Epilepsy causes

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief:  Fahimeh Shojaei, M.D., Vishnu Vardhan Serla M.B.B.S. [2]

## Overview

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Common causes of epilepsy include Head trauma, Brain tumor, Brain hemorrhage, Encephalitis, Hypoglycemia, Hypoxic encephalopathy, Stroke, Cerebral palsy, Electrolyte disturbances, febrile seizures, Intoxication and uremia.

## Causes

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### Life-threatening Causes

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Life-threatening causes of epilepsy include:[1][2][3][4][5][6]

* Head trauma
* Brain tumor
* Brain hemorrhage
* Encephalitis
* Hypoglycemia
* Hypoxic encephalopathy
* Stroke

### Common Causes

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Common causes of epilepsy may include:[7][8][9][10][11][12]

* Cerebral palsy
* Electrolyte disturbances
* Epileptic encephalopathy - Lennox-Gastaut type
* Febrile seizures
* Huntington's disease
* Intoxication
* Uremia

### less common causes

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Less common causes of epilepsy include:[13]

* Vitamin deficiency

### Causes by Organ System

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Cardiovascular | Arrythmias, Cardiac failure, Carotid Sinus Syndrome, Hypertensive encephalopathy, Hypotension, Hypovolemia, Orthostatic hypotension, Stokes-Adams Syndrome, Syncope, Valvular heart disease

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Chemical / poisoning | Intoxication, Benzene hexachloride, Lead poisoning, Carbonmonoxide poisoning
Dermatologic | Rud Syndrome
Drug Side Effect | 4-aminopyridine, acyclovir, alcohol, almotriptan, alprazolam, aminophylline, amitriptyline, amoxapine  , amphetamines  , amphotericin B, aripiprazole, atomoxetine, atorvastatin, azathioprine, baclofen, benztropine  , bromocriptine, bupivacaine, bupropion, buspirone, busulfan, cabergoline, caffeine, captopril, carisoprodol, carvedilol, cefepime, cefixime, cefotetan  , ceftazidime, cefuroxime, cephalexin, chlorambucil, chloroquine, chlorpromazine, cilastatin/imipenem, ciprofloxacin, cisplatinum, citalopram  , clomiphene  , clomipramine, clonazepam, clorazepate, clozapine, cocaine, cyclobenzaprine, cyclobenzaprine  , cyclophosphamide, cyclosporin, dantrolene  , desipramine, dexmethylphenidate, dextroamphetamine, diazepam  , dicyclomine, diphenhydramine, donepezil, doripenem, doxepin, doxorubicin, dronabinol, duloxetine, efavirenz, enfluraneketamine, entacapone, epoetin, escitalopram, estazolam, estrogen, eszopiclone, etoposide, fentanyl, fluoxetine, fluphenazine, flurazepam, fluvastatin, ganciclovir, gemifloxacin, Ginkgo biloba, glatiramer, haloperidol, hydroxyzine, imipenem, indomethacin, interferon beta-1a, interferon beta-1b, Isoniazid (INH), isotretinoin, ivermectin, ketorolac, levofloxacin, lidocaine, lindane, linezolid, lithium, lomefloxacin  , lorazepam, loxapine, mefenamic acid, mefloquine, memantine, meperidine, mephobarbital, meropenem, methocarbamol, methotrexate, methylphenidate, metronidazole, mirtazapine, mitoxantrone, modafinil, molindone, montelukast, moxifloxacin, mycophenolate, nalidixic acid, nortriptyline  , ofloxacin, olanzapine, ondansetron, oxybutynin, oxycodone, oxymorphone, oxytocin, paroxetine, pentazocine, phenobarbital, phenylpropanolamine, pimozide, pramipexole  , prednisone, primidone  , procaine  , promethazine, propoxyphene  , protriptyline, quetiapine  , ramelteon, rasagiline, risperidone, rivastigmine, ropinirole, selegiline, sertraline, sibutramine, sildenafil, sodium oxydate, sumatriptan  , tacrine, tacrolimus, tadalafil, temazepam, temozolomide, terbutaline, thalidomide, theophylline, thioridazine, thiothixene, ticlopidine, tinidazole, tizanidine, tolcapone, tolterodine, torsemide, tramadol, tranylcypromine  , triazolam, trifluoperazine, trihexyphenidyl, Trovafloxacin mesylate, valacyclovir, valsartan, vardenafil, venlafaxine, vincristine, zaleplon, zanamivir, ziconotide, zidovudine, ziprasidone, ziprasidone, zolpidem
Ear Nose Throat | Feigenbaum-Bergeron-Richardson syndrome, Wittwer sydnrome, Onychodystrophy -- deafness, Ramsay Hunt Syndrome Type 2, Renier-Gabreels-Jasper syndrome
Endocrine | Hyperglycemia, Hyperthyroidism, Hypoglycemia, Hypoparathyroidism, Hypothyroidism, Mental retardation -- dysmorphism -- hypogonadism -- diabetes complex, X-linked Hypoparathyroidism  , DEND syndrome, Feigenbaum-Bergeron-Richardson syndrome
Environmental | Heat stroke
Gastroenterologic | Liver disease -- Retinitis pigmentosa \-- polyneuropathy -- epilepsy complex
Genetic | Angelman syndrome, Chromosome 15q triplication syndrome, Chromosome 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome, Ring Chromosome 20, Chromosome 4, trisomy 4p, Cornelia de Lange syndrome 2, Deafness -- congenital onychodystrophy - recessive form, DEND syndrome, Down's Syndrome, Flynn-Aird syndrome, Lipoid proteinosis of Urbach and Wiethe, X-linked Mental retardation syndromic due to JARID1C mutation, X-linked Wittwer type Mental retardation, Mowat-Wilson syndrome, OFD syndrome type IX, Onychodystrophy -- deafness, Renier-Gabreels-Jasper syndrome, Rud Syndrome, X-linked Spasticity -- mental retardation -- epilepsy, Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome, X-linked Hypoparathyroidism  , X-linked Lissencephaly - 2
Hematologic | No underlying causes
Iatrogenic | No underlying causes
Infectious Disease |

