Laryngeal cancer differential diagnosis

Editor-In-Chief: C. Michael Gibson, M.S., M.D. [1] Associate Editor(s)-in-Chief: Syed Hassan A. Kazmi BSc, MD [2]

## Overview

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Laryngeal carcinoma must be differentiated from laryngeal syphilis, lymphoma, and chronic laryngitis.[1]

## Differentiating Laryngeal Cancer from other Diseases

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Laryngeal cancer should be differentiated from other diseases presenting as a neck mass. The following are the differentials:

Category  | Diseases  | Benign/

Malignant

| Clinical manifestation  | Paraclinical findings  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings

|
|
|
|
|
|

Demography  | History  | Symptoms  | Signs  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging
Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others
Congenital  | Branchial cleft cyst[2] |

* Benign

* Age: 1-15 years old
* Familial occurrence

* Lateral neck mass

| −  | ±  |

* Solitary
* Smooth
* Mobile
* Well-defined
* Non-pulsatile
* Fluctuant

* A pit at the opening of the cyst

| −  |

* Squamous or ciliated epithelial lining
* Lymphoid tissue with germinal centers and subcapsular sinuses

* CT: Well defined fluid attenuation with slight enhancement of the capsule
* Ultrasound: Typical features of a cyst are seen

| −  |

* Brachio-oto-renal syndrome
* Sinus or fistula

Thyroglossal duct cyst[3][4] |

* Benign

* Age: 1-10 years old

* Midline neck mass

| −  | −  |

* Mobile
* Moves upwards with tongue protrusion and swallowing

| −  | −  |

* Squamous or ciliated pseudostratified columnar lining
* Foci of thyroid gland tissue
* Granulation tissue or giant cells if it gets infected

* Ultrasound: Anechoic, thin walls, and heterogeneous with internal septa
* CT with contrast: Well circumscribed, homogeneous fluid attenuation, & thin enhancing rim
* MRI: T1-dark, T2-bright images

| −  | −
Hemangioma[5] |

* Benign

* Age: Birth−2 years old
* Female>male

* Presents with a flat red or purple patch
* Regress gradually with age

| −  | −  |

* Firm
* Rubbery
* Well-demarcated

* Blanching
* Telangiectasias
* Erythematous patch

* GLUT-1
* VEGF

* Lined by non-atypical endothelial cells
* Vascular structures with RBC

* Ultrasound: High flow with vascular channels

* MRI with or without gadolinium (Gd)

* POEMS
* Castleman's disease

Vascular malformation[6][7] |

* Benign

* Incidence: 1 in 2000 to 5000 births
* Gender: No predilection

* Venous: Present with a bluish swelling
* Arteriovenous: Present with purple/red swelling

| ±  | −  |

* Soft
* Compressible
* Non-tender
* Venous: No thrill, ↑ in size on valsalva
* AVM: Thrill, warm, pulsatile

* Grow proportionally with age

* Elevated D-dimer level in venous malfomations

* Lined by single endothelial layer

* Doppler ultrasound: Slow hypoechoic flow in Venous malformations \- High flow in AVM
* MRI with gadolinium (Gd): Diffuse enhancement

* MRI

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Congenital  | Lymphatic malformation[8][9] |

* Benign

* Age: Birth-5 years old
* Gender: No predilection

* Presents with a large swelling mainly in the neck

| −  | \+  |

* Soft
* Non-compressible
* Non-pulsatile
* Fluctuant
* Positive transillumination

* Never regress, expand/contract based on inflammation

| −  |

* Dilated lymphatic channels lined by endothelial cells
* Positive D2-40 stain

* Ultrasound: Hypo/anechoic with thick septa and fluid
* CT: Homogeneous and cystic mass
* MRI: Hyperintense on T2 & peripheral wall enhancement on T1

| −  |

* Down syndrome
* Turner syndrome

Laryngocele[10][11][12] |

* Benign

* More common in adults
* Male/female = 5:1

* Presents with a neck swelling, hoarseness, stridor and globus sensation
* Episodic in nature

| −  | \+  |

* Soft
* Reducible
* Increase in size on valsalva

* Common in glass blowers and trumpet players

| −  |

* Lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

* X-ray & CT: Fluid and air containing cystic masses
* Direct laryngoscopy

* CT scan

| −
Ranula[13][14] |

* Benign

* Age: 1st and 2nd decade
* Female/male = 1:1.4

* Presents with a blue colored swelling in the floor of the mouth

| −  | −  |

* Well circumscribed
* Fluctuant
* Soft

| −  | −  |

* H&E: Mucin surrounded by inflammatory cells & fibrosis

* CT: Cystic mass with tail sign

| −  | −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Congenital  | Teratoma[15][16] |

