1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

First phase of the 1947–1949 Palestine war

This article is about the initial civil war phase of the 1948 Palestine war. For the subsequent international phase, see 1948 Arab–Israeli War. For the entire conflict, see 1948 Palestine war.

1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

Part of the intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine, the 1948 Palestine War and the decolonisation of Asia

Palestinian fighters in front of a burning Haganah armoured supply truck near the city of Jerusalem (March 1948)
| Date| 30 November 1947 – 14 May 1948
(5 months and 2 weeks)

|

Location|

Mandatory Palestine

Result|

Jewish National Council victory

* Issuance of the Israeli Declaration of Independence
* Intervention by neighbouring Arab states, beginning the 1948 Arab-Israeli War

Belligerents

Jewish National Council

* Haganah
* Palmach
* Irgun
* Lehi
* Foreign volunteers
* Allied Bedouin tribes

Arab Higher Committee

* Army of the Holy War
* Arab Liberation Army

Jordan

* Arab Legion

United Kingdom

* Mandatory Palestine

Commanders and leaders
David Ben-Gurion
Yaakov Dori
Yigael Yadin
Yigal Allon
Menachem Begin|  Fawzi al-Qawuqji
Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni †|  Gordon MacMillan
Strength
15,000 (start)[1]
35,000 (end)|  Arabs: A few thousand
British deserters: ~100–200|  70,000
Casualties and losses
9 April:
895 killed[2]|  9 April:
991 killed[2]|  9 April:
123 killed
300 wounded[3]

* v
* t
* e

1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

* Fajja
* Jerusalem riots
* Haifa Oil Refinery
* Balad al-Shaykh
* Semiramis Hotel
* Hashmed
* Nahshon
* Deir Yassin
* Harel
* Yiftach
* Matateh
* Haifa
* Yevusi
* Hametz
* Latrun
* Barak
* Gideon
* Kfar Etzion
* Ben-Ami
* Hadassah medical convoy
* Israeli Declaration of Independence

* v
* t
* e

1948 Palestine war

1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

Military engagements

* Shevat
* Plan Dalet
* Nahshon
* Mishmar HaEmek
* Harel
* Haifa
* Hametz
* Yevusi
* Yiftach
* Matateh
* Balak
* Gideon
* Barak
* Ben-Ami
* Kilshon
* Shfifon

Massacres and civilian attacks

* Fajja
* Al-Khisas
* Jerusalem riots
* Haifa Oil Refinery
* Balad al-Shaykh
* Semiramis Hotel
* Sa'sa'
* Ben Yehuda Street
* Cairo–Haifa train
* Deir Yassin
* Hadassah medical convoy
* Ein al-Zeitun
* Kfar Etzion
* Abu Shusha
* Nakba

* * *

1948 Arab–Israeli War
Southern front

* Kfar Darom
* Nirim
* Yad Mordechai
* Pleshet
* Negba
* Nitzanim
* An-Far
* Be'erot Yitzhak
* Death to the Invader
* GYS
* Avak
* Yoav
* Beit Hanoun
* Separation Corridor
* Beersheba
* Naval battles
* Shmone
* Lot
* Assaf
* Horev
* Hisul
* Hill 86
* Bir Thamila
* 'Auja
* Sinai
* Rafah
* Uvda

Central and Jerusalem front

* Jerusalem
* Kilshon
* Gesher
* Old Tel Aviv bus station
* Yitzhak
* Jerusalem Old City
* Latrun
* Jenin
* Danny
* Kedem
* Yoram
* Ha-Har

Northern front

* Kinarot Valley
* al-Malikiyya
* Namel
* Dekel
* Shoter
* Hiram

International

* Balak
* Velvetta

Massacres

* Al-Kabri
* Tantura
* Lydda and Ramle
* Cairo
* Al-Dawayima
* Safsaf
* Eilabun
* Hula
* Arab al-Mawasi

Biological warfare

* Cast Thy Bread

* v
* t
* e

Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine

* 1920 Nebi Musa riots

* Battle of Tel Hai

* Jaffa riots
* 1929 Palestine riots

* Hebron massacre

* 1933 Palestine riots
* Arab Revolt
* Spillover of WWII
* Jewish insurgency

* the Saison

* 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

The 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine was the first phase of the 1947–1949 Palestine war. It broke out after the General Assembly of the United Nations adopted a resolution on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption of the Partition Plan for Palestine.[4]

During the civil war, the Jewish and Arab communities of Palestine clashed (the latter supported by the Arab Liberation Army) while the British, who had the obligation to maintain order,[5][6] organized their withdrawal and intervened only on an occasional basis.

At the end of the civil war phase of the war, from April 1948 to mid-May, Zionist forces embarked on an offensive (Plan Dalet) that involved conquering cities and territories in Palestine allocated to a future Jewish state, as well as those allocated to the corpus separatum of Jerusalem and a future Arab state according to the 1947 Partition plan for Palestine.[7] This offensive greatly accelerated the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight, which was effected by various violent means, including a number of massacres such as the widely publicized Deir Yassin massacre.[8][9]

When the British Mandate of Palestine ended on 14 May 1948, and with the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel, the surrounding Arab states—Egypt, Transjordan, Iraq, and Syria—invaded what had just ceased to be Mandatory Palestine,[10] and immediately attacked Israeli forces and several Jewish settlements.[11] The conflict thus escalated and became the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.

## Background

[edit]

Under the control of a British administration since 1920, Palestine found itself the object of a battle between Palestinian and Zionist nationalists, groups that opposed both the British mandate and one another.

The Palestinian opposition culminated in the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, a deadly civil conflict that saw the deaths of nearly 5,000 Palestinian Arabs and 500 Jews, and resulted in much of the Palestinian political leadership, including Amin al-Husseini, leader of the Arab Higher Committee, being driven into exile. Britain also reduced Jewish immigration in response to the violence, as legislated by the 1939 White Paper.

After World War II and The Holocaust, the Zionist movement gained attention and sympathy. In Mandatory Palestine, Zionist groups fought against the British administration. In the two and a half years from 1945 to June 1947, British law enforcement forces lost 103 dead, and sustained 391 wounded from Jewish militants.[12] The Palestinian Arab nationalists reorganized themselves, but their organization remained inferior to that of the Zionists.[citation needed]

On 15 August 1947, the Haganah blew up the house of a Palestinian family near Petah Tikva killing twelve occupants, including a woman and six children.[13] After November 1947, the dynamiting of houses formed a key component of most Haganah strikes.[14]

Diplomacy failed to reconcile the different points of view concerning the future of Palestine. In early November, The Haganah began mobilizing for war, and issued an order that all men in the age range between 17 and 25 register.[15] On 18 February 1947, the British announced their withdrawal from the region and on 29 November, the General Assembly of the United Nations voted to recommend the adoption and implementation of the partition plan with the support of the big global powers, though it was opposed by the Arab States.

## Beginning of the civil war (30 November 1947 – 1 April 1948)

[edit]

The 1947 UN Partition Plan recommended dividing Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state.