Bacteria: Tetany, Meningitis, Brain abscess, Encephalitis, Neurosyphilis

Virus: German measles, HIV, Meningitis, Ramsay Hunt Syndrome Type 2, Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

Parasites: Toxoplasmosis, Neurocysticercosis, Schistosomiasis, Trypanosomiasis, Cerebral malaria, Paragonimiasis, Ascariasis

Musculoskeletal / Ortho | Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia, Fukuyama type muscular dystrophy, Gurrieri-Sammito-Bellussi syndrome, Epilepsy -- microcephaly -- skeletal dysplasia, Onychodystrophy -- deafness
Neurologic | Alzheimer's Disease, Angelman syndrome, Anophthalmia -- hypyothalamo-pituitary insufficiency, Astrocytoma, Autism, Benign familial infantile epilepsy, Brain abscess, Brain hemorrhage, Brain injury, Brain tumor, Cerebral Palsy, Concussion, Cortical dysplasia -- focal epilepsy syndrome, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, Diomedi-Bernardi-Placidi syndrome, DEND syndrome, Double cortex syndrome, Encephalitis, Familial Encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies, Epilepsy -- mental deterioration - Finnish type, Epilepsy -- microcephaly -- skeletal dysplasia, Epileptic encephalopathy - Lennox-Gastaut type, Flynn-Aird syndrome, Familial porencephaly, Focal cortical dysplasia, Huntington's Chorea, Hypoxic encephalopathy, Idiopathic generalized, Intracranial hemorrhage and trauma, Kohlschutter-Tonz syndrome, Liver disease -- retinitis pigmentosa -- polyneuropathy -- epilepsy complex, Meningioma, Microcephaly -- mental retardation -- spasticity -- epilepsy complex, Microcephaly -- pontocerebellar hypoplasia -- dyskinesia complex, Microencephaly, Migraine, Movement disorders, Myoclonic progressive familial epilepsy, Myoclonus progressive epilepsy of Unverricht and Lundborg, Meningitis, Neurocysticercosis, X-linked Hamel type Neurodegenerative syndrome, Neurofibromatosis-1, Neurosyphilis, Perisylvian syndrome, Pick's Disease, Pitt-Hopkins syndrome, Pontocerebellar hypoplasia with infantile spinal muscular atrophy, Presenile dementia, Reye's Syndrome, Renier-Gabreels-Jasper syndrome, Rud Syndrome, Space occupying lesion of the brain, Spastic tetraplegic -- cerebral palsy, Spinocerebellar ataxia 13, Stokes-Adams Syndrome, Stroke, Sturge-Weber Syndrome, Subependymal nodular heterotopia, Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA), Tuberous Sclerosis, X-linked Spasticity -- mental retardation -- epilepsy, X-linked Lissencephaly - 2, Wittwer sydnrome
Nutritional / Metabolic | 2-Hydroxyglutaricaciduria, Acute intermittent porphyria, Carbohydrate deficiency glycoprotein syndrome type II, Gaucher's Disease, Type 2 Hydroxyacyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency, Pellagra, Phenylketonuria, Pyridoxine deficiency
Obstetric/Gynecologic | Childbirth trauma, Eclampsia, Perinatal hypoxia or trauma
Oncologic | Metastasis, Astrocytoma, Meningioma, Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome
Opthalmologic | Wittwer sydnrome, Anophthalmia -- hypyothalamo-pituitary insufficiency, Liver disease -- retinitis pigmentosa -- polyneuropathy -- epilepsy complex, Rud Syndrome
Overdose / Toxicity | No underlying causes
Psychiatric | Panic attack
Pulmonary | Breath-holding spells (pediatric), Alveolar Hydatid Disease, Hyperventilation, Pediatric Apnea, Pitt-Hopkins syndrome, Hypoxic encephalopathy
Renal / Electrolyte | Alkalosis, Chronic Renal Failure, Hypernatremia, Hypocalcemia, Hypomagnesemia, Hyponatremia, Uremia, Feigenbaum-Bergeron-Richardson syndrome
Rheum / Immune / Allergy | Systemic lupus erythematosus, Polyarteritis nodosa
Sexual | No underlying causes
Trauma | Head trauma
Urologic | No underlying causes
Dental | No underlying causes
Miscellaneous | Alcohol withdrawal, Battaglia Neri syndrome, Degenerative disease, Febrile Seizures, Fryns-Aftimos syndrome, McDowall syndrome, Mental retardation -- epilepsy -- bulbous nose, Mental retardation -- epilepsy, Belgian type Mental retardation syndrome, Nicolaides-Baraitser syndrome, Night terrors, Photosensitive epilepsy, Schaefer-Stein-Oshman syndrome, Sleep disorders, Sleepwalking, Vasovagal syncope