* Benign or malignant

* Incidence: 1:4000 births
* Gender: No predilection

* Presents as a firm lateral neck mass

| −  | −  |

* Firm
* Non-tender

| −  |

* High ALP levels

* Shows ectodermal, mesodermal, and endodermal tissues

* CT & MRI: Shows calcification

| −  | −
Dermoid cyst[17][18] |

* Benign

* Incidence: 3 in 10000 population
* Age: Birth-5 years old

* Presents as a slow growing mass or a sinus

| −  | −  |

* Freely mobile
* Solitary
* Rubbery
* Nonpulsatile
* Noncompressible

* Usually normal
* Sometimes a pit or sinus
* A tuft of hair at the center of the pit for nasal dermoid cyst

| −  |

* Keratinizing squamous epithelium
* Occasional remnants of hair follicles, adipose tissue, and sweat glands

* Ultrasound: Thin walled, unilocular
* CT with contrast: Well circumscribed, unilocular, sac-of-marbles appearance due to fatty tissue

| −  | −
Thymic cyst[19] |

* Benign

* Age: 1-10 years old
* Males>Females

* Presents as a soft mass, gradually enlarging, on left side of the neck (usual)

| −  | −  |

* Soft
* Compressible

| −  | −  |

* Squamous epithelium or cuboidal epithelium
* Lymphoid tissue in the cyst wall contains hassall's corpuscles

* Ultrasound: Unilocular cystic mass
* CT: Uni/multilocular, well circumscribed and nonenhancing

| −  | −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Inflammatory  | Acute sialadenitis[20] |

* Benign

* Age: Occurs in all age groups
* Gender: No predilection

* Presents with an unilateral erythematous swelling
* Bad breath
* Fever with chills

| \+  | \-  |

* Tender
* Firm
* Purulent discharge expressed from the duct
* Smooth

* Redness
* More common in people with bad oral hygiene

* Elevated ESR
* Leukocytosis

* Inflammatory infiltrate with microabscess formation

* Ultrasound: Hypoechoic with ductal dilatation
* CT: Diffuse homogeneous enlargement

* CT scan

| −
Chronic sialadenitis[21] |

* Benign

* Age: Occurs in all age groups
* Gender: No predilection

* Presents with an unilateral swelling
* Recurrent episodes common

| \+  | −  |

* Non-tender
* Firm
* Smooth

* Mostly due to obstruction by a stone or stricture

* Elevated ESR
* Leukocytosis

* Hyperplastic lymphoid infiltrates with loss of salivary gland acini
* Fibrosis

* X-ray: Shows radiopaque stones
* CT: Reduced parenchymal volume

* CT scan

| −
Reactive viral lymphadenopathy | CMV[22] |

* Benign

* Age: 10-35 years old
* Gender: No predilection

* Flu-like illness

| −  | −  |

* Non-tender
* Soft

* Generalized or cervical lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated SGOT/SGPT

* H&E stain: Typical owl-eye inclusions (nuclear)
* Basophilic cytoplasmic inclusions

* Usually not necessary

* Fine needle aspiration cytology

| −
EBV[23][24] |

* Benign

* Age: Mainly adolescents
* Gender: No predilection

* Sore throat
* Fever
* Malaise

| −  | −  |

* Non-tender
* Firm

* Bilateral posterior cervical, axillary, inguinal lymphadenopathy
* Ulcer or rash
* Redness

* Atypical lymphocytosis
* Positive monospot test
* IgM & IgG antibodies against EBV
* ↑↑SGOT/SGPT

* CD8+ lymphocytes
* Necrosis
* B lymphocyte blasts

* Usually not necessary

* Fine needle aspiration cytology

| −
HIV[25] |

* Benign

* Prevalence: 1.1 million in U.S
* Gender: Males>females

* Flu-like illness
* Rash

| −  | −  |

* Non-tender mass

* Generalized lymphadenopathy

* Leukopenia
* Thrombocytopenia
* Anemia
* Elevated AST/ALT
* Elevated CRP
* Elevated ESR