In the aftermath of the adoption of Resolution 181(II) by the United Nations General Assembly recommending the adoption and implementation of the Plan of Partition,[16] the manifestations of joy of the Jewish community were counterbalanced by protests by Arabs throughout the country[17] and after 1 December, the Arab Higher Committee enacted a general strike that lasted three days.[18]

A "wind of violence"[19] took hold of the country, foreboding civil war between the two communities.[20] Murders, reprisals, and counter-reprisals resulted in dozens of victims killed on both sides in the process. The impasse persisted as British forces did not intervene to put a stop to the escalating violence.[21][22][23][24]

The first casualties after the adoption of Resolution 181(II) were passengers on a Jewish bus near Kfar Sirkin on 30 November, after an eight-man gang from Jaffa ambushed the bus killing five and wounding others. Half an hour later they ambushed a second bus, southbound from Hadera, killing two more, and shots were fired at Jewish buses in Jerusalem and Haifa.[25][26] This was stated to be a retaliation for the Shubaki family assassination, the killing of five Palestinian Arabs by Lehi near Herzliya, ten days prior to the incident.[27][28][29]

Irgun and Lehi (the latter also known as the Stern Gang) followed their strategy of placing bombs in crowded markets and bus-stops.[30] On 30 December, in Haifa, members of the Irgun threw two bombs at a crowd of Arab workers who were queueing in front of a refinery, killing 6 and injuring 42. An angry crowd massacred 39 Jewish people in revenge, until British soldiers reestablished calm.[23][31] In reprisals, soldiers from the Palmach and the Carmeli brigade, attacked the villages of Balad ash-Sheikh and Hawassa. In what became known as the Balad al-Shaykh massacre, between 60 to 70 villagers were killed.[32][33][34]

On December 31, 1947, having recruited a few thousand volunteers, Abd_al-Qadir_al-Husayni organized the blockade of the 100,000 Jewish residents of Jerusalem.[35] To counter this, the Yishuv authorities tried to supply the city with convoys of up to 100 armoured vehicles, but the operation became more and more impractical as the number of casualties in the relief convoys surged. By March, Al-Husayni's tactic had paid off. Almost all of the Haganah's armoured vehicles had been destroyed, the blockade was in full operation, and hundreds of Haganah members who had tried to bring supplies into the city were killed.[36] The situation for those who dwelt in the Jewish settlements in the highly isolated Negev and North of Galilee was even more critical.

Aftermath of the Semiramis Hotel bombing, perpetrated by the Haganah

From January onward, operations became increasingly militarized. In all the mixed zones where both communities lived, particularly Jerusalem and Haifa, increasingly violent attacks, riots, reprisals and counter-reprisals followed each other. Isolated shootings evolved into all-out battles. Attacks against traffic, for instance, turned into ambushes as one bloody attack led to another.

Destruction in Jerusalem caused by the Ben Yehuda Street bombing

On 22 February 1948, supporters of Mohammad Amin al-Husayni organized, with the help of certain British deserters, three attacks against the Jewish community. Using car bombs aimed at the headquarters of the pro-Zionist Palestine Post newspaper, the Ben Yehuda St. market and the backyard of the Jewish Agency's offices, they killed 22, 53, and 13 Jewish people respectively, a total of 88 fatalities. Hundreds of others were injured.[37][38]

In retaliation, Lehi put a landmine on the railroad track in Rehovot on which a train from Cairo to Haifa was travelling, killing 28 British soldiers and injuring 35.[39] This would be copied on 31 March, close to Caesarea Maritima, which would lead to the death of forty people, injuring 60, who were, for the most part, Arab civilians.[40]

David Ben-Gurion reorganized the Haganah and made conscription obligatory. Every Jewish man and woman in the country had to receive military training.[citation needed]

### Allied Powers' policies

[edit]

This situation caused the United States to withdraw their support for the partition plan and instead propose a trusteeship for Palestine in March 1948, thus encouraging the Arab League to believe that the Palestinian Arabs, reinforced by the Arab Liberation Army, could put an end to the plan for partition. The British, on the other hand, decided on 7 February 1948, to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Transjordan.[41]

### Population evacuations

[edit]

While the Jewish population had received strict orders requiring them to hold their ground everywhere at all costs,[42] the Arab population was more affected by the general conditions of insecurity to which the country was exposed. Up to 100,000 Arabs, from the urban upper and middle classes in Haifa, Jaffa and Jerusalem, or Jewish-dominated areas, evacuated abroad or to Arab centres eastwards.[43]

### Fighters and arms from abroad

[edit]

As a consequence of funds raised by Golda Meir which were donated by sympathisers in the United States, and Stalin's decision to support the Zionist cause, the Jewish representatives of Palestine were able to sign very important armament contracts in the East. Other Haganah agents recovered stockpiles from the Second World War, which helped improve the army's equipment and logistics. The Jewish Agency had set aside for foreign arms purchases alone 28 million dollars. By comparison, the Arab Higher Committee's total budget at this time amounted to $2,250,000, equivalent to the Haganah's annual budget in pre-war times.[44]

There was an intervention of a number of Arab Liberation Army regiments inside Palestine, each active in a variety of distinct sectors around the different coastal towns. They consolidated their presence in Galilee and Samaria.[45] Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni came from Egypt with several hundred men of the Army of the Holy War.

German and Bosnian WWII veterans, including a handful of former intelligence, Wehrmacht, and Waffen SS officers, were among the volunteers fighting for the Palestinian cause.[46] Veterans of WWII Axis militaries were represented in the ranks of the ALA forces commanded by Fawzi al-Qawuqji (who had been awarded an officer's rank in the Wehrmacht during WWII)[47] and in the Mufti's forces, commanded by Abd al-Qadir (who had fought with the Germans against the British in Iraq) and Salama (who trained in Germany as a commando during WWII and took part in a failed parachute mission into Palestine).[48]

Benny Morris writes that the Yishuv was more successful in attracting and effectively deploying foreign military professionals than their Arab adversaries. He concludes that the ex-Nazis and Bosnian Muslims recruited by the Palestinians, Egyptians, and Syrians "proved of little significance" to the outcome of the conflict.[49]

### Death toll

[edit]

In December 1947, the Jewish death toll was estimated at over 200, and, according to Alec Kirkbride, by 18 January 1948, 333 Jews and 345 Arabs had been killed while 643 Jews and 877 Arabs had been injured.[50] The overall death toll between December 1947 and January 1948 (including British personnel) was estimated at 1,000 people, with 2,000 injured.[51]

Ilan Pappé estimates that 400 Jews and 1,500 Arabs were killed by January 1948.[52] Morris says that by the end of March 1948, the Yishuv had suffered about a thousand dead.[53] According to Yoav Gelber, by the end of March there was a total of 2,000 dead and 4,000 wounded.[2] These figures correspond to an average of more than 100 deaths and 200 casualties per week among a population of 2,000,000.[citation needed]

## Intervention of foreign forces in Palestine

[edit]

Arab volunteers fighting in Palestine in 1947

Violence kept intensifying with the intervention of military units. Although responsible for law and order up until the end of the mandate, the British did not try to take control of the situation, being more involved in the liquidation of the administration and the evacuation of their troops.[54][55] Furthermore, the authorities felt that they had lost enough men already in the conflict.

The British either could not or did not want to impede the intervention of foreign forces into Palestine.[56][57] According to a special report by the UN Special Commission on Palestine:[58]

* During the night of 20–21 January, a force of 700 Syrians in battle dress, well-equipped, with mechanized transport, entered Palestine 'via Transjordan.'
* On 27 January, 'a band of 300 men from outside Palestine, was established in the area of Safed in Galilee and was probably responsible for the intensive heavy weapon and mortar attacks the following week against the settlement of Yechiam.'
* During the night of 29–30 January, a battalion of the Arab Liberation Army, 950 men in 19 vehicles commanded by Fawzi al-Qawuqji, entered Palestine 'via Adam Bridge and dispersed itself around the villages of Nablus, Jenin, and Tulkarem.'

This description corresponds to the entry of Arab Liberation Army troops between 10 January and the start of March:[45]

* The Second regiment of Yarmouk, under the orders of Adib Shishakli[59] entered Galilee via Lebanon on the night of 11–12 January. The battalion passed through Safed and then settled in the village of Sasa. A third of the regiment's fighters were Palestinian Arabs, and a quarter were Syrian.
* The 1st Yarmouk regiment, commanded by Muhammad Tzafa, entered Palestine on the night of 20–21 January, via the Bridge of Damia from Jordan and dispersed around Samaria, where it established its HQ, in the Northern Samarian city of Tubas. The regiment was composed chiefly of Palestinian Arabs and Iraqis.
* The Hittin regiment, commanded by Madlul Abbas, settled in the west of Samaria with its headquarters in Tulkarem.
* The Hussein ibn Ali regiment provided reinforcement in Haifa, Jaffa, Jerusalem, and several other cities.
* The Qadassia regiment were reserves based in Jab'a.

