Coupling element gene transcriptions
* CRE box gene transcriptions
* Cytokinin response regulator gene transcriptions
* Cytoplasmic polyadenylation element gene transcriptions
* DAF-16-associated element gene transcriptions
* DAF-16 binding element gene transcriptions
* D box gene transcriptions
* Defense and stress-responsive element gene transcriptions
* Degenerate nucleotide gene transcriptions
* Dispersed promoter gene transcriptions
* Distal promoter gene transcriptions
* DNA melting gene transcriptions
* DNA damage response element gene transcriptions
* DNA replication-related element gene transcriptions
* Downstream core element gene transcriptions
* Downstream promoter element gene transcriptions
* Downstream TFIIB recognition element gene transcriptions
* DREB box gene transcriptions
* E2 box gene transcriptions
* EIF4E basal element gene transcriptions
* EIN3 binding site gene transcriptions
* Enhancer activity copy gene transcriptions
* E box gene transcriptions
* Element gene transcriptions
* Endoplasmic reticulum stress response element gene transcriptions
* Endosperm expression gene transcriptions
* Enhancer box gene transcriptions
* Estrogen response element gene transcriptions
* Ethylene responsive element gene transcriptions
* Families of TATA box genes
* F box gene transcriptions
* Focused promoter gene transcriptions
* Forkhead box gene transcriptions
* Fur box gene transcriptions
* GAAC element gene transcriptions
* Gal4p gene transcriptions
* Γ-interferon activated sequence gene transcriptions
* GARE gene transcriptions
* GA responsive complex gene transcriptions
* GATA gene transcriptions
* G box gene transcriptions
* GC box gene transcriptions
* GCC box gene transcriptions
* Gcn4p gene transcriptions
* Gcr1p gene transcriptions
* Gene expressions
* General factor II D gene transcriptions
* General regulatory factors
* General transcription factor II A gene transcriptions
* General transcription factor II B gene transcriptions
* General transcription factor II D gene transcriptions
* General transcription factor II F gene transcriptions
* General transcription factor II H gene transcriptions
* General transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Gene transcriptions
* GGC triplet gene transcriptions
* Gibberellin responsive element gene transcriptions
* GLM box gene transcriptions
* Glucocorticoid response element gene transcriptions
* Grainy head gene transcriptions
* Grainy head transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Growth hormone response element gene transcriptions
* GT boxes
* Hac1p gene transcriptions
* Hair color gene expressions
* H and ACA box gene transcriptions
* H box gene transcriptions
* Heat-responsive element gene transcriptions
* Heat shock elements
* Hex sequence gene transcriptions
* HMG box gene transcriptions
* HNF gene transcriptions
* Homeobox gene transcriptions
* Hsf1p gene transcriptions
* HY box gene transcriptions
* Hybrid C, A boxes
* Hybrid C, G boxes
* Hybrid C, T boxes
* Hypoxia-inducible factor gene transcriptions
* Hypoxia response elements
* I box gene transcriptions
* Immunoglobulin like domain containing family
* Initiator element gene transcriptions
* Initiator-like element gene transcriptions
* Inositol/choline-responsive elements
* Interaction gene transcriptions
* Interferon regulatory factors
* Inverse copy gene transcriptions
* Jasmonic acid-responsive element gene transcriptions
* K-boxes
* Kozak sequence gene transcriptions
* Kruppel-associated box gene transcriptions
* Krüppel-like factor gene transcriptions
* L box gene transcriptions
* Leu3 gene transcriptions
* M35 box gene transcriptions
* MADS box gene transcriptions
* Maf recognition element gene transcriptions
* M box gene transcriptions
* M-CAT boxes
* Mcm1 regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* Met3 gene transcriptions
* Met31p box gene transcriptions
* Metal responsive element gene transcriptions
* Middle sporulation element gene transcriptions
* Mig1p gene transcriptions
* Model samplings
* Motif ten element gene transcriptions
* Msn2,4p gene transcriptions
* Musashi binding element gene transcriptions
* MYB recognition element gene transcriptions
* Myelocytomatosis transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Myocyte enhancer factor gene transcriptions
* N-boxes
* Nanos/Pumilio response element
* Ndt80p gene transcriptions
* Nuclear factor 1
* Nuclear factor 𝜿B
* Nuclear factor gene transcriptions
* Nuclear factor of activated T cell gene transcriptions (NFAT)
* Nuclear factor Y gene transcriptions