* Lymphoid hyperplasia

* Usually not necessary

* Western blot & P24 antigen assay

| −
Viral URI[26] |

* Benign

* Incidence: More in fall & winter
* Age: Common in elderly and infants

* Sore throat
* Cough
* Runny nose
* Sneezing

| −  | −  |

* Non-tender

* Mild cervical lymphadenopathy

* Lymphocytosis
* Elevated ESR & C-reactive protein

* Inflammatory infiltrate

* No specific findings

| −  | −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Inflammatory  | Bacterial lymphadenopathy  | Tularemia[27][28] |

* Benign

* Age: Affects all age groups
* Gender: No predilection

* Fever
* Chills
* Swelling
* Joint pains

| \+  | −  |

* Tender
* Edematous

* Regional lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated C-reactive protein

* Caseating granuloma +/- multinucleated giant cells

* No specific findings

* PCR & serology

| −
Brucellosis[29] |

* Benign

* Incidence: 100-200 cases anually in USA
* Gender: Males>females

* Flu-like illness

| \+  | −  |

* Tender

* Cervical lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR

* Non-caseating granuloma \+ giant cells, epitheloid cells

* No specific findings

* Serology

| −
Cat-scratch disease[30][31] |

* Benign

* More common in the Southern of U.S among children and young adults

* Cat exposure
* Fever
* Fatigue
* Headache

| \+  | −  |

* Tender cervical nodes

* Vesicular
* Erythema
* Papule at site of inoculation
* Lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Serology: Positive antibody to Bartonella Henselae

* Satellite micro-abscess with granuloma

| −  | −  |

* Bacillary angiomatosis
* Bacillary peliosis

Actinomycosis[32][33] |

* Benign

* No predilection in race, age
* [[Male] to female ratio : 1.5 to 3:1

* History of dental procedure or trauma
* Poor oral hygiene
* Swelling mandible

| −  | −  |

* Tender at the beginning
* Painless
* Fluctuant
* Non-tender at late stage

* Red or blue skin rash

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated CRP
* Gram positive filamentous rods

* Sulfur granules
* Filamentous organism

| −  |

* Histological examination
* Bacterial culture of the abscess

* Mandible osteomyelitis

Mycobacterial infections[23][34][35] |

* Benign

* More common in adults and children in endemic continent such as Africa

* Recent travel to endemic regions
* Exposure to TB patients

| −  | −  |

* Matted cervical nodes
* Firm
* Non-tender

* Lymphadenopathy

* Positive PPD
* Presence of acid fast bacilli on Sputum smear

* Chronic necrotizing caseating calcified granuloma

* Neck Ultrasound: Multiple lymph nodes
* Fusion tendency
* Internal echoes

* Culture for mycobacteria

| −
Streptococcal infection[22][36] |

* Benign

* More common in children and adolescents

* Fever
* Absence of cough
* Difficulty swallowing
* Swollen pharynx

| \+  | \+  |

* Tender anterior cervical nodes
* Tonsillar exudates

* Lymphadenopathy

* Rapid antigen detection tests: ±

* Follicular hyperplasia
* Infiltration of polymorphonuclear cells

| −  |

* Throat culture

* Acute rheumatic fever
* Post-streptoccocal glomerulonephritis

Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Inflammatory  | Parasitic lymphadenopathy | Toxoplasma gondii[37][38] |

* Benign

* 6 years old and older adults are more affected in U.S.
* Seen in hot climates

* Cats or birds feces exposure
* Drinking unpasteurized milk
* Undercooked food
* Organ transplant recipients

| \+  | −  |

* Bilateral
* Non-tender
* Symmetrical
* Non-fluctuant

* Lymphadenopathy

* Serology: Positive IgG and IgM antibodies

* Follicular hyperplasia

* MRI: Multiple rings enhanced lesions

* Serology
* Immunofluorescence
* MRI
* CT scan

| −
Sarcoidosis_National_Heart,_Lung,_and_Blood_Institute_(NHLBI)-39|[39][20] |

* Benign

* More common in African American women aged 20-40 years

* Family history of sarcoidosis
* Fatigue
* Swelling and pain in the joints

| −  | −  |

* Swollen
* Non-tender parotid glands

* Erythema nodosum
* Lupus pernios
* Bilateral lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated ACE