### Causes in Alphabetical Order

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* 2-Hydroxyglutaricaciduria

* 4-aminopyridine

* Acute intermittent porphyria

* acyclovir

* alcohol

* Alcohol withdrawal

* Alkalosis

* almotriptan

* alprazolam

* Alveolar Hydatid Disease

* Alzheimer's Disease

* aminophylline

* amitriptyline

* amoxapine

* amphetamines

* amphotericin B

* Angelman syndrome

* Anophthalmia -- hypyothalamo-pituitary insufficiency

* aripiprazole

* Arrythmias

* Ascariasis

* Astrocytoma

* atomoxetine

* atorvastatin

* Autism

* azathioprine

* baclofen

* Battaglia Neri syndrome

* Belgian type Mental retardation syndrome,

* Benign familial infantile epilepsy

* Benzene hexachloride

* benztropine

* Brain abscess

* Brain hemorrhage

* Brain injury

* Brain tumor

* Breath-holding spells (pediatric)

* bromocriptine

* bupivacaine

* bupropion

* buspirone

* busulfan

* cabergoline

* caffeine

* captopril

* Carbohydrate deficiency glycoprotein syndrome type II

* Carbonmonoxide poisoning

* Cardiac failure

* carisoprodol

* Carotid Sinus Syndrome

* carvedilol

* cefepime

* cefixime

* cefotetan

* ceftazidime

* cefuroxime

* cephalexin

* Cerebral Palsy

* Childbirth trauma

* chlorambucil

* chloroquine

* chlorpromazine

* Chromosome 15q triplication syndrome

* Chromosome 15q13.3 microdeletion syndrome

* Chromosome 20 ring

* Chromosome 4, trisomy 4p

* Chronic Renal Failure

* cilastatin/imipenem

* ciprofloxacin

* cisplatinum

* citalopram

* clomiphene

* clomipramine

* clonazepam

* clorazepate

* clozapine

* cocaine

* Concussion

* Cornelia de Lange syndrome 2

* Cortical dysplasia -- focal epilepsy syndrome

* Craniodiaphyseal dysplasia

* Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease

* cyclobenzaprine

* cyclophosphamide

* cyclosporin

* Cytomegalovirus (CMV)