* Nutrient-sensing response element gene transcriptions
* Oaf1p gene transcriptions
* ORE1 binding site gene transcriptions
* p53 response element gene transcriptions
* P63 DNA-binding site gene transcriptions
* P box gene transcriptions
* Pdr1,3p gene transcriptions
* Peroxisome proliferator hormone response element gene transcriptions
* Phosphate starvation-response transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Pollen1 element gene transcriptions
* Polycomb response element gene transcriptions
* Preinitiation complex
* Preinitiation complex gene transcriptions
* Pribnow box gene transcriptions
* Prolamin box gene transcriptions
* Promoter gene transcriptions
* Proximal promoter gene transcriptions
* Promoter occurrence gene transcriptions
* Pyrimidine box gene transcriptions
* Q element gene transcriptions
* Rap1 regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* Reb1 general regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* Retinoblastoma control element gene transcriptions
* Retinoic acid response element gene transcriptions
* Rgt1p gene transcriptions
* Rlm1p gene transcriptions
* RNA polymerase II gene transcriptions
* RNA polymerase II holoenzyme complex
* Root specific element gene transcriptions
* ROR-response element gene transcriptions
* Rox1p gene transcriptions
* Rpn4p gene transcriptions
* R response element gene transcriptions
* SARE gene transcriptions
* Seed-specific element gene transcriptions
* Serum response element gene transcriptions
* Servenius sequence gene transcriptions
* Shoot specific element gene transcriptions
* Shue boxes
* Sip4p gene transcriptions
* Smp1p gene transcriptions
* Sp1 (Berberich) elements
* Sp1 gene transcriptions
* Spaceflight gene expressions
* Specificity protein gene transcriptions
* STAT gene transcriptions
* Ste12p gene transcriptions
* Sterol response element gene transcriptions
* Sucrose box gene transcriptions
* Synaptic Activity-Responsive Elements
* TACTAAC box gene transcriptions
* TAGteam gene transcriptions
* Tapetum box gene transcriptions
* TATA binding protein associated factor gene transcriptions
* TATA binding protein gene transcriptions
* TATA box actin/cytoskeleton/contractile family
* TATA box albumin family
* TATA box aldolase family
* TATA box alkaline phosphatase family
* TATA box annexin family
* TATA box cytochrome superfamily
* TATA box gene transcriptions
* TATA box heat shock family
* TATA box histone family
* TATA box human genes
* TATA box keratin family
* TATA box lipase family
* TATA box peptidase family
* TATA box platelet-derived growth factor family
* TATA box selenium-binding family
* TATA box serine protease family
* TATA box serpin superfamily
* TATA box transforming growth factor superfamily
* TATA box trefoil family
* TATA box tumor necrosis factor superfamily
* TATA box zinc metalloenzyme family
* TAT box gene transcriptions
* TATC box gene transcriptions
* Tbf1 regulatory factor gene transcriptions
* T box gene transcriptions
* TCCACCATA element gene transcriptions
* TC element gene transcriptions
* TCT gene transcriptions
* TEA consensus sequence gene transcriptions
* Tec1p gene transcriptions
* Telomeric repeat DNA-binding factor gene transcriptions
* Tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate response element gene transcriptions
* TGF-β control elements (TCEs)
* TGF-β inhibitory elements (TIEs)
* Thyroid hormone response element gene transcriptions
* Transcriptional regulation
* Transcription bubble gene transcriptions
* Transcription factor gene transcriptions
* Transcription factor 3 gene transcriptions
* Transcription factory gene transcriptions
* Transcription start site gene transcriptions
* Translational control sequence gene transcriptions
* Tryptophan residue
* U box gene transcriptions
* Unfolded protein response element gene transcriptions
* Upstream repressor site 1
* Upstream response element gene transcriptions
* Upstream stimulatory factor gene transcriptions
* UTR promoter gene transcriptions
* V and P box gene transcriptions
* V box gene transcriptions
* Vhr1p gene transcriptions
* Vitamin D response element gene transcriptions
* W box gene transcriptions
* X box gene transcriptions
* Xbp1p gene transcriptions
* X core promoter element gene transcriptions
* Xenobiotic response element gene transcriptions
* Xenobiotic responsive element gene transcriptions
* Yap1p,2p gene transcriptions
* Y box gene transcriptions
* YY1 gene transcriptions
* Zap1p gene transcriptions
* Z box gene transcriptions
* Zinc responsive element gene transcriptions

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