* Non-necrotizing epithelioid granuloma

* CXR: B/L hilar adenopathy
* MRI: B/L multiples enlarged cervical lymph nodes

* Biopsy

* Heerfordt's syndrome: uveitis, facial nerve paralysis, parotitis

Sjögren syndrome[40] |

* Benign

* Female to male ratio: 9 to 1
* May happen at any age
* Mean age: 40-50

* History of RA, SLE, and non-hodgkin B-cell lymphoma
* Dry mouth, dry eyes

| −  | \+  |

* Firm mass
* B/L enlarged parotid glands

* Pruritis
* Rashes
* Lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Anti-SSA/Ro: +
* Anti-SSB/La: +
* Cytopenia
* Wetting <5 mm on Schirmer's test

* Hyperactivity of B-cells and lymphocytes which lead to infiltration of the exocrine glands

* US: Hypoechoic and inhomogeneous salivary glands

* Biopsy

| −
Castleman disease (angiofollicular lymphoproliferative disease)[41][42] |

* Benign

* Mean age: 30-40 years

* Asymptomatic at early onset
* B-symptoms

| −  | −  |

* Non tender cervical node

* Lymphadenopathy
* Papule
* Cherry hemangioma

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated CRP
* Anemia
* Polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia

* Hyaline vascular variant
* Plasma cell variant
* Mixed variant

* CT scan:

*     * Matted lymphadenopathy
* Solitary, noninvasive mass

* Biopsy

* HHV-8
* Kaposi sarcoma
* Non-hodgkin lymphoma
* POEMS syndrome

Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Inflammatory  | Kikuchi disease (histiocytic necrotizing lymphadenitis)[43] |

* Benign

* High prevalence in Japan
* More common in young adults < 30 years old

* Fever
* Flu-like prodrome

| \+  | −  |

* Tender cervical nodes

* Skin rash
* Lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Abnormal liver enzymes
* Leukopenia

* Irregular paracortical areas of coagulative necrosis with abundant karyorrhectic debris

| −  |

* Biopsy

* Hashimoto's thyroiditis

Kimura disease[44] |

* Benign

* More common in Asian males

* History of painless cervical lump

| −  | −  |

* Large
* Non-tender cervical node

* Itching
* Lymphadenopathy

* Elevated Eosinophils

* Conserved lymph node structure
* Eosinophilic infiltration
* High postcapillary venules

| −  |

* Biopsy

* Nephrotic syndrome
* Hypercoagulable state

Rosai-Dorfman disease_Genetic_and_Rare_Diseases_Information_Center_(GARD)_–_an_NCATS_Program-45|[45][46] |

* Benign

* More common in children

* Fever

| −  | −  |

* Non-tender enlarged cervical lymph nodes

* Erythema
* Lymphadenopathy

* Elevated ESR
* Polyclonal hypergammaglobulinemia

| −  | −  | −  | −
Kawasaki disease_Kawasaki_Disease_|_CDC-47|[47]_National_Heart,_Lung,_and_Blood_Institute_(NHLBI)-48|[48] |

* Benign

* More common in children < 5 years old
* Highest incidence in Japan
* Most leading cause of acquired heart disease in U.S

* High fever
* B/L conjunctivitis
* Rash
* Swelling of hands and feet
* Inflammation of lips
* Strawberry tongue

| −  | −  |

* Large, single palpable cervical node

| −  |

* Elevated ESR
* Elevated CRP

* Inflammation of medium sized arteries and organs

* Echocardiography: Coronary artery dilation
* Coronary artery aneurysm

* Clinical findings

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign or Malignant  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Neoplasm  | Salivary gland neoplasm | Pleomorphic adenoma[49][50] |

* Benign

* More common in females
* Incidence increase with age
* Incidence: 2-3.5 cases per 100,000 population

* History of swelling
* Dysphagia
* Hoarseness

| −  | \+  |

* Palpable mass of deep lobe of parotid gland
* Firm
* Mobile

| −  | −  |

* Proliferation of epithelial cells and stromal matrix in the ducts

* MRI: Homogenous on T1
* Abundant myxochondroid stroma on T2

* Biopsy

| −
Warthin's tumor[51]_Genetic_and_Rare_Diseases_Information_Center_(GARD)_–_an_NCATS_Program-52|[52] |

