Human physiology

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Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1]

## Contents

* 1 Overview
* 2 Integration, Communication, and Homeostasis
* 3 Systems
* 4 External links

## Overview

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Human physiology is the science of the mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans in good health, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems. Most aspects of human physiology are closely homologous to corresponding aspects of animal physiology, and animal experimentation has provided much of the foundation of physiological knowledge. Anatomy and physiology are closely related fields of study: anatomy, the study of form, and physiology, the study of function, are intrinsically tied and are therefore often studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.

## Integration, Communication, and Homeostasis

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The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication which occurs in a variety of ways, both electrically as well as chemically.

In terms of the human body, the endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals which integrate function. Homeostasis is the process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment, or one of “similar condition” as described by Walter Bradford Cannon. In Cannon’s Postulate, the body's ability to regulate pH, temperature, fluid volume, pressure, and osmolarity are recognized through highly evolved feedback systems, which act to finely tune many different chemical and electrical responses.

* The concentration of ions in relations to one another (e.g. Na+, K+, H+) determine the body's pH, which is closely regulated by the respiratory and urinary systems.
* Temperature in the body is determined by both the external environment of the organism as well as the amount of heat produced by anabolic reactions within the body regulated by respiratory and cardiovascular systems
* Fluid volume and pressure, and osmolarity are regulated by the urinary, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems.

Physiology is the study of these systems' integrated functions and the processes by which they maintain the milieu interieur, or internal environment.

## Systems

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Traditionally, the academic discipline of physiology views the body as a collection of interacting systems, each with its own combination of functions and purposes.

| System | Clinical study | Physiology

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| The nervous system consists of the central nervous system (which is the brain and spinal cord) and peripheral nervous system. The brain is the organ of thought, emotion, and sensory processing, and serves many aspects of communication and control of various other systems and functions. The special senses consist of vision, hearing, taste, and smell. The eyes, ears, tongue, and nose gather information about the body's environment. | neuroscience, neurology (disease), psychiatry (behavioral), ophthalmology (vision), otolaryngology (hearing, taste, smell) | neurophysiology
| The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton (which includes bones, ligaments, tendons, and cartilage) and attached muscles. It gives the body basic structure and the ability for movement. In addition to their structural role, the larger bones in the body contain bone marrow, the site of production of blood cells. Also, all bones are major storage sites for calcium and phosphate. | osteology (skeleton), orthopedics (bone disorders) | cell physiology
| The circulatory system consists of the heart and blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries). The heart propels the circulation of the blood, which serves as a "transportation system" to transfer oxygen, fuel, nutrients, waste products, immune cells, and signalling molecules (i.e., hormones) from one part of the body to another. The blood consists of fluid that carries cells in the circulation, including some that move from tissue to blood vessels and back, as well as the spleen and bone marrow. | cardiology (heart), hematology (blood) | cardiovascular physiology
| The gastrointestinal system consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, gut (small and large intestines), and rectum, as well as the liver, pancreas, gallbladder, and salivary glands. It converts food into small, nutritional, non-toxic molecules for distribution by the circulation to all tissues of the body, and excretes the unused residue. | gastroenterology | gastrointestinal physiology
| The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharynx, trachea, and lungs. It brings oxygen from the air and excretes carbon dioxide and water back into the air. | pulmonology. | respiratory physiology
| The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. It removes water from the blood to produce urine, which carries a variety of waste molecules and excess ions and water out of the body. | nephrology (function), urology (structural disease) | renal physiology
| The immune system consists of the white blood cells, the thymus, lymph nodes and lymph channels, which are also part of the lymphatic system. The immune system provides a mechanism for the body to distinguish its own cells and tissues from alien cells and substances and to neutralize or destroy the latter by using specialized proteins such as antibodies, cytokines, and toll-like receptors, among many others. | immunology | immunology
| The endocrine system consists of the principal endocrine glands: the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, parathyroids, and gonads, but nearly all organs and tissues produce specific endocrine hormones as well. The endocrine hormones serve as signals from one body system to another regarding an enormous array of conditions, and resulting in variety of changes of function. | endocrinology | endocrinology
| The reproductive system consists of the gonads and the internal and external sex organs. The reproductive system produces gametes in each sex, a mechanism for their combination, and a nurturing environment for the first 9 months of development of the offspring. | gynecology (women), andrology (men), sexology (behavioral aspects) embryology (developmental aspects) | reproductive physiology
| The integumentary system consists of the covering of the body (the skin), including hair and nails as well as other functionally important structures such as the sweat glands and sebaceous glands. The skin provides containment, structure, and protection for other organs, but it also serves as a major sensory interface with the outside world. | dermatology | cell physiology

The traditional divisions by system are somewhat arbitrary. Many body parts participate in more than one system, and systems might be organized by function, by embryological origin, or other categorizations. In particular, is the "neuroendocrine system", the complex interactions of the neurological and endocrinological systems which together regulate physiology. Furthermore, many aspects of physiology are not as easily included in the traditional organ system categories.

The study of how physiology is altered in disease is pathophysiology.

