Endocrine system

Major endocrine glands. (Male left, female on the right.) 1. Pineal gland 2. Pituitary gland 3. Thyroid gland 4. Thymus 5. Adrenal gland 6. Pancreas 7. Ovary 8. Testes

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Editors-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] and Stephanie Fernandez, M.D. [2]

The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as hormones. The endocrine system is instrumental in regulating metabolism, growth and development and puberty, tissue function, and plays a part also in mood.[1] The field of medicine that deals with disorders of endocrine glands is endocrinology, a branch of the wider field of internal medicine.

## Function

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The Endocrine system is an information signal system much like the nervous system. However, the nervous system uses nerves to conduct information, whereas the endocrine system mainly uses blood vessels as information channels. Glands located in many regions of the body release into the bloodstream specific chemical messengers called hormones. Hormones regulate the many and varied functions of an organism, e.g., mood, growth and development, tissue function, and metabolism, as well as sending messages and acting on them.

### Types of signaling

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The typical mode of cell signaling in the endocrine system is endocrine signaling. However, there are also other modes, i.e., paracrine, autocrine, and neuroendocrine signaling [2]. Purely neurocrine signaling between neurons, on the other hand, belongs completely to the nervous system.

#### Endocrine

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A number of glands that signal each other in sequence is usually referred to as an axis, for example the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis.

Typical endocrine glands are the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands. Features of endocrine glands are, in general, their ductless nature, their vascularity, and usually the presence of intracellular vacuoles or granules storing their hormones. In contrast exocrine glands such as salivary glands, sweat glands, and glands within the gastrointestinal tract tend to be much less vascular and have ducts or a hollow lumen.

#### Autocrine

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Main article: Autocrine signalling

Other signaling can target the same cell.

#### Paracrine

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Main article: Paracrine signalling

Paracrine signaling is where the target cell is nearby.

#### Juxtacrine

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Main article: Juxtacrine signalling

Juxtacrine signals are transmitted along cell membranes via protein or lipid components integral to the membrane and are capable of affecting either the emitting cell or cells immediately adjacent.

## Role in disease

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Main article: Endocrine diseases

Diseases of the endocrine system are common,[3] including diseases such as diabetes mellitus, thyroid disease, and obesity. Endocrine disease is characterised by dysregulated hormone release (a productive Pituitary adenoma), inappropriate response to signalling (Hypothyroidism), lack or destruction of a gland (Diabetes mellitus type 1, diminished erythropoiesis in Chronic renal failure), or structural enlargement in a critical site such as the neck (Toxic multinodular goitre). Hypofunction of endocrine glands can occur as result of loss of reserve, hyposecretion, agenesis, atrophy, or active destruction. Hyperfunction can occur as result of hypersecretion, loss of suppression, hyperplastic, or neoplastic change, or hyperstimulation.

Endocrinopathies are classified as primary, secondary, or tertiary. Primary endocrine disease inhibits the action of downstream glands. Tertiary endocrine disease is associated with dysfunction of the hypothalamus and its releasing hormones.

Cancer can occur in endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, and hormones have been implicated in signalling distant tissues to proliferate, for example the Estrogen receptor has been shown to be involved in certain breast cancers. Endocrine, Paracrine, and autocrine signalling have all been implicated in proliferation, one of the required steps of oncogenesis.[4]

## Table of endocrine glands and secreted hormones

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This is a table of the glands of the endocrine system, and their secreted hormones

### Hypothalamus

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone | TRH | Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons | Release thyroid-stimulating hormone from anterior pituitary (primarily)
Stimulate prolactin release from anterior pituitary.
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone | GnRH | Neuroendocine cells of the Preoptic area | Release of FSH and LH from anterior pituitary.
Growth hormone-releasing hormone | GHRH | Neuroendocrine neurons of the Arcuate nucleus | Release GH from anterior pituitary
Corticotropin-releasing hormone | CRH | Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons | Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Vasopressin |  | Parvocellular neurosecretory neurons | Release ACTH from anterior pituitary
Somatostatin, also growth hormone-inhibiting hormone  | SS or GHIH | Neuroendocrince cells of the Periventricular nucleus | Inhibit release of GH and TRH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin inhibiting hormone or Dopamine | PIH or DA | Dopamine neurons of the arcuate nucleus | Inhibit release of prolactin and TRH from anterior pituitary
Prolactin-releasing hormone | PRH |  | Release prolactin from anterior pituitary

### Pineal body

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Melatonin (Primarily)  | Pinealocytes | antioxidant and causes drowsiness

### Pituitary gland (hypophysis)

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#### Anterior pituitary lobe (adenohypophysis)

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Growth hormone | GH | Somatotropes | stimulates growth and cell reproduction

Release Insulin-like growth factor 1 from liver

Prolactin | PRL | Lactotropes | milk production in mammary glands
sexual gratification after sexual acts
Adrenocorticotropic hormone or corticotropin  | ACTH | Corticotropes | synthesis of corticosteroids (glucocorticoids and androgens) in adrenocortical cells
Lipotropin |  | Corticotropes | lipolysis and steroidogenesis,
stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone or thyrotropin  | TSH | Thyrotropes | stimulates thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3)
Follicle-stimulating hormone | FSH | Gonadotropes | In female: stimulates maturation of Graafian follicles in ovary.

In male: spermatogenesis, enhances production of androgen-binding protein by the Sertoli cells of the testes

Luteinizing hormone | LH | Gonadotropes | In female: ovulation

In male: stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone

#### Posterior pituitary lobe (neurohypophysis)

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Oxytocin |  | Magnocellular neurosecretory cells | Contraction of cervix and vagina

Involved in orgasm, trust between people.[5] and circadian homeostasis (body temperature, activity level, wakefulness) [6]. release breast milk

Vasopressin or antidiuretic hormone  | AVP or ADH | Magnocellular neurosecretory cells | retention of water in kidneys

moderate vasoconstriction

#### Intermediate pituitary lobe (pars intermedia)

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone | MSH | Melanotroph | melanogenesis by melanocytes in skin and hair.

### Thyroid

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Triiodothyronine | T3 | Thyroid epithelial cell | potent form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines,

affect protein synthesis

Thyroxine or tetraiodothyronine  | T4 | Thyroid epithelial cells | less active form of thyroid hormone: increase the basal metabolic rate & sensitivity to catecholamines,

affect protein synthesis

Calcitonin |  | Parafollicular cells | Construct bone

reduce blood Ca2+

### Parathyroid

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Parathyroid hormone | PTH | Parathyroid chief cell | increase blood Ca2+: *indirectly stimulate osteoclasts

* Ca2+ reabsorption in kidney
* activate vitamin D

(Slightly) decrease blood phosphate:

* (decreased reuptake in kidney but increased uptake from bones
* activate vitamin D)

### Heart

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Atrial-natriuretic peptide | ANP | Cardiac myocytes | Reduce blood pressure by:

reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

Brain natriuretic peptide | BNP | Cardiac myocytes | (To a minor degree than ANP) reduce blood pressure by:

reducing systemic vascular resistance, reducing blood water, sodium and fats

### Striated muscle

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Thrombopoietin | Myocytes | stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[7]

### Skin

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

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|

Calcidiol (25-hydroxyvitamin D3)  |  | Inactive form of Vitamin D3

### Adipose tissue

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

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|

Leptin (Primarily)  | Adipocytes | decrease of appetite and increase of metabolism.
Estrogens[8] (mainly Estrone)  | Adipocytes |

### Stomach

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Gastrin (Primarily)  |  | G cells | Secretion of gastric acid by parietal cells
Ghrelin |  | P/D1 cells | Stimulate appetite,

secretion of growth hormone from anterior pituitary gland

Neuropeptide Y | NPY |  | increased food intake and decreased physical activity
Secretin |  | S cells | Secretion of bicarbonate from liver, pancreas and duodenal Brunner's glands

Enhances effects of cholecystokinin Stops production of gastric juice

Somatostatin |  | D cells | Suppress release of gastrin, cholecystokinin (CCK), secretin, motilin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP), enteroglucagon

Lowers rate of gastric emptying Reduces smooth muscle contractions and blood flow within the intestine [9]

Histamine |  | ECL cells | stimulate gastric acid secretion
Endothelin |  | X cells | Smooth muscle contraction of stomach [10]

### Duodenum

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

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|

Cholecystokinin | I cells | Release of digestive enzymes from pancreas

Release of bile from gallbladder hunger suppressant

### Liver

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

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|
|

Insulin-like growth factor (or somatomedin) (Primarily)  | IGF | Hepatocytes | insulin-like effects

regulate cell growth and development

Angiotensinogen and angiotensin |  | Hepatocytes | vasoconstriction

release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex dipsogen.

Thrombopoietin |  | Hepatocytes | stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[7]

### Pancreas

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Insulin (Primarily)  | ß Islet cells | Intake of glucose, glycogenesis and glycolysis in liver and muscle from blood

intake of lipids and synthesis of triglycerides in adipocytes Other anabolic effects

Glucagon (Also Primarily)  | a Islet cells | glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis in liver

increases blood glucose level

Somatostatin | d Islet cells | Inhibit release of insulin [11]

Inhibit release of glucagon[11] Suppress the exocrine secretory action of pancreas.

Pancreatic polypeptide | PP cells | Unknown

### Kidney

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Renin (Primarily)  | Juxtaglomerular cells | Activates the renin-angiotensin system by producing angiotensin I of angiotensinogen
Erythropoietin (EPO)  | Extraglomerular mesangial cells | Stimulate erythrocyte production
Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3)  |  | Active form of vitamin D3

Increase absorption of calcium and phosphate from gastrointestinal tract and kidneys inhibit release of PTH

Thrombopoietin |  | stimulates megakaryocytes to produce platelets[7]

### Adrenal glands

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#### Adrenal cortex

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Glucocorticoids (chiefly cortisol)  | zona fasciculata and zona reticularis cells | Stimulation of gluconeogenesis

Inhibition of glucose uptake in muscle and adipose tissue Mobilization of amino acids from extrahepatic tissues Stimulation of fat breakdown in adipose tissue anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive

Mineralocorticoids (chiefly aldosterone)  | Zona glomerulosa cells | Increase blood volume by reabsorption of sodium in kidneys (primarily)

Potassium and H+ secretion in kidney.

Androgens (including DHEA and testosterone)  | Zona fasciculata and Zona reticularis cells | Virilization, anabolic

#### Adrenal medulla

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Adrenaline (epinephrine) (Primarily)  | Chromaffin cells | Fight-or-flight response:

* Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasodilation, increasing catalysis of glycogen in liver, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
* Dilate the pupils
* Suppress non-emergency bodily processes (e.g., digestion)
* Suppress immune system

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine)  | Chromaffin cells | Fight-or-flight response:

* Boost the supply of oxygen and glucose to the brain and muscles (by increasing heart rate and stroke volume, vasoconstriction and increased blood pressure, breakdown of lipids in fat cells)
* Increase skeletal muscle readiness.

Dopamine | Chromaffin cells | Increase heart rate and blood pressure
Enkephalin | Chromaffin cells | Regulate pain

### Testes

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Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Androgens (chiefly testosterone)  | Leydig cells | Anabolic: growth of muscle mass and strength, increased bone density, growth and strength,

Virilizing: maturation of sex organs, formation of scrotum, deepening of voice, growth of beard and axillary hair.

Estradiol | Sertoli cells | Prevent apoptosis of germ cells[12]
Inhibin | Sertoli cells | Inhibit production of FSH

### Ovary

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These originate either from the ovarian follicle or the corpus luteum.

Secreted hormone | From cells | Effect

|
|

Progesterone | Granulosa cells, theca cells | Support pregnancy[13]:

* Convert endometrium to secretory stage
* Make cervical mucus permeable to sperm.
* Inhibit immune response, e.g., towards the human embryo
* Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[13]
* Inhibit lactation
* Inhibit onset of labor.

Other:

* Raise epidermal growth factor-1 levels
* Increase core temperature during ovulation[14]
* Reduce spasm and relax smooth muscle (widen bronchi and regulate mucus)

Anti-inflammatory

* Reduce gall-bladder activity[15]
* Normalize blood clotting and vascular tone, zinc and copper levels, cell oxygen levels, and use of fat stores for energy
* Assist in thyroid function and bone growth by osteoblasts
* Increase resilience in bone, teeth, gums, joint, tendon, ligament, and skin
* Promote healing by regulating collagen
* Provide nerve function and healing by regulating myelin
* Prevent endometrial cancer by regulating effects of estrogen

Androstenedione | Theca cells | Substrate for estrogen
Estrogens (mainly estradiol)  | Granulosa cells | Structural:

* Promote formation of female secondary sex characteristics
* Accelerate height growth
* Accelerate metabolism (burn fat)
* Reduce muscle mass
* Stimulate endometrial growth
* Increase uterine growth
* Maintain blood vessels and skin
* Reduce bone resorption, increase bone formation

Protein synthesis:

* Increase hepatic production of binding proteins

Coagulation:

* Increase circulating level of factors 2, 7, 9, 10, antithrombin III, plasminogen
* Increase platelet adhesiveness
* Increase HDL, triglyceride, height growth
* Decrease LDL, fat depositition

Fluid balance:

* Regulate salt (sodium) and water retention
* Increase growth hormone
* Increase cortisol, SHBG

Gastrointestinal tract:

* Reduce bowel motility
* Increase cholesterol in bile

Melanin:

* Increase pheomelanin, reduce eumelanin

Cancer:

* Support hormone-sensitive breast cancers [16] (Suppression of production in the body of estrogen is a treatment for these cancers.)

Lung function:

* Promote lung function by supporting alveoli[17].

Inhibin | Granulosa cells | Inhibit production of FSH from anterior pituitary

### Placenta (when pregnant)

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Progesterone (Primarily)  |  |  | Support pregnancy[13]:

* Inhibit immune response, towards the fetus.
* Decrease uterine smooth muscle contractility[13]
* Inhibit lactation
* Inhibit onset of labor.
* Support fetal production of adrenal mineralo- and glucosteroids.

Other effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle-progesterone

Estrogens (mainly Estriol) (Also Primarily)  |  |  | Effects on mother similar to ovarian follicle estrogen
Human chorionic gonadotropin | HCG | Syncytiotrophoblast | promote maintenance of corpus luteum during beginning of pregnancy

Inhibit immune response, towards the human embryo.

Human placental lactogen | HPL | Syncytiotrophoblast | increase production of insulin and IGF-1

increase insulin resistance and carbohydrate intolerance

Inhibin |  | Fetal Trophoblasts | suppress FSH

### Uterus (when pregnant)

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Secreted hormone | Abbreviation | From cells | Effect

|
|
|

Prolactin | PRL | Decidual cells | milk production in mammary glands
Relaxin |  | Decidual cells | Unclear in humans

## See also

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* Releasing hormones
* Neuroendocrinology
* Nervous system
* Endocrine disruptor
* Major systems of the human body

## Links

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* Journals Designed for Clinical Endocrinologists

* Islet cell antibody
* Binding of antibody to pancreas
* Kidshealth.org

## References

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1. ↑ Collier, Judith. et.al (2006). Oxford Handbook of Clinical Specialties 7th edn. Oxford. pp. 350–351. ISBN 0-19-853085-4.
2. ↑ University of Virginia - HISTOLOGY OF THE ENDOCRINE GLANDS
3. ↑ Kasper; et al. (2005). Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine. McGraw Hill. p. 2074\. ISBN 0-07-139140-1.CS1 maint: Explicit use of et al. (link)
4. ↑ Bhowmick NA, Chytil A, Neilson EG, Moses HL (2004). "TGF-beta signaling in fibroblasts modulates the oncogenic potential of adjacent epithelia". Science. Feb 6 303(5659): 848–51.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
5. ↑ Kosfeld M et al. (2005) Oxytocin increases trust in humans. Nature 435:673-676. PDF PMID 15931222
6. ↑ Scientific American Mind, "Rhythm and Blues"; June/July 2007; Scientific American Mind; by Ulrich Kraft
7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Kaushansky K. Lineage-specific hematopoietic growth factors. N Engl J Med 2006;354:2034-45. PMID 16687716.
8. ↑ The adipose tissue as a source of vasoactive factors. Frühbeck G. (Curr Med Chem Cardiovasc Hematol Agents. 2004 Jul;2(3):197-208.)
9. ↑ http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/otherendo/somatostatin.html Colorado State University - Biomedical Hypertextbooks - Somatostatin
10. ↑ Diabetes-related changes in contractile responses of stomach fundus to endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats Journal of Smooth Muscle Research Vol. 41 (2005) , No. 1 35-47. Kazuki Endo1), Takayuki Matsumoto1), Tsuneo Kobayashi1), Yutaka Kasuya1) and Katsuo Kamata1)
11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Essentials of Human Physiology by Thomas M. Nosek. Section 5/5ch4/s5ch4_17.
12. ↑ Pentikäinen V, Erkkilä K, Suomalainen L, Parvinen M, Dunkel L. Estradiol Acts as a Germ Cell Survival Factor in the Human Testis in vitro. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2006;85:2057-67 PMID 10843196
13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/reprod/placenta/endocrine.html
14. ↑ Essentials of Human Physiology by Thomas M. Nosek. Section 5/5ch9/s5ch9_13.
15. ↑ Hould F, Fried G, Fazekas A, Tremblay S, Mersereau W (1988). "Progesterone receptors regulate gallbladder motility". J Surg Res. 45 (6): 505–12. PMID 3184927.CS1 maint: Multiple names: authors list (link)
16. ↑ http://www.breastcancer.org/tre_sys_hrt_idx.html
17. ↑ Massaro D, Massaro GD (2004). "Estrogen regulates pulmonary alveolar formation, loss, and regeneration in mice". American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 287 (6): L1154–9. PMID 15298854 url=http://ajplung.physiology.org/cgi/content/full/287/6/L1154.CS1 maint: Missing pipe (link)

Template:Organ systems Template:Endocrine system

* v
* t
* e

Hormones

Endocrine
glands|

| Hypothalamic-
pituitary|

| Hypothalamus|

* GnRH
* TRH
* Dopamine
* CRH
* GHRH
* Somatostatin (GHIH)
* MCH

|

Posterior pituitary|

* Oxytocin
* Vasopressin

Anterior pituitary|

* FSH
* LH
* TSH
* Prolactin
* POMC
* CLIP
* ACTH
* MSH
* Endorphins
* Lipotropin
* GH

Adrenal axis|

* Adrenal cortex
* Aldosterone
* Cortisol
* Cortisone
* DHEA
* DHEA-S
* Androstenedione
* Adrenal medulla
* Epinephrine
* Norepinephrine

Thyroid|

* Thyroid hormones
* T3
* T4
* Calcitonin
* Thyroid axis

Parathyroid|

* PTH

Gonadal axis|

| Testis|

* Testosterone
* AMH
* Inhibin

|

Ovary|

* Estradiol
* Progesterone
* Activin
* Inhibin
* Relaxin
* GnSAF

Placenta|

* hCG
* HPL
* Estrogen
* Progesterone

Pancreas|

* Glucagon
* Insulin
* Amylin
* Somatostatin
* Pancreatic polypeptide

Pineal gland|

* Melatonin
* N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
* 5-Methoxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine

Other|

| Thymus|

* Thymosins
* Thymosin α1
* Beta thymosins
* Thymopoietin
* Thymulin

|

Digestive system|

| Stomach|

* Gastrin
* Ghrelin

|

Duodenum|

* CCK
* Incretins
* GIP
* GLP-1
* Secretin
* Motilin
* VIP

Ileum|

* Enteroglucagon
* Peptide YY

Liver/other|

* Insulin-like growth factor
* IGF-1
* IGF-2

Adipose tissue|

* Leptin
* Adiponectin
* Resistin

Skeleton|

* Osteocalcin

Kidney|

* Renin
* EPO
* Calcitriol
* Prostaglandin

Heart|

* Natriuretic peptide
* ANP
* BNP

* v
* t
* e

Endocrine pathology: endocrine diseases (E00-35, 240-259)

Thyroid|

Hypothyroidism (Iodine deficiency, Cretinism, Congenital hypothyroidism, Goitre, Myxedema) - Hyperthyroidism (Graves disease, Toxic multinodular goitre, Teratoma with thyroid tissue or Struma ovarii) - Thyroiditis (De Quervain's thyroiditis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Riedel's thyroiditis) - Euthyroid sick syndrome

Pancreas|

Diabetes mellitus (type 1, type 2, coma, angiopathy, ketoacidosis, nephropathy, neuropathy, retinopathy) - Hypoglycemia \- Hyperinsulinism \- Zollinger-Ellison syndrome \- insulin receptor (Rabson-Mendenhall syndrome)

Parathyroid|

Hypoparathyroidism (Pseudohypoparathyroidism) - Hyperparathyroidism (Primary, Secondary, Tertiary)

Pituitary|

Hyperpituitarism (Acromegaly, Hyperprolactinaemia, SIADH) - Hypopituitarism (Simmonds' disease / Sheehan's syndrome, Kallmann syndrome, Growth hormone deficiency, Diabetes insipidus) - Adiposogenital dystrophy \- Empty sella syndrome \- Hypophysitis

Adrenal|

Cushing's syndrome (Nelson's syndrome, Pseudo-Cushing's syndrome) - CAH (Lipoid, 3β, 11β, 17α, 21α) - Hyperaldosteronism (Conn syndrome, Bartter syndrome) - Adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease) - Hypoaldosteronism

Gonads|

Ovarian dysfunction (Polycystic ovary syndrome, Premature ovarian failure) - Testicular dysfunction (5-alpha-reductase deficiency) - Testosterone biosynthesis (17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase deficiency) - General (Hypogonadism, Delayed puberty, Precocious puberty)

Other|

Androgen insensitivity syndrome \- Autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome \- Carcinoid syndrome \- Gigantism \- Short stature (Laron syndrome, Psychogenic dwarfism) - Multiple endocrine neoplasia (1, 2) - Progeria \- Woodhouse-Sakati syndrome

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* t
* e

Cell signaling / Signal transduction

Signaling pathways|

* GPCR
*   * Wnt
* RTK
* TGF beta
* MAPK/ERK
* Notch
* JAK-STAT
* Akt/PKB
* Fas apoptosis
* Hippo
* PI3K/AKT/mTOR pathway
* Integrin receptors

Agents|

| Receptor ligands|

* Hormones
* Neurotransmitters/Neuropeptides/Neurohormones
* Cytokines
* Growth factors
* Signaling molecules

|

Receptors|

* Cell surface
* Intracellular
* Co-receptor

Second messenger|

* cAMP-dependent pathway
* Ca2+ signaling
* Lipid signaling

Assistants:|

* Signal transducing adaptor protein
* Scaffold protein

Transcription factors|

* General
* Transcription preinitiation complex
* TFIID
* TFIIH

By distance|

* Juxtacrine
* Autocrine / Paracrine
* Endocrine

Other concepts|

* Intracrine action
* Neurocrine signaling
* Synaptic transmission
* Chemical synapse
* Neuroendocrine signaling
* Exocrine signalling
* Pheromones
* Mechanotransduction
* Phototransduction
* Ion channel gating
* Gap junction

Template:Endocrine system intervention

ar:جهاز غدد صماء bs:Endokrini sistem bg:Ендокринна система ca:Sistema endocrí cs:Soustava žláz s vnitřní sekrecí da:Endokrine system de:Endokrines System eo:Endokrina sistemo eu:Sistema endokrino id:Sistem endokrin is:Innkirtlakerfið it:Sistema endocrino he:המערכת האנדוקרינית lv:Endokrīnā sistēma lt:Endokrininė sistema hu:Belső elválasztású mirigyek mk:Ендокрин систем nl:Endocrien systeem sk:Endokrinná sústava sl:Endokrini sistem sr:Ендокрини систем fi:Umpieritysjärjestelmä sv:Endokrina systemet th:ต่อมหมวกไต tl:Sistemang endokrin

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