* Benign

* Male to female ratio: 4:1
* More common in people aged 60-70 years old

* History of swollen salivary gland
* Jaw pain
* Tinnitus

| −  | \+  |

* Non tender
* Mobile
* Firm
* Solitary

| −  | −  |

* Papillae
* Fibrous capsule
* Cystic spaces

* Neck CT: Cystic lesion posteriorly within the parotid gland
* MRI: B/L heterogeneous lesions

* Biopsy

| −
Oncocytoma

[53]

* Benign

* Race: Caucasian patients predilection
* Gender: No gender preference
* Age: 50–70 years

* Growing palpable painless mass
* Facial swelling
* Lymphadenopathy (if transformed to malignant)

| ±  | ±  |

* Firm, multilobulated
* Mobile mass

* Normal
* Redness
* Swelling
* Skin ulceration

* Normal
* Anemia

* Epithelial cells with eosinophilic
* Granular cytoplasm
* Rich in mitochondria

* CT:
* Isodense expansive mass
* Enhancement after intravenous contrast
* Hypodense areas
* MRI:
* Isodensties on T1
* Mass is hyperintense on T2
* Enhancement on contrast

* Incisional biopsy and histopathological examination

| \-
Monomorphic adenoma [54][55][56] |

* Benign or malignant

* Age: 26-76 years
* Rare in children
* Gender: No predilection

* Growing palpable painless mass on jaw or in oral cavity
* Facial swelling
* Lymphadenopathy (if transformed to malignant)
* Pain and ulceration (in later stage)

| ±  | ±  |

* Nodular
* Fluctuant swelling

* Normal
* Redness
* Skin ulceration
* May have lymphadenopathy

* Normal

* Straw colored fluid on aspiration

* Ultrasound:
* Used to biopsy the lesion
* May show cystic an solid components
* CT:
* useful for lesions with calcification and venous phleboliths
* MRI:
* Test of choice
* Differentiate benign from malignant
* Defines tumor extent
* Shows perineural spread

* Incisional biopsy and histopathological examination

| \-
Mucoepidermoid carcinoma

[57]

* Malignant

* Age: Mean age of 59
* Female predilection

* Painlesss mass
* Swelling in oral cavity
* Lymphadenopathy

| ±  | ±  |

* Cystic and solid mass

* May have lymphadenopathy

| −  |

* Gross findings:
* Firm
* Tan-white to yellow
* Bosselated
* Cystic
* Microscopic findings:
* Encapsulated
* squamous and glandular components

* Cystic and solid component with variable appearance on CT and MRI

* Incisional biopsy and histopathological examination

* Association with CMV

Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Neoplasm  | Salivary gland neoplasm | Adenoid cystic carcinoma [58] |

* Malignant

* Age: 40s-60s
* Gender: Female predominance

* Slow growing rare tumor with low recurrence

| ±  | ±  |

* Solid mass

* Normal to ulcerated lesions
* May have lymphadenopathy

| −  |

* Gross findings:
* Tubular
* Cribriform
* Solid pattern of growth
* Microscopic findings:
* Components of large cells with pleomorphic nuclei
* Increased mitotic activity
* Focal necrosis

* Imaging reveal dimensions of the tumor, local spread, and distant metastasis

* Biopsy and histopathological examination

| −
Adenocarcinoma

[59]

* Malignant

* Age: young age predilection

* Its a tumor of minor salivary glands
* May present as small ulceration or nodules in oral cavity

| −  | −  |

* Small nodules in oral cavity
* With or without lymphadenopathy

* Normal to ulcerated lesions
* May have lymphadenopathy

* May be normal
* Or may show anemia and blood cell disorders with distant bone invasion

* On histology it is confused with Adeocyctic carcinoma
* Components of gland and cyst formations
* More perineural invasion

* CT and MRI
* MRI being more accurate for adjacent tissue involvement and lymphadenopathy

* Biopsy and histopathological examination

| −
Salivary duct cancer[60][61][62] |

* Malignant

(Highly aggressive)