## External links

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* Overview at Medical College of Georgia

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Physiology of the cardiovascular system

Heart|

| Cardiac output|

* Cardiac cycle
* Cardiac output
* Heart rate
* Stroke volume
* Stroke volume
* End-diastolic volume
* End-systolic volume
* Afterload
* Preload
* Frank–Starling law
* Cardiac function curve
* Venous return curve
* Wiggers diagram
* Pressure volume diagram

|

Ultrasound|

* Fractional shortening = (End-diastolic dimension
* End-systolic dimension) / End-diastolic dimension
* Aortic valve area calculation
* Ejection fraction
* Cardiac index

Heart rate|

* Cardiac pacemaker
* Chronotropic (Heart rate)
* Dromotropic (Conduction velocity)
* Inotropic (Contractility)
* Bathmotropic (Excitability)
* Lusitropic (Relaxation)

Conduction|

* Conduction system
* Cardiac electrophysiology
* Action potential
* cardiac
* atrial
* ventricular
* Effective refractory period
* Pacemaker potential
* Electrocardiography
* P wave
* PR interval
* QRS complex
* QT interval
* ST segment
* T wave
* U wave
* Hexaxial reference system

Chamber pressure|

* Central venous
* Right
* atrial
* ventricular
* pulmonary artery
* wedge
* Left
* atrial
* ventricular
* Aortic

Other|

* Ventricular remodeling

Vascular system/
Hemodynamics|

| Blood flow|

* Compliance
* Vascular resistance
* Pulse
* Perfusion

|

Blood pressure|

* Pulse pressure
* Systolic
* Diastolic
* Mean arterial pressure
* Jugular venous pressure
* Portal venous pressure

Regulation of BP|

* Baroreflex
* Kinin–kallikrein system
* Renin–angiotensin system
* Vasoconstrictors
* Vasodilators
* Autoregulation
* Myogenic mechanism
* Tubuloglomerular feedback
* Cerebral autoregulation
* Paraganglia
* Aortic body
* Carotid body
* Glomus cell

* v
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Respiratory system, physiology: respiratory physiology

Lung volumes|

VC * FRC * Vt * dead space * CC

calculations: respiratory minute volume * FEV1/FVC ratio

devices: spirometry * body plethysmography * peak flow meter

Airways/
ventilation (V)|

positive pressure ventilation * breath (inhalation, exhalation) * respiratory rate * respirometer * pulmonary surfactant * compliance * hysteresivity * airway resistance * bronchial hyperresponsiveness * bronchial challenge test * bronchoconstriction/bronchodilation

Blood/
perfusion (Q)|

pulmonary circulation * hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction * pulmonary shunt

Interactions/
ventilation/perfusion ratio (V/Q)|

ventilation/perfusion scan * zones of the lung * gas exchange * pulmonary gas pressures * alveolar gas equation * alveolar-arterial gradient * hemoglobin * oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curve (2,3-DPG, Bohr effect, Haldane effect) * carbonic anhydrase (chloride shift) * oxyhemoglobin * respiratory quotient * arterial blood gas * diffusion capacity * DLCO

Control of respiration|

pons (pneumotaxic center, apneustic center) * medulla (dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group) * chemoreceptors (central, peripheral) * pulmonary stretch receptors (Hering-Breuer reflex)

Insufficiency|

high altitude * oxygen toxicity * hypoxia

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Physiology of the gastrointestinal system

GI tract|

| Upper|

| Exocrine|

* Chief cells
* Pepsinogen
* Parietal cells
* Gastric acid
* Intrinsic factor
* Foveolar cells
* HCO3−
* Mucus
* Goblet cells
* Mucus

|

Processes|

* Swallowing
* Vomiting

Fluids|

* Saliva
* Gastric acid

Gastric acid secretion:|

* Gastrin
* G cells
* Histamine
* ECL cells
* Somatostatin
* D cells

Lower|

| Endocrine/paracrine|

| Bile and pancreatic secretion:|

* Enterogastrone
* Cholecystokinin
* I cells
* Secretin
* S cells

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Glucose homeostasis (incretins):|

* GIP
* K cells
* GLP-1
* L cells

Endocrine cell types:|

* Enteroendocrine cells
* Enterochromaffin cell
* APUD cell

Fluids|

* Intestinal juice

Processes|

* Segmentation contractions
* Migrating motor complex
* Borborygmus
* Defecation

Enteric nervous system|

* Submucous plexus
* Myenteric plexus

Either/both|

| Processes|

* Peristalsis (Interstitial cell of Cajal
* Basal electrical rhythm)
* Gastrocolic reflex
* Digestion
* Enterocyte

|

Accessory|

| Fluids|

* Bile
* Pancreatic juice

|

Processes|

* Enterohepatic circulation

Abdominopelvic|

* Peritoneal fluid

* v
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Physiology of the kidneys and acid-base physiology

Renal function|

| Secretion|

* clearance
* Pharmacokinetics
* Clearance of medications
* Urine flow rate

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Reabsorption|

* Solvent drag
* sodium
* chloride
* urea
* glucose
* oligopeptides
* protein

Renal function|

* Glomerular filtration rate
* Creatinine clearance
* Renal clearance ratio
* Urea reduction ratio
* Kt/V
* Standardized Kt/V
* Measures of dialysis
* Hemodialysis product
* PAH clearance (Effective renal plasma flow
* Extraction ratio)

Filtration|

* Renal blood flow
* Ultrafiltration
* Countercurrent exchange
* Filtration fraction

Hormones|

* Antidiuretic hormone
* Aldosterone
* Atrial natriuretic peptide
* Renin
* Erythropoietin
* Calcitriol
* Prostaglandins

Acid-base balance|

* Fluid balance
* Darrow Yannet diagram

Body water: Intracellular fluid/Cytosol

* Extracellular fluid
* (Interstitial fluid
* Plasma
* Transcellular fluid)

* Base excess
* Davenport diagram
* Anion gap
* Arterial blood gas
* Winters' formula

* Buffering
* Bicarbonate buffer system
* Respiratory compensation
* Renal compensation

Other|

* Fractional sodium excretion
* BUN-to-creatinine ratio
* Tubuloglomerular feedback
* Natriuresis
* Urine

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