Fawzi al-Qawuqji, Field Commander of the Arab Liberation Army, arrived, according to his own account, on 4 March, with the rest of the logistics and around 100 Bosniak volunteers in Jab'a, a small village on the route between Nablus and Jenin. He established a headquarters there and a training centre for Palestinian Arab volunteers. In addition, roughly 100 to 200 British soldiers and police officers, many of whom had developed bitterness towards the Zionist movement and/or pity for the Palestinians over the course of the British counterinsurgency campaign against the Zionists, deserted to help the Palestinians. In contrast, only 17 deserters fought for the Zionists.[60]

Alan Cunningham, the British High Commissioner in Palestine, thoroughly protested against the incursions and the fact that "no serious effort is being made to stop incursions." The only reaction came from Alec Kirkbride, who complained to Ernest Bevin about Cunningham's "hostile tone and threats."[61]

The British and the information service of Yishuv expected an offensive for 15 February, but it would not take place, seemingly because the Mufti troops were not ready.[62]

In March, an Iraqi regiment of the Arab Liberation Army came to reinforce the Palestinian Arab troops of Salameh in the area around Lydda and Ramleh, while Al-Husayni started a headquarters in Bir Zeit, 10 km to the north of Ramallah.[63] At the same time, a number of North African troops, principally Libyans, and hundreds of members of the Muslim Brotherhood entered Palestine. In March, an initial regiment arrived in Gaza and certain militants among them reached Jaffa.

## Morale of the fighters

[edit]

The Arab combatants' initial victories reinforced morale among them.[64] The Arab Higher Committee was confident and decided to prevent the set-up of the UN-backed partition plan. In an announcement made to the Secretary-General on 6 February, they declared:[65]

> The Palestinian Arabs consider any attempt by Jewish people or by whatever power or group of power to establish a Jewish state in an Arab territory to be an act of aggression that will be resisted by force [...]
>  The prestige of the United Nations would be better served by abandoning this plan and by not imposing such an injustice [...]
>  The Palestinian Arabs make a grave declaration before the UN, before God and before history that they will never submit to any power that comes to Palestine to impose a partition. The only way to establish a partition is to get rid of them all: men, women, and children.

At the beginning of February 1948, the morale of the Jewish leaders was not high: "distress and despair arose clearly from the notes taken at the meetings of the Mapai party."[66] "The attacks against the Jewish settlements and main roads worsened the direction of the Jewish people, who underestimated the intensity of the Arab reaction."[67]

The situation of the 100,000 Jews situated in Jerusalem was precarious, and supplies to the city, already slim in number, were likely to be stopped. Nonetheless, despite the setbacks suffered, the Jewish forces, in particular Haganah, remained superior in number and quality to those of the Arab forces.[41]

## First wave of Palestinian refugees

[edit]

Part of a series on the
Nakba

Precipitating events

* Background

* * *

* Mandatory Palestine
* 1947 partition plan
* Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine

* * *

* 1948 Palestine war

* * *

* Civil war in Palestine
* Plan Dalet
* Deir Yassin massacre
* Battle of Haifa
* Israeli Declaration of Independence
* Arab–Israeli War
* Timeline
* Expulsion from Lydda and Ramle
* Transfer Committee

1948 expulsion and flight

* Palestinian refugees
* Camps
* Palestinian return to Israel
* Right of return
* Present absentee
* UN Resolution 194
* UNRWA
* Hebraization of Palestinian place names
* Paraguay plan

Discourse

* Causes
* New Historians
* Nakba denial
* Nakba Law

Notable writers

* Aref al-Aref
* Yoav Gelber
* Efraim Karsh
* Rashid Khalidi
* Walid Khalidi
* Nur Masalha
* Benny Morris
* Ilan Pappé
* Edward Said
* Tom Segev
* Avraham Sela
* Avi Shlaim
* Constantin Zureiq

Symbols and memory

* Palestinian key
* Handala
* Nakba Day
* Land Day
* Great March of Return
* March of Return (Israel)

Ongoing

* Ongoing Nakba
* Palestinian genocide accusation
* Gaza genocide

Lists

* List of depopulated towns and villages
* Estimates of the number of Palestinians who fled

* v
* t
* e

Main article: 1948 Palestinian exodus

The high morale of the Arab fighters and politicians was not shared by the Palestinian Arab civilian population. The UN Palestine Commission reported 'Panic continues to increase, however, throughout the Arab middle classes, and there is a steady exodus of those who can afford to leave the country.[64] 'From December 1947 to January 1948, around 70,000 Arabs fled,[68] and, by the end of March, that number had grown to around 100,000.[43]

These people were part of the first wave of Palestinian refugees of the conflict. Mostly the middle and upper classes fled, including the majority of the families of local governors and representatives of the Arab Higher Committee.[43] Non-Palestinian Arabs also fled in large numbers. Most of them did not abandon the hope of returning to Palestine once the hostilities had ended.[69]

## Policies of foreign powers

[edit]

Many decisions were made abroad that had an important influence over the outcome of the conflict.

### Britain and the Jordanian choice

[edit]

Britain did not want a Palestinian state led by the Mufti, and opted unofficially instead, on 7 February 1948, to support the annexation of the Arab part of Palestine by Abdullah I of Jordan.[41] At a meeting in London between the commander of Transjordan's Arab Legion, Glubb Pasha, and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs, Ernest Bevin, the two parties agreed that they would facilitate the entry of the Arab Legion into Palestine on 15 May and that the Arab part of Palestine be occupied by it. However, they held that the Arab Legion not enter the vicinity of Jerusalem or the Jewish state itself.[41] This option did not envisage a Palestinian Arab state. Although the ambitions of King Abdullah are known, it is not apparent to what extent the authorities of Yishuv, the Arab Higher Committee or the Arab League knew of this decision.[citation needed]

### United States turnabout

[edit]

In mid-March, after the increasing disorder in Palestine and faced with the fear, later judged unfounded, of an Arab petrol embargo,[70] the US government announced the possible withdrawal of its support for the UN's partition plan and for dispatching an international force to guarantee its implementation. The US suggested that Palestine instead be put under UN supervision.[71][72] On 1 April, the UN Security Council voted on the US proposal to convoke a special assembly to reconsider the Palestinian problem; the Soviet Union abstained.[73] This U-turn by the US caused concern and debate among Yishuv authorities. They thought that after the withdrawal of British troops, the Yishuv could not effectively resist the Arab forces without the support of the US. In this context, Elie Sasson, the director of the Arab section of Jewish Agency, and several other personalities, persuaded David Ben-Gurion and Golda Meyerson to advance a diplomatic initiative to the Arabs. The job of negotiation was delegated to Joshua Palmon, who was prohibited from limiting the Haganah's liberty of action but was authorized to declare that "the Jewish people were ready with a truce."[74]

### Logistical support of the Eastern Bloc

[edit]

In the context of the embargo imposed upon Palestinian belligerents—Jewish and Arab alike—and the dire lack of arms by the Yishuv in Palestine, Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin's decision to breach the embargo and support the Yishuv with arms exported from Czechoslovakia played a role in the war that was differently appreciated.[75] However, Syria also bought arms from Czechoslovakia for the Arab Liberation Army, but the shipment never arrived due to Haganah intervention.[76]

Possible motivations for Stalin's decision include his support of the UN Partition plan, and allowing Czechoslovakia to earn some foreign income after being forced to refuse Marshall Plan assistance.[77]

The extent of this support and the concrete role that it played is up for debate. Figures advanced by historians tend to vary. Yoav Gelber spoke of 'small deliveries from Czechoslovakia arriving by air [...] from April 1948 onwards'[78] whereas various historians have argued that there was an unbalanced level of support in favor of Yishuv, given that the Palestinian Arabs did not benefit from an equivalent level of Soviet support.[79] In any case, the embargo that was extended to all Arab states in May 1948 by the UN Security Council caused great problems to them.[80]

### Arab leaders' refusal of direct involvement

[edit]

Arab leaders did what they could to avoid being directly involved[81] in support for the Palestinian cause.[82]

At the Arab League summit of October 1947, in Aley, the Iraqi general, Ismail Safwat, painted a realist picture of the situation. He underlined the better organization and greater financial support of the Jewish people in comparison to the Palestinians. He recommended the immediate deployment of the Arab armies at the Palestinian borders, the dispatching of weapons and ammunition to the Palestinians, and the contribution of a million pounds of financial aid to them. His proposals were rejected, other than the suggestion to send financial support, which was not followed up on.