* Incidence: 1-3%
* Gender: Male predilection
* Mean age: 55-61 years old

* Rapidly growing mass with jaw involvement

| ±  | ±  |

* Painless
* Hard
* Non-compressible mass

* Ulceration of mucosa and skin
* May have lymphadenopathy
* facial paralysis in case of facial nerve involvement

* Pathomorphologically tumor of salivary ducts resembles tumor of breast ducts

* Gross findings:
* Firm mass
* Cystic component of variable size and dimension
* Microscopic finding:
* Resembling ductal carcinoma of breast
* Intraductal components invading surrounding tissue in several forms:
* cribriform
* papillary
* Solid with comedo-like central necrosis

* Non-specific features on CT and MRI
* Shows neural and jaw involvement

* Biopsy and histopathological examination

| −
Squamous cell carcinoma[63][64] |

* Malignant

* Incidence: rare
* Age: Old age , 61-68 years
* Male predilection

* Present as painful growing mass on jaw

| \+  | −  |

* Teneder
* Firm
* Solitary swelling on jaw

* Submandibular gland predilection
* Thinning and discoloration of skin

* Past radiation exposure is a strong risk factor

* Gross findings: Thinning of skin
* Microscopically findings: Nest and solid sheets of tumor cells arranged in glandular pattern
* Immunohistochemical staining can be used to mark the squamous and keratin component

* Tumor dimension can be delineated using both CT and MRI

* Biopsy and histopathological examination

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Neoplasm  | Hypopharyngeal cancer[65][66][67] |

* Malignant

* More common in males
* Age: 55-65 years old
* Incidence: < 1/100,000 in U.S.
* More common in Japan, India, Iran

* Tobacco use
* Abuse alcohol consumption
* HPV infection
* Lump in the neck
* Odynophagia
* Hoarseness

| −  | \+  |

* Non tender cervical node

* Lymphadenopathy

| −  |

* Spindle cells
* Nuclear atypia
* Basaloid cells
* Abundant chromatin

* Neck CT scan:
* Soft tissue mass
* Irregular thickening of mucosa
* Necrotic region
* MRI:
* Tumors are hypointense on T1 and hyperintense on T2

* Biopsy

| −
Parathyroid cancer[68][69][70] |

* Malignant

* Incidence: Rare
* Mean age : 44-54 years old
* Gender: Female predilection

* Presents with the hyperparathyroidism
* Bone pains
* Abdominal pain
* Nausea and vomiting
* Fatigue
* Confusion

| \+  | \+  |

* Lower neck mass

* Tachycardia
* Weight loss
* Sweating
* Neck swelling

* Low TSH
* Increased T4 and T3
* Hypercalcemia

* Microscopic findings:
* Trabecular growth pattern
* High mitosis
* Surrounding thick fibrotic bands
* Capsular involvement
* Vascular invasion is common

* CT and MRI shows more frequent lower lobe involvement, vascular involvement , lymph node metastasis, and perineural involvement
* Bone scan may show decreasing bone density

* Biopsy and histopathological examination

* Hereditary syndromes
* MEN-2B syndrome
* Neurofibromatosis type 1
* VHL disease

Carotid body tumors[71][72][73][74] |

* Benign

* Age: 26-55 years
* Male predominance

* A slow growing neck mass

| \+  | −  |

* Mobile
* Non-tender neck mass (horizontally more than vertically)
* Pulsatile
* Bruit may be present

* Change in voice
* Dizziness
* Tinnitus
* Headache

* Rasised catecholamine levels

* Microscopically they are extra-adrenal paragangliomas

* Doppler ultrasound, CT, MRI and angiography is used to visualize the tumor
* Metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) testing

* Histopathology analysis and catecholamine levels

| −
Paraganglioma[75][76][77] |

* Benign (Majority)
* Malignant (rare)

* Age 50-70 years
* More in females

* May be an accidental finding depending on their secretory nature or present with following symptoms:
* Palpitation
* Tremor
* Pulse-like vibratory sense
* Headache
* Change in voice
* Vertigo
* Catecholamine secreting paragangliomas presents with :
* Hypertension
* Headache
* Sweating
* Tachycardia

| −  | −  |

* No visible mass
* Located deep in the the neck along the glossopharyngeal nerve

| −  |

* Biochemical testing may show catecholamine metabolites in serum or urine samples