* dantrolene

* Deafness -- congenital onychodystrophy - recessive form

* Degenerative disease

* DEND syndrome

* desipramine

* dexmethylphenidate

* dextroamphetamine

* diazepam

* dicyclomine

* Diomedi-Bernardi-Placidi syndrome

* diphenhydramine

* donepezil

* doripenem

* Double cortex syndrome

* Down's Syndrome

* doxepin

* doxorubicin

* dronabinol

* duloxetine

* Eclampsia

* efavirenz

* Embolism

* Encephalitis

* enfluraneketamine

* entacapone

* Epilepsy -- mental deterioration - Finnish type

* Epilepsy -- microcephaly -- skeletal dysplasia

* Epileptic encephalopathy - Lennox-Gastaut type

* epoetin

* escitalopram

* estazolam

* estrogen

* eszopiclone

* etoposide

* Familial Encephalopathy with neuroserpin inclusion bodies

* Familial porencephaly

* Febrile Seizures

* Feigenbaum-Bergeron-Richardson syndrome

* fentanyl

* fluoxetine

* fluphenazine

* flurazepam

* fluvastatin

* Flynn-Aird syndrome

* Focal cortical dysplasia

* Fryns-Aftimos syndrome

* Fukuyama type muscular dystrophy

* ganciclovir

* Gaucher's Disease

* gemifloxacin

* German measles

* Ginkgo biloba

* glatiramer

* Gurrieri-Sammito-Bellussi syndrome

* haloperidol

* Head trauma

* Heat stroke

* Hepatic failure

* HIV

* Huntington's Chorea

* Type 2 Hydroxyacyl-coa dehydrogenase deficiency

* hydroxyzine

* Hyperglycemia

* Hypernatremia

* Hypertensive encephalopathy

* Hyperthyroidism

* Hyperventilation

* Hypocalcemia

* Hypoglycemia

* Hypomagnesemia

* Hyponatremia

* Hypoparathyroidism

* Hypotension

* Hypothyroidism

* Hypovolemia

* Hypoxic encephalopathy

* Idiopathic generalized

* imipenem

* indomethacin

* Interferon beta-1a

* Interferon beta-1b

* Intoxication

* Intracranial hemorrhage and trauma

* Isoniazid (INH)