Nonetheless, a techno-military committee was established to coordinate assistance to the Palestinians. Based in Cairo, it was directed by Sawfat, who was supported by Lebanese and Syrian officers and representatives of the Higher Arab Committee. A Transjordian delegate was also appointed, but he did not participate in meetings.

At the December 1947 Cairo summit, under pressure by public opinion, the Arab leaders decided to create a military command that united all the heads of all the major Arab states, headed by Safwat. They still ignored his calls for financial and military aid, preferring to defer any decision until the end of the Mandate,[83] but, nevertheless, decide to form the Arab Liberation Army, which would go into action in the following weeks.[84]

On the night of 20–21 January 1948, around 700 armed Syrians entered Palestine via Transjordan.[85] In February 1948, Safwat reiterated his demands, but they fell on deaf ears: the Arab governments hoped that the Palestinians, aided by the Arab Liberation Army, could manage on their own until the International community renounced the partition plan.[83]

## Balance of powers

[edit]

Sten submachine gun

The Arab Liberation Army was, in theory, financed and equipped by the Arab League. A budget of one million pounds sterling had been promised to them,[86] due to the insistence of Ismail Safwat. In reality, though, funding never arrived, and only Syria truly supported the Arab volunteers in concrete terms. Syria bought from Czechoslovakia a quantity of arms for the Arab Liberation Army but the shipment never arrived due to Hagana force intervention.[76]

According to Lapierre & Collins, on the ground, logistics were completely neglected, and their leader, Fawzi al-Qawuqji, envisaged that his troops survive only on the expenses accorded to them by the Palestinian population.[87] However, Gelber says that the Arab League had arranged the supplies through special contractors.[88] They were equipped with different types of light weapons, light and medium-sized mortars, a number of 75 mm and 105 mm guns, and armoured vehicles but their stock of shells was small.[89][90]

The situation that the Army of the Holy War and the Palestinian forces were in was worse. They could not rely on any form of foreign support and had to get by on the funds that Mohammad Amin al-Husayni could raise. The troops' armament was limited to what the fighters already had. To make things even worse, they had to be content with arms bought on the black market or pillaged from British warehouses, and, as a result, did not really have enough arms to wage war.[91]

Until March, Haganah suffered also a lack of arms. The Jewish fighters benefitted from a number of clandestine factories that manufactured some light weapons,[92] ammunition and explosives. The one weapon of which there was no shortage was locally produced explosives.[93] However, they had far less than what was necessary to carry out a war: in November, only one out of every three Jewish combatants was armed, rising to two out of three within Palmach.[94]

Haganah sent agents to Europe and to the United States, in order to arm and equip this army. To finance all of this, Golda Meir managed, by the end of December, to collect $25 million through a fundraising campaign set about in the United States to capitalize on American sympathisers to the Zionist cause.[95] Out of the 129 million US dollars raised between October 1947 and March 1949 for the Zionist cause, more than $78 million, over 60%, were used to buy arms and munition.[96]

A leased transport plane was used for the Operation Balak first arms ferry flight from Czechoslovakia on the end of March 1948. At the beginning of April 1948, a shipment of thousands of rifles and hundreds of machine guns arrived at Tel Aviv harbor. With this big shipment, Haganah could supply weapons to a concentrated effort, without taking over the arms of other Jewish territory and risking them being with no weapons.[97] Haganah went into the offensive, although still lacking heavy weapons.

## Reorganisation of Haganah

[edit]

Theatre of Operation of each Haganah brigade.

After 'having gotten the Jews of Palestine and of elsewhere to do everything that they could, personally and financially, to help Yishuv,' Ben-Gurion's second greatest achievement was his having successfully transformed Haganah from being a clandestine paramilitary organization into a true army.[98] Ben-Gurion appointed Israel Galili to the position of head of the High Command counsel of Haganah and divided Haganah into 6 infantry brigades, numbered 1 to 6, allotting a precise theatre of operation to each one. Yaakov Dori was named Chief of Staff, but it was Yigael Yadin who assumed the responsibility on the ground as chief of Operations. Palmach, commanded by Yigal Allon, was divided into 3 elite brigades, numbered 10–12, and constituted the mobile force of Haganah.[99] Ben-Gurion's attempts to retain personal control over the newly formed IDF lead later in July to The Generals' Revolt.

On 19 November 1947, obligatory conscription was instituted for all men and women aged between 17 and 25. By end of March 21,000 people had been conscripted.[100][101] On 30 March the call-up was extended to men and single women aged between 26 and 35. Five days later a General Mobilization order was issued for all men under 40.[102]

"From November 1947, the Haganah, (...) began to change from a territorial militia into a regular army. (...) Few of the units had been well trained by December. (...) By March–April, it fielded still under-equipped battalion and brigades. By April–May, the Haganah was conducting brigade size offensive."[103]

## War of the roads and blockade of Jerusalem

[edit]

### Geographic situation of the Jewish zones

[edit]

Map of Jewish settlements and roads in Palestine by 1 December 1947

Apart from on the coastline, Jewish yishuvim, or settlements, were very dispersed. Communication between the coastal area (the main area of Jewish settlements) and the peripheral settlements was by road. These road were an easy target for attacks, as most of them passed through or near entirely Arab localities. The isolation of the 100,000 Jewish people in Jerusalem and other Jewish settlements outside the coastal zone, such as kibbutz Kfar Etzion, halfway on the strategic road between Jerusalem and Hebron, the 27 settlements in the southern region of Negev[104] and the settlements to the north of Galilee, were a strategic weakness for the Yishuv.

The possibility of evacuating these difficult to defend zones was considered, but the policy of Haganah was set by David Ben-Gurion. He stated that "what the Jewish people have has to be conserved. No Jewish person should abandon his or her house, farm, kibbutz or job without authorization. Every outpost, every colony, whether it is isolated or not, must be occupied as though it were Tel Aviv itself."[42] No Jewish settlement was evacuated until the invasion of May 1948. Only a dozen kibbutzim in Galilee, and those in Gush Etzion sent women and children into the safer interior zones.[105]

Ben-Gurion gave instructions that the settlements of Negev be reinforced in number of men and goods,[104] in particular the kibbutzim of Kfar Darom and Yad Mordechai (both close to Gaza), Revivim (south of Beersheba), and Kfar Etzion. Conscious of the danger that weighed upon Negev, the supreme command of Haganah assigned a whole Palmach battalion there.[106]

### Siege of Jerusalem

[edit]

Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni, prominent military leader during the Palestinian Civil War. An Arab road block, at the main road to Jerusalem

Main article: Battle for Jerusalem (1948)

Jerusalem and the great difficulty of accessing the city became even more critical to its Jewish population, who made up one sixth of the total Jewish population in Palestine. The long and difficult route from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, after leaving the Jewish zone at Hulda, went through the foothills of Latrun. The 28-kilometre route between Bab al-Wad and Jerusalem took no less than three hours,[107] and the route passed near the Arab villages of Saris, Qaluniya, Al-Qastal, and Deir Yassin.[108]

Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni arrived in Jerusalem with the intent to surround and besiege its Jewish community.[109] He moved to Surif, a village to the southwest of Jerusalem, with his supporters—around a hundred fighters who were trained in Syria before the war and who served as officers in his army, Jihad al-Muqadas, or Army of the Holy War. He was joined by a hundred or so young villagers and Arab veterans of the British Army.[110] His militia soon had several thousand men,[111] and it moved its training quarters to Bir Zeit, a town near Ramallah.

Abd al-Qadir's zone of influence extended down to the area of Lydda, Ramleh, and the Judean Hills where Hasan Salama commanded 1,000 men.[112] Salama, like Abd al-Qadir, had been affiliated with Mufti Haj Amin al Husseini for years, and had also been a commander in the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, participated in the Rashid Ali coup of 1941 and the subsequent Anglo-Iraqi War.[113] Salama had re-entered Palestine in 1944 in Operation Atlas, parachuting into the Jordan Valley as a member of a special German—Arab commando unit of the Waffen SS.[114] He coordinated with al-Husayni to execute a plan of disruption and harassment of road traffic in an attempt to isolate and blockade Western (Jewish) Jerusalem.[115][116]

On 10 December, the first organized attack occurred when ten members of a convoy between Bethlehem and Kfar Etzion were killed.[115]

On 14 January, Abd al-Qadir himself commanded and took part in an attack against Kfar Etzion, in which 1,000 Palestinian Arab combatants were involved. The attack was a failure, and 200 of al-Husayni's men died. Nonetheless, the attack did not come without losses of Jewish lives: a detachment of 35 Palmach men who sought to reinforce the establishment were ambushed and killed.[117]

On 25 January, a Jewish convoy was attacked near the Arab village of al-Qastal.[118] The attack went badly and several villages to the northeast of Jerusalem answered a call for assistance, although others did not, for fear of reprisals.[118] The campaign for control over the roads became increasingly militaristic in nature, and became a focal point of the Arab war effort.[118] After 22 March, supply convoys to Jerusalem stopped, due to a convoy of around thirty vehicles having been destroyed in the gorges of Bab-el-Wad.[119]

On 27 March, an important supply convoy from Kfar Etzion was taken in an ambush in south of Jerusalem. They were forced to surrender all of their arms, ammunition and vehicles to al-Husayni's forces. The Jews of Jerusalem requested the assistance of the United Kingdom after 24 hours of combat. According to a British report, the situation in Jerusalem, where a food rationing system was already in application, risked becoming desperate after 15 May.[120]

The situation in other areas of the country was as critical as the one of Jerusalem. The settlements of Negev were utterly isolated, due to the impossibility of using the Southern coastal road, which passed through zones densely populated by Arabs.[120] On 27 March, a convoy of supplies (the Yehiam convoy)[36] that was intended for the isolated kibbutzim north-west of Galilee was attacked in the vicinity of Nahariya. In the ensuing battle, 42–47 Haganah combatants and around a hundred fighters of the Arab Liberation Army were killed, and all vehicles involved were destroyed.[119][120][121]

## Haganah offensive (1 April – 15 May 1948)

[edit]

Shielded Jewish convoy during the blockade of Tel Aviv–Jerusalem road

The second phase of the war, which began in April, marked a huge change in direction, as Haganah moved to the offensive.

In this stage, Arab forces were composed of around 10,000 men among which between 3,000 and 5,000 foreign volunteers serving in the Arab Liberation Army.[122][123][124] Haganah and Palmach forces were steadily increasing. In March, they aligned around 15,000 men[125] and in May around 30,000 who were better equipped, trained and organized.[126][127][128]

The armed Palestinian groups were roundly defeated, Yishuv took control of some of the principal routes that linked the Jewish settlements, and as a consequence, Jerusalem was able to receive supplies again. Palestinian society collapsed. Many mixed cities were taken by the Haganah as well as Jaffa. A massive exodus was triggered.

### Plan Dalet

[edit]

Main article: Plan Dalet

Yaakov Dori, Haganah's Chief of Staff, and his right-hand man, Yigael Yadin, Chief of Operations.

Plan Dalet was finalized on 10 March 1948, under the direction of Yigael Yadin. 75 pages long, it laid down the rules and the objects that were to be followed by Haganah during the second phase of the war. Its principal objective was to secure Yishuv's uninterrupted territorial connections, particularly in response to the war of the roads carried out by Al-Husayni and in preparation for the Arab states' declared intervention. Plan Dalet caused quite a controversy among historians. Some see it as a plan that was primarily defensive and military in nature and a preparation against invasion,[129] whereas others think that the plan was offensive in nature and aimed at conquering as much of Palestine as possible,[130] or enacted with the aim of ethnically cleansing Palestine.[131]

### Operation Nachshon (2–20 April)

[edit]

Main article: Operation Nachshon

Map of Operation Nachshon's theatre of operations Haganah soldier in Al-Qastal on 5 April 1948. Palestinian irregulars of the Holy War Army, approaching al-Qastal village near Jerusalem to take it back from Palmach.

At the end of March 1948, Husayni's troops prevented supply convoys from reaching Jerusalem. The city was besieged and the Jewish population was forced to adhere to a rationing system. Ben-Gurion decided to launch the operation Nachshon to open up the city and provide supplies to Jerusalem.[132] Operation Nachshon marked the Haganah shift to the offensive, even before launching plan D.[133]

The first orders were given on 2 April 1948 with diversion attacks including Qastel.[134] Between 5–20 April 1500 men from the Givati and Harel brigades took control of the road to Jerusalem[135] and allowed 3 or 4 convoys to reach the city.[136]

The operation was a military success. All the Arab villages that blocked the route were either taken or destroyed, and the Jewish forces were victorious in all their engagements. Nonetheless, not all the objectives of the operation were achieved, since only 1800 tonnes of the 3,000 envisaged were transported to the city, and two months of severe rationing had to be assumed.[137]

Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni was killed during the night of 7–8 April, in the midst of the battles taking place in Al-Qastal. The loss of this charismatic Palestinian leader 'disrupted the Arab strategy and organization in the area of Jerusalem.'[138] His successor, Emil Ghuri, changed tactics: instead of provoking a series of ambushes throughout the route, he had a huge road block erected at Bab al-Wad, and Jerusalem was once again isolated as a consequence.[139]

Operation Nachshon exposed the poor military organization of the Palestinian paramilitary groups. Due to lack of logistics, particularly food and ammunition, they were incapable of maintaining engagements that were more than a few hours away from their permanent bases.[140]

Faced with these events, the Arab Higher Committee asked Alan Cunningham to allow the return of the Mufti, the only person capable of redressing the situation. Despite obtaining permission, the Mufti did not get to Jerusalem. His declining prestige cleared the way for the expansion of the influence of the Arab Liberation Army and of Fawzi Al-Qawuqji in the Jerusalem area.[140]

In April, Yishuv forces began to resort to biological warfare in a top-secret operation called 'Cast Thy Bread', whose aim was to prevent the return of Palestinians to the villages Yishuv forces had conquered, and, as the practice reached beyond the key Tel-Aviv-Jerusalem lines, make conditions difficult for any Arab armies that might retake territory. This consisted in poisoning village wells. In the final months of the ensuing 1948 Arab-Israeli war, as Israel gained the upper hand, orders were apparently given to extend the use of biological agents against the Arab states themselves.[141]

### Battle of Mishmar HaEmek (4–15 April)

[edit]

Women training at Mishmar HaEmek Jewish soldiers at the entry of the Mishmar Ha'emek, 1948

Main article: Battle of Mishmar HaEmek

Mishmar HaEmek is a kibbutz that was founded by Mapam in 1930, in the Jezreel Valley, close to the road between Haifa and Jenin that passes the Megiddo kibbutz. It is situated in a place that Haganah officers considered to be on one of the most likely axes of penetration for a 'major Arab attack' against the Yishuv.[142][143]

On 4 April, the Arab Liberation Army launched an attack on the kibbutz with the support of artillery. The attack was fought off by the members of the kibbutz, who were supported by Haganah soldiers. The artillery fire that had almost totally destroyed the kibbutz was stopped by a British column, who arrived on the scene by order of General MacMillan, and, on 7 April, Fawzi Al-Qawuqji accepted a 24-hour ceasefire, but required that the kibbutz be surrendered. The inhabitants of the kibbutz evacuated their children, and, after having consulted Tel Aviv, refused to surrender.[143][144]

On 8 or 9 April, Haganah prepared a counter-offensive. Yitzhak Sadeh was put in charge of operations, with the order to 'clean out' the region. The battle lasted until 15 April. Sadeh's men besieged all the villages around the kibbutz, and the Arab Liberation Army had to retreat to its bases in Jabba. The majority of the inhabitants of the region fled, but those who did not were either imprisoned or expelled to Jenin. The villages were plundered by some Kibbutznikim and razed to the ground with explosives with accordance to Plan Dalet.[145][146]

According to Morris, the Arab Liberation Army soldiers were demoralized by reports of the Deir Yassin massacre and the death of Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni. Throughout battle, they had generally been forced to withdraw and to abandon the people of the villages.[147] Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins report that Joshua Palmon, head of a unit of 6 men, failed to seize invaluable pieces of artillery, and they depict the events as a débâcle for which Fawzi Al-Qawuqji offered extravagant excuses, declaring in particular that the Jewish forces has 120 tanks, six squadrons of fighter and bomber aircraft and that they were supported by a regiment of Russian volunteers.[148] According to Morris, "according to Ben-Gurion, some 640 Haganah soldiers had faced about twenty-five hundred ALA troops, with superior firepower—and bested them".[149] When the battle finished, Palmach forces continued 'cleaning' operations until 19 April, destroying several villages and forcing those who inhabited them to flee. Some villages were also evacuated under the instruction of Arab authorities.[150]

In May, Irgun engaged in several operations in the region, razing a number of villages and killing some of their inhabitants, as did some detachments from the Golani and Alexandroni brigades.[151]

### Deir Yassin massacre

[edit]

Main article: Deir Yassin massacre

Deir Yassin is a village located 5 kilometres west of Jerusalem. On 9 April 1948, independently of operation Nachshon, around 120 Irgun and Lehi men attacked the village and ran into resistance, capturing it after a fierce battle with Palmach help. The Irgun and Lehi lost 4 dead and 35 wounded. Between 100 and 120 inhabitants of the village were killed in the attack, mostly civilians.[152] The Haganah had approved the attack and assisted in it.[152]

The operation led to indignation from the international community, the more so since the press of the time reported that the death toll was 254. Ben-Gurion roundly condemned it,[153] as did the principal Jewish authorities: the Haganah, the Great Rabbinate and the Jewish Agency for Israel, who sent a letter of condemnation, apology and condolence to King Abdullah I of Jordan.[154]

According to Morris, "the most important immediate effect of the atrocity and the media campaign that followed it was how one started to report the fear felt in Palestinian towns and villages, and, later, the panicked fleeing from them."[154] Another important repercussion was within the Arab population of neighbouring Arab states, which, once again, increased its pressure on the representatives of these states to intervene and come to the aid of the Palestinian Arabs.[154][155]

### Hadassah medical convoy massacre

[edit]

Main article: Hadassah medical convoy massacre

On 13 April, partly in revenge for the Deir Yassin massacre, a convoy that was driving towards Jerusalem's Hadassah Hospital on Mount Scopus was attacked by hundreds of Arabs. In the seven-hour battle 79 Jews were killed including doctors and patients.[76] Thirteen British soldiers were present, but they stood by, only putting in a perfunctory attempt at intervention in the last moments of the massacre.[156]

Lieutenant-Colonel Jack Churchill was present at the scene, and later testified that he had attempted to assist the Hadassah convoy by radioing for support, only for the request to be turned down.[157]

### Battle of Ramat Yohanan and the defection of the Druze

[edit]

Following the 'fiasco'[158] of Mishmar HaEmek, Fawzi Al-Qawuqji ordered the Druze regiment of the Arab Liberation Army into action, to carry out diversion operations. Druze soldiers took position in several Arab villages 12 kilometres to the east of Haifa,[159] whence they occasionally attacked traffic and Jewish settlements, including Ramat Yohanan.[151]

The Kibbutznikim and the Haganah soldiers that supported them forced back their attacks and razed the villages from which they launched their attacks. Having run out of ammunition, the Druze withdrew to their base in Shefa-'Amr, with one hundred casualties.[160][161] After an initial failure, a battalion-sized Carmeli force on the night of 15–16 April overran the two villages. The Druze Battalion, on 16 April assaulted the Carmeli positions nine times but the Carmeli troops fought back. By afternoon, the exhausted Druze troops retreated. A Haganah report praised "the well trained and very brave enemy forces."[162]

The Druze had already made contact on several occasions with Yishuv agents and following their defeat at Ramat Yohanan, the Druze officers offered to defect and to join the ranks of Haganah. This proposition was discussed with Yigael Yadin, who refused the proposal but suggested that they could help to carry out sabotage operations behind the backs of the Arabs and to influence their comrades into deserting the army. By the start of May, 212 Wahab soldiers deserted. Taking into account the attitude of his men, Wahab met with Jewish liaison officers on 9 May and agreed to cooperate with Haganah. The two parties avoided clashes, and Wahab created a neutral enclave in the centre of Galilee. Wahab's army did not respond to calls for it to help fight Haganah's occupation of Acre, and avoided being present while Haganah occupied the police fortress of Shefa-'Amr during its evacuation by the British.[160]

The position that the Druze took influenced their fate after the war. Given the good relationship between the Druze and Yishuv from 1930 onwards despite their collaboration with the Arab Higher Council and the Arab League, Ben-Gurion insisted that the Druze, as well as the Circassians and the Maronites benefit from a different position to that of the other Arabs.[163]

### Siege of mixed localities

[edit]

In the context of Plan Dalet, mixed urban centres, or those on the borders of the Jewish state, were attacked and besieged by Jewish forces. Tiberias was attacked on 10 April and fell six days later; Haifa fell on 23 April, after only one day of combat (Operation Bi'ur Hametz), and Jaffa was attacked on 27 April but fell only after the British abandoned it (Operation Hametz). Safed and Beisan (Operation Gideon) fell on 11 May and 13 May respectively, within the framework of Operation Yitfah, and Acre fell on 17 May, within the framework of Operation Ben-Ami.

The Arab inhabitants of these towns fled or were expelled en masse. In these 6 cities, only 13,000 of the total of 177,000 Arab inhabitants remained by the end of May. This phenomenon ricocheted also in the suburbs and the majority of the zone's Arab villages.

Despite the deteriorating situation for the Arabs, a representative of the Arab Higher Committee Representative stated to UN Security Council on April 16 that the Arabs would reject any ceasefire that does not undo the Partition plan.[citation needed]

### Operation Yiftah (20 April – 24 May)

[edit]

Main article: Operation Yiftach

Map of Operation Yiftah's theatre of operations

Galilee Panhandle, a zone in northeastern Galilee, between the Lake Tiberias and Metula, was the Jewish-controlled area that was the most distant and isolated from the area most densely populated by Jews, the coastal plain. The presence of the Lebanese border to the north, the Syrian border to east and the Arab presence in the rest of Galilee made it a probable target for intervention of the Arab armies.[164] Within the framework of the Dalet plan, Yigael Yadin entrusted Yigal Allon, commander of the Palmach, with the responsibility of managing Operation Yiftah, whose objectives were to control all the aforementioned area and consolidate it ahead of the Arab attack that was planned for 15 May.[165]

Allon was in charge the 1st and 3rd Palmach battalions, which had to face the populace of Safed and several dozen Arab villages. The situation was made more problematic by the presence of the British, although they began their evacuation of the area. According to his analysis, it was essential that they empty the zone of any Arab presence to completely protect themselves; the exodus would also encumber the roads that the Arab forces would have to penetrate.[166]

On 20 April, Allon launched a campaign that mixed propaganda, attacks, seizing control of strongholds that the British had abandoned, and destroying conquered Arab villages. On 1 May, a counter-offensive was launched by Arab militiamen against Jewish settlements but was ultimately unsuccessful. On 11 May, Safed fell, and the operation finished on 24 May after the villages of the valley of Hula were burnt down. Syrian forces' planned offensive in the area failed and, by the end of June, Galilee panhandle from Tiberias to Metula, incorporating Safed, was emptied of all its Arab population.[167]

### Meeting of Golda Meir and King Abdullah I of Jordan (10 May)

[edit]

Golda Meir in 1943

On 10 May, Golda Meir and Ezra Danin secretly went to Amman, to the palace of King Abdullah to discuss the situation with him. The situation that Abdullah found himself in was difficult. On one hand, his personal ambitions, the promises made by the Yishuv in November 1947[citation needed] and the British approval of these promises pushed him to consider annexing the Arab part of Palestine without intervening against the future state of Israel. On the other hand, the pressure exerted by his people in reaction to the massacre of Deir Yassin, combined with their feelings with regard to the Palestinian exodus and his agreements with other members of the Arab League pushed him to be more strongly involved in the war against Israel.[168] He also found himself in a position of power, having the benefit of military support from not only the Arab League, but the British. In his diary, Ben-Gurion wrote about Golda Meir's reaction to the meeting:

> We met [on 10 May] amicably. He was very worried and looks terrible. He did not deny that there had been talk and understanding between us about a desirable arrangement, namely that he would take the Arab part [of Palestine]. (...) But Abdullah had said that he could now, on 10 May, only offer the Jews "autonomy" within an enlarged Hashemite kingdom. He added that while he was not interested in invading the areas allocated for Jewish statehood, the situation was volatile. But he voiced the hope that Jordan and the Yishuv would conclude a peace agreement once the dust had settled.[169]

Historical analyses of the motivations and conclusions of this meeting differ. According to Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins – as well as Israeli historiographers[who?][170] – the intention behind the Yishuv's negotiation was to obtain a peace treaty and avoid an attack by Arab forces. At that time, the balance of power was not favourable for them, but Meir did not manage to convince the King.

King Abdullah of Jordan

According to Morris,[171] Abdullah 'reconsidered the promises that he made in November to not be opposed to the partition plan,' but left Meir with the impression that he would make peace with the Jewish state once the civil war had finished.

Avi Shlaim[41] spoke of a 'tacit' agreement to prevent the division of Palestine with the Palestinians, arguing the idea that there was a collusion between the Hashemite Kingdom and Yishuv. The historian Yoav Gelber, however, rejected this idea and devoted an entire work to dismounting it.[172]

Pierre Razoux indicated that 'the majority of experts consider it probable'[better source needed] that Ben-Gurion and King Abdullah had an understanding over dividing Palestine, and that only the pressure from the Arab states on Abdullah constrained him from following up on his promise. According to Razoux, this idea explains the attitude of the British, who, following this plan, would thereby fulfill the promises made by Arthur Balfour to the Yishuv and the Hashemite empire at the same time. He states that the presence of Arab Legion troops, before 15 May, near strategic positions held by the British is in this way easy to understand.[173]

Ilan Pappé[174] stressed that neither Abdullah's ministers, nor the Arab world itself, seemed to be privy to the discussions held between him and the Yishuv, even if his ambitions on Palestine were widely known. He also stated that Sir Alec Kirkbride and Glubb Pasha thought at the time that, at the very least, Azzam Pasha, the Secretary of the Arab League, must have known about Abdullah's double game.

It is certain, on the other hand, that Golda Meir and King Abdullah did not come to an agreement on the status of Jerusalem. On 13 May, the Arab Legion took Kfar Etzion,[175] strategically located halfway along the road between Hebron and Jerusalem. On 17 May, Abdullah ordered Glubb Pasha, commander of the Arab Legion, to launch an attack against the Holy City.

### Kfar Etzion massacre

[edit]

Main article: Kfar Etzion massacre

Location of Gush Etzion (highlighted in red) Jewish prisoners taken after the fall of Gush Etzion

Kfar Etzion is a group of four settlements established on the strategic route between Hebron and Jerusalem, right in the middle of Arab inhabited territory. It had 400 inhabitants at the end of 1947. After the adoption of Resolution 181(II), it was the object of Arab attacks. Ben-Gurion reinforced it on 7 December, protecting it with a Palmach division, but on 8 January, he authorized the evacuation of the women and children of the settlements.

After 26 March, the last date on which a supply convoy successfully reached it, despite heavy losses of life, the defenders were completely isolated.

On 12 May, Arab Legion units started to attack the settlements. The motivations advanced include their desire to protect one of their last supply convoys before the embargo took effect, which had to travel down the road by Kfar Etzion. Another theory is that the block of settlements obstructed the deployment of the Legion in the area around Hebron, whose attack was one of Abdullah's principal objectives.[176] External defences fell quickly, and, on 13 May, the first kibbutz was captured, and those who were taken prisoner were massacred; only four survived.[177][178] Of the 131 defenders, 127, including 21 women, were killed, or massacred after they surrendered.[179] The other three establishments surrendered, and the kibbutzim were first plundered, then razed to the ground. In March 1949 320 prisoners from the Etzion settlements were released from the "Jordan POW camp at Mafrak", including 85 women.[180]

The events that took place at Kfar Etzion made apparent the limitations of the policy prohibiting evacuation. Although it was effective during civil war, when facing militias, isolated Jewish settlements could not resist the firepower of a regular army, and an evacuation could have made it possible to avoid the captivity or death of those who defended the settlements.[177]

According to Yoav Gelber, the fall and massacre of Kfar Etzion influenced Ben-Gurion's decision to engage the Arab Legion on its way to Jerusalem, although the Haganah General Staff were divided about whether the Legion should be challenged inside Jerusalem itself as such a move could harm the Jews in the city. Ben-Gurion left the final decision to Shaltiel. The battle for Jerusalem was thus set in motion.[177]

### Jerusalem: Operations Yevusi and Kilshon ("Pitchfork") (13–18 May)

[edit]

Main articles: Operation Yevusi and Operation Kilshon

Jewish fighters in Katamon Bevingrad, centre of the British security zone in Jerusalem

Operation Yevusi lasted two weeks, from 22 April 1948 to 3 May 1948. Not all objectives were achieved before the British enforced a cease-fire. A Palmach force occupied the strategically located San Simon monastery in Katamon. Arab irregulars attacked the monastery and a heavy battle evolved. Both sides had a lot of wounded and killed fighters. The Palmach considered a retreat while the wounded fighters would blow themselves up, but then it was realized that the Arab force was exhausted and could not continue the fighting. As a result, the Arab residents left the suburb and the southern besieged Jewish suburbs were released.[181]

The Haganah intended to capture the Old City during the final days of the Mandate.[182] Its attacks on the seam between East and West Jerusalem from 13 to 18 May (known as Operation Kilshon) were planned as the initial phase of this conquest.[182]

In Jerusalem, the British held several strategically located security zones named "Bevingrads", at its centre. The city's radio station, telephone exchange and government hospital were located there, along with a number of barracks and the Notre Dame hostel, which dominated the city.[183] One of the main objectives of Operation Kilshon was to take control of these zones of strategic importance while the British withdrew. On 13 May the Haganah extended its control of the Old City's Jewish Quarter and on 14th (having obtained the precise schedule of the evacuation with British complicity) took control of the Bevingrads, including the central post office and the Russian Church compound at 04:00.[182][184] They surprised the Arab troops, who offered no resistance.[185]

A secondary objective of Operation Kilshon was to simultaneously create a continuous frontline between the various isolated Jewish localities. For this aim, Brigadier General David Shaltiel, Haganah's former envoy to Europe, was deployed along with a troop of 400 Haganah soldiers and 600 militia soldiers. Emil Ghuri, the new leader of the Army of the Holy War, also envisaged taking these districts and mobilized 600 soldiers for the mission, but prepared no specific operation.

The secondary aim was also successful. In the North of the city, Jewish forces seized Arab-populated Sheikh Jarrah, made a connection with Mount Scopus, and took the villages surrounding the American colony.[182] In the South, they ensured the connection of the German and Greek colonies with Talpiot and Ramat Rahel, after having taken the Allenby barracks. A Palmach unit even re-established contact with the Jewish district in the Old City via the Zion Gate.[186]

The irregular Arabic forces were rendered impotent and yielded to panic, calling the situation hopeless and announcing the imminent fall of the city.[187]

### Operation Ben-Ami (13–22 May)

[edit]

Map of Operation Ben-Ami's theatre of operations

Main article: Operation Ben-Ami

A Haganah plane dropping supplies to besieged Yehiam, January 1948

Within the framework of Plan Dalet, Yigael Yadin intended to make a breakthrough in the west of Galilee, wherein a number of isolated Jewish settlements were situated. This zone, which covers the land from Acre all the way to the Lebanese border, was allocated to the Arabs by the Partition plan, but was on the road through which Lebanese forces intended to enter into Palestine.[188]

The command of this operation was entrusted to Moshe Carmel, head of the Carmeli brigade. It consisted of two phases: the first began on the evening of 13 May, when a column of Haganah's armoured vehicles and lorries advanced along the coast with no resistance. The forces of the Arab Liberation Army fled without entering battle, and the first phase of the operation finished when Acre was taken on 18 May. In the second phase, from 19 to 21 May, troops went as far as the Yehi'am kibbutz by the Lebanese border, connecting it and conquering and destroying a number of Arab villages on the way.[189]

### Main wave of the Palestinian Arab exodus

[edit]

Main articles: 1948 Palestinian exodus and Causes of the 1948 Palestinian exodus

Palestinian Arab refugees in 1948

Haganah's move to offensive operations during the second phase of the war was accompanied by a huge exodus that involved 350,000 Arab refugees, adding to the 100,000 displaced during the First wave. The term 'Palestinian exodus' is often used to refer to both these and two subsequent waves. These two waves gained a considerable amount of press interest and were widely relayed in the press of the time, more so than most other Palestine-related events.[190]

The causes of and responsibility for this exodus are highly controversial topics among commentators on the conflict and even historians who specialize in this era. Among the various possible causes, Efraim Karsh attributes the exodus mainly to Arab authorities' instructions to escape,[191] whereas others argue that a policy of expulsion had been organized by the Yishuv authorities and implemented by Haganah.[192] Others yet reject these two assumptions and see the exodus as the cumulative effect of all the civil war's consequences.[193]

### Preparations made by the Arab League

[edit]

During the last meeting of the Arab League in February 1948, the Arab leaders expressed their convictions in the capacity of the Arab Liberation Army to help the Palestinians and to force the international community to give up on the UN-backed partition plan.[83] The following summit took place in Cairo on 10 April, with the situation having clearly developed with the death of Al-Husayni and the debacle at Mishmar Ha'emek.

Once again, Ismail Safwat called for the immediate deployment of the Arab state armies at the borders of Palestine, and for the need to go beyond the established policy of participating in little more than small-scale raids towards taking part in large-scale operations. For the first time, the Arab leaders discussed the possibility of intervening in Palestine.[194]

Syria and Lebanon declared themselves ready to intervene immediately, but King Abdullah refused to let the Arab Legion forces intervene immediately in favour of the Palestinians, a move which irritated the Secretary-General of the League, who declared that Abdallah only cedes to the British diktat.

Nonetheless, Abdullah declared himself ready to send the Legion to assist the Palestinian cause after 15 May. In response, Syria insisted that the Egyptian army also take part, and, in spite of the opposition of Egypt's prime minister, King Farouk responded favourably to the Syrian request, but due to his aim of curbing the Jordanians' hegemonic goals rather than his desire to help the Palestinians.[194]

Later on, following the visit of several Palestinian dignitaries in Amman, and despite the opposition of Syria and the Mufti, Haj Amin al-Husseini, Azzam Pasha accepted Abdullah's proposition and sent Ismail Safwat to Amman to organize a coordination between the Arab Liberation Army and Jordan's Arab Legion. It was decided that command over the operations would be reserved for King Abdullah, and that the Iraqis would deploy a brigade in Transjordan to prepare for intervention on 15 May.[195]

On 26 April, the 'intention to occupy Palestine' was officially announced at the Transjordanian parliament and the Jewish people were 'invited to place themselves beneath King Abdullah's jurisdiction.' The intention to spare their lives was also promised. Yishuv perceived this declaration as being one of war and encourages the Western world to pressure the King, through diplomatic means, to prevent his intervention.[196]

On 30 April, Jordanians, Egyptians and Iraqis disputed the command of Abdullah. Abdullah received the honorary title of Commander-in-Chief, while the Iraqi general, Aldine Nur Mahmud, was named Chief of Staff. Despite this show of unity, it was agreed that each army would act independent of each other in the theatre of operations.[197]

On 4 May, the Iraqi task force arrived at Mafraq. It was composed of a regiment of armoured tanks, a regiment of mechanized infantry, and twenty-four artillery weapons, and included 1500 men.[198] The Egyptians formed two brigades, deploying around 700 men into the Sinai.[199] The Syrians could not put together a better force, whereas the Lebanese announced that they could not take part in military operations on 10 May.

It was only two days before, on 8 May, that the British Foreign Office was certain of the Arab invasion. Whereas British analysts considered that all Arab armies, except the Arab Legion, were not prepared for the engagements to come,[200] the Egyptian officers claimed that their advance would be 'a parade with the least risk,' and that their army 'would be in Tel Aviv after just two weeks.'

The state of preparation of the army was such that they did not even have maps of Palestine.[201] At the time, the final plans of invasion had not even been established yet. British leaders tried in vain to make the Arab leaders reconsider their decision,[202] and Ismail Safwat resigned in indifference, but the Arab states seemed resolute. On 15 May 1948, the Arab League announced officially that it would intervene in Palestine to guarantee the security and right to self-determination of the inhabitants of Palestine in an independent state.

## Results and aftermath

[edit]

Zones controlled by Yishuv by 20 May 1948, with comparison to zones held some five months earlier.

According to Benny Morris, the result of these five and a half months of fighting was a "decisive Jewish victory". On one side, the "Palestinian Arab military power was crushed" and most of the population in the combat zones was fleeing or had been driven out. On the other side, the "Haganah transformed from a militia into an army" and succeeded "in consolidating its hold on a continuous strip of territory embracing the Coastal Plain, the Jezreel Valley, and the Jordan Valley." The Yishuv proved it had