* Highly vascular tumors that involves nerves around vessels
* Gross findings:
* Fleshy tumor
* Pink to red-brown to gray in color
* Associated with hemorrhage or fibrosis
* Microscopic findings:
* Round or polygonal cells
* Nests or trabecular structures inside the capsule

* Ultrasound
* Computed tomography
* Magnetic resonance imaging
* Angiography
* metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG)
* 18F-fluoro-2-deoxyglucose Positron emission tomography (FDG-PET)

* Imaging and serum catecholamine analysis

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Neoplasm  | Schwannoma[78][79][80] |

* Benign

* Rare tumor
* Incidence: 1-10%

* Slow growing mass
* Localized neural deficit depending on the site of peripheral nerve involved
* Vagus nerve or superior cervical sympathetic chain involvement (most common locations)

| \+  | ±  |

* Multiple
* Slow growing nodules on the skin

* Vagal involvement:
* Hoarseness
* Dysphagia
* Sympathetic nerve involvement may present as Horner's syndrome:
* Dilated pupil
* Decrease sweating
* Dropping eyelid
* Vestibular nerve involvement & Hearing impairment (most common)

* May be normal

* Encapsulated neural tissue growth

* Resembling Carotid body tumor on CT
* MRI and MRI angiography confirm the diagnosis

* Imaging

* neurofibromatosis type II

Lymphoma [81][82][83][84][85][86] |

* Benign or malignant

* Age: Predilection for older age
* Mean age: 55

* Insidious onset slow growing lymph nodes
* Non-specific systemic B symptoms:
* Fever
* Night sweats
* Weight loss)
* Rash
* Waxing and waning lymphadenopathy
* Abdominal fullness

| −  | ±  |

* Multiple chain lymphadenopathy
* Hepatosplenomegaly
* Ascites
* Crackles heard on chest auscultation

* Rash and pruritus

* Pancytopenia
* Hypercalcemia
* Hyperuricemia (increased cell turnover)
* Monoclonal immunoglobulin (M-spike)
* Raised LDH levels

* On complete node analysis four patterns are described:
* Nodular/follicular
* Diffuse pattern
* Transition from a nodular to a diffuse pattern in adjacent nodes
* Transition from a lower to a higher grade of involvement within a single node

* Imaging to stage the disease
* Positron emission tomography with computed tomography is preferred over MRI

* Lymph node biopsy coupled with cytometry

* Infections due to cytopenias
* With acquired form of C1 inhibitor deficiency patients may develop angioedema

Liposarcoma [87][88][89][90] |

* Malignant

* Rare tumor
* Age: Relatively in older age
* Gender: No gender predilection

* Mobile mass
* Few symptoms until they grow enough to compress the surrounding structures
* Symptoms of neural deficit, pain, tingling, or skin changes

| ±  | −  |

* Mobile soft mass
* Intact overlying skin
* Blue discoloration due to intra-lesion hemorrhage

* Intact skin and normal color

* Normal

* Gross examination:
* Bulk of yellow colored fat tissue
* Microscopic features:
* Adipose tissue containing lipoblasts
* Atypical nucleus pushed to side by intracytoplasmic vacuoles
* Tissue biopsy may show histological sub-groups:
* Well-differentiated
* Myxoid/round cell
* Pleomorphic liposarcomas

* Imaging not usually required for diagnosis
* May show deeper invasion
* Ultrasound shows homogeneous hyperechoic mass

* Biopsy and histopathology analysis

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Neoplasm  | Lipoma [91][92][93] |

* Benign

* Genetic predisposition
* Unspecific gender or age association

* One or multiple soft, painless skin nodules
* May causes pain or compressive symptoms

| ±  | −  |

* Mobile soft nodule
* Intact overlying skin

* Normal

* Normal

* Diagnoses is usually clinical
* Tissue biopsy may show:
* Bundle of well-demarcated lipocytes
* Single nuclei aligned to the side
* Intra-cytoplasimic fat granules

* Diagnosis is usually clinical
* ultrasound is used to differentiate lipoma from other benign lesions such as:
* Epidermoid cyst
* A ganglion

* Clinical evaluation

* Multiple lipomas
* Associated with familial multiple lipomatosis

Glomus vagale, glomus jugulare tumors[94][95][96][97][98][99] |

* Benign

* Rare tumor

* Painless slowly enlarging mass in the neck

| −  | ±  |

* Non-compressible
* Firm
* Non-tender swelling
* No thrill or bruit
* Normal overlying skin

* Secretory tumors
* May have compressive signs such as:
* Dysphagia
* Hoarseness
* Cranial nerves deficits
* Horner's syndrome

* Normal

* Glomus tumors arise from Non Chromaffin cells
* histopathology reveals "salt and pepper" chromatin
* On immunohistochemistry tumor cells show chromogranin and S-100 positivity

* MRI (Imaging of choice): Typical appearance of the tumor along vagus nerve
* Ultrasonography (early stage of diagnosis): Isoechoic to hypoechoic well defined tumor
* CT: Vascularity of the tumor
* Biochemical testing: Shows secretary nature of the tumor

* Imaging and Metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) testing

| −
Metastatic head and neck cancer[100][101] |

* Malignant

* Depends on the nature of metastatic tumor

* Asymptomatic
* Painless lymphadenopathy
* Supra clavicular fullness in case of stomach cancer metastasis

| −  | ±  |

* Non-tender mass in the neck
* Non-tender lymphadenopathy

* Majority of metastatic head and neck cancer
* Metastatise from GIT and lungs

* Vary depending on the underlying cancer

* Histology of primary cancer

* CT and MRI to see extent of tumor

* Biopsy and histopathology of the primary site of tumor

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings
Other  | Laryngeal cancer[102][103] | Benign/Malignant |

* Older males
* Younger patients with HPV infection or smoking history

* Neck mass
* Hoarseness
* Throat pain
* Snoring
* Obstructive sleep apnea

| ±  | ±  |

* Examination of neck and oral cavity may show :
* mass
* lymphadenopathy
* Examination of laryngeal cancer is done using flexible laryngoscopy under anesthesia.

* Smoking is the most common risk factor
* Smoking with alcohol increases the risk
* Oropharyngeal cancers presenting with neck masses are associated with

human papillomavirus (HPV) infection

* HPV testing may show HPV infection

* FNA of neck mass
* Followed by biopsy of laryngeal cancer
* Show type cancer cells

* CT, MRI and PET are used to see local infiltration by cancer
* Also to see distant metastases.
* Panendoscopy is done to see extent of the tumor.

* Laryngoscopy and biopsy

| −
Arteriovenous fistula

[104][105]

* Benign/Malignant

* Depends on the risk factors

* Expanding neck mass
* Headaches
* Dizziness
* Neurological sequels

| −  | −  |

* Pulsating neck mass
* Bruit

* May be associated with vasculopathies
* metastatic invasion of vessels and neck surgery

|  |

* Varies depending on the etiology

* MR angiography

* MR angiography

| −
Thyroid nodule/ Goiter

[106][107][108][109]

* Benign/ Malignant

* Female predominance
* Young age (benign causes)
* Old age (malignant etiology)

* Growing painless neck mass in front of neck
* Weight loss
* Palpitation
* Hoarseness
* Irritability

| ±  | ±  |

* Painless
* Non-tender
* Asymmetrical neck mass in front of neck
* With smooth overlying skin
* Nodular surface
* Depending on the type:
* May be mobile
* Adherent to the underlying structure
* Lymphadenopathy in case of malignant features

* Goiter is most commonly associated with iodine deficiency

* Normal to low TSH levels in case of malignancy
* High TSH levels in case of goiter

* FNA is done in case of goiter
* Core biopsy is performed if malignancy is suspected

* USG:
* Shows nodular or non- nodular lesions in Thyroid
* US is better than CT.
* Thyroid radionuclide imaging:
* Shows radioiodine uptake
* Cold in case of malignancy
* Cold or hot in case of goiter.

* Biopsy and histopathology of nodules

| −
Category  | Diseases  | Benign  | Demography  | History  | Pain  | Dysphagia  | Mass exam  | Others  | Lab findings  | Histopathology  | Imaging  | Gold standard diagnosis  | Associated findings

## References

[edit | edit source]

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2. ↑ Nahata, Vaishali (2016). "Branchial cleft cyst". Indian Journal of Dermatology. 61 (6): 701. doi:10.4103/0019-5154.193718. ISSN 0019-5154.
3. ↑ Amos J, Shermetaro C. PMID 30085599. Missing or empty `|title=` (help)
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