* isotretinoin

* ivermectin

* Kernicterus

* ketorolac

* Kohlschutter-Tonz syndrome

* Lead poisoning

* levofloxacin

* lidocaine

* lindane

* linezolid

* Lipoid proteinosis of Urbach and Wiethe

* lithium

* Liver disease -- retinitis pigmentosa -- polyneuropathy -- epilepsy complex

* lomefloxacin

* lorazepam

* loxapine

* Lupus erythematosus

* McDowall syndrome

* mefenamic acid

* mefloquine

* memantine

* Meningioma

* Meningitis

* Mental retardation -- dysmorphism -- hypogonadism -- diabetes complex

* Mental retardation -- epilepsy

* Mental retardation -- epilepsy -- bulbous nose

* meperidine

* mephobarbital

* meropenem

* Metastasis

* methocarbamol

* methotrexate

* methylphenidate

* metronidazole

* Microcephaly -- mental retardation -- spasticity -- epilepsy complex

* Microcephaly -- pontocerebellar hypoplasia -- dyskinesia complex

* Microencephaly

* Migraine

* mirtazapine

* mitoxantrone

* modafinil

* molindone

* montelukast

* Movement disorders

* Mowat-Wilson syndrome

* moxifloxacin

* mycophenolate

* Myoclonic progressive familial epilepsy

* Myoclonus progressive epilepsy of Unverricht and Lundborg

* nalidixic acid

* Neurocysticercosis

* Neurofibromatosis-1

* Neurosyphilis

* Nicolaides-Baraitser syndrome

* Night terrors

* nortriptyline

* OFD syndrome type IX

* ofloxacin

* olanzapine

* ondansetron

* Onychodystrophy -- deafness

* Orthostatic hypotension

* oxybutynin

* oxycodone

* oxymorphone

* oxytocin

* Panic attack

* Paragonimiasis

* paroxetine

* Pediatric apnea

* Pellagra

* pentazocine

* Perinatal hypoxia or trauma

* Perisylvian syndrome

* phenobarbital

* Phenylketonuria

* phenylpropanolamine

* Photosensitive epilepsy

* Pick's Disease

* pimozide

* Pitt-Hopkins syndrome

* Polyarteritis Nodosa

* Pontocerebellar hypoplasia with infantile spinal muscular atrophy

* pramipexole

* prednisone

* Presenile dementia

* primidone

* procaine

* promethazine

* propoxyphene

* protriptyline

* Pyridoxine deficiency

* quetiapine

* ramelteon

* Ramsay Hunt Syndrome Type 2

* rasagiline

* Renier-Gabreels-Jasper syndrome

* Reye's Syndrome

* risperidone

* rivastigmine

* ropinirole

* Rud Syndrome

* Schaefer-Stein-Oshman syndrome

* Schistosomiasis

* selegiline

* sertraline

* sibutramine

* sildenafil

* Sleep disorders

* Sleepwalking

* sodium oxydate

* Space occupying lesion of the brain

* Spastic tetraplegic -- cerebral palsy

* Spinocerebellar ataxia 13

* Stokes-Adams Syndrome

* Stroke

* Sturge-Weber Syndrome

* Subependymal nodular heterotopia

* sumatriptan

* Syncope

* Syphilis

* tacrine

* tacrolimus

* tadalafil

* temazepam

* temozolomide

* terbutaline

* Tetany

* thalidomide

* theophylline

* thioridazine

* thiothixene

* Thrombophlebitis

* Thrombosis

* ticlopidine

* tinidazole

* tizanidine

* tolcapone

* tolterodine

* torsemide

* Toxoplasmosis

* tramadol

* Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

* tranylcypromine

* triazolam

* trifluoperazine

* trihexyphenidyl

* Trovafloxacin mesylate

* Trypanosomiasis

* Tuberous Sclerosis

* Uremia

* valacyclovir

* valsartan

* Valvular heart disease

* vardenafil

* Vasovagal syncope

* venlafaxine

* vincristine

* Von Hippel-Lindau Syndrome

* Wittwer sydnrome

* X-linked Hypoparathyroidism

* X-linked Lissencephaly - 2

* X-linked Mental retardation syndromic due to JARID1C mutation

* X-linked Spasticity -- mental retardation -- epilepsy

* X-linked Wittwer type Mental retardation

* X-linked, Hamel type Neurodegenerative syndrome

* zaleplon

* zanamivir

* ziconotide

* zidovudine

* ziprasidone

* ziprasidone

* zolpidem

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## References

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1. ↑ Annegers JF, Coan SP (October 2000). "The risks of epilepsy after traumatic brain injury". Seizure. 9 (7): 453–7. doi:10.1053/seiz.2000.0458. PMID 11034867.
2. ↑ Englot DJ, Chang EF, Vecht CJ (2016). "Epilepsy and brain tumors". Handb Clin Neurol. 134: 267–85. doi:10.1016/B978-0-12-802997-8.00016-5. PMC 4803433. PMID 26948360.
3. ↑ Faught E, Peters D, Bartolucci A, Moore L, Miller PC (August 1989). "Seizures after primary intracerebral hemorrhage". Neurology. 39 (8): 1089–93. PMID 2761703.
4. ↑ Misra UK, Tan CT, Kalita J (August 2008). "Viral encephalitis and epilepsy". Epilepsia. 49 Suppl 6: 13–8. doi:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2008.01751.x. PMID 18754956.
5. ↑ Sloper JJ, Johnson P, Powell TP (September 1980). "Selective degeneration of interneurons in the motor cortex of infant monkeys following controlled hypoxia: a possible cause of epilepsy". Brain Res. 198 (1): 204–9. PMID 7407585.
6. ↑ Chung JM (May 2014). "Seizures in the acute stroke setting". Neurol. Res. 36 (5): 403–6. doi:10.1179/1743132814Y.0000000352. PMID 24641717.
7. ↑ Diaconu G, Burlea M, Grigore I, Frasin M (2003). "[Epilepsy in different types of cerebral palsy]". Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi (in Romanian). 107 (1): 136–9. PMID 14755984.CS1 maint: Unrecognized language (link)
8. ↑ Riggs JE (February 2002). "Neurologic manifestations of electrolyte disturbances". Neurol Clin. 20 (1): 227–39, vii. PMID 11754308.
9. ↑ Markand ON (2003). "Lennox-Gastaut syndrome (childhood epileptic encephalopathy)". J Clin Neurophysiol. 20 (6): 426–41. PMID 14734932.
10. ↑ Shinnar S, Glauser TA (January 2002). "Febrile seizures". J. Child Neurol. 17 Suppl 1: S44–52. doi:10.1177/08830738020170010601. PMID 11918463.
11. ↑ Cendes F, Andermann F, Carpenter S, Zatorre RJ, Cashman NR (January 1995). "Temporal lobe epilepsy caused by domoic acid intoxication: evidence for glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in humans". Ann. Neurol. 37 (1): 123–6. doi:10.1002/ana.410370125. PMID 7818246.
12. ↑ D'Hooge R, Pei YQ, Marescau B, De Deyn PP (October 1992). "Convulsive action and toxicity of uremic guanidino compounds: behavioral assessment and relation to brain concentration in adult mice". J. Neurol. Sci. 112 (1–2): 96–105. PMID 1469446.
13. ↑ Keyser A, De Bruijn SF (1991). "Epileptic manifestations and vitamin B1 deficiency". Eur. Neurol. 31 (3): 121–5. doi:10.1159/000116660. PMID 2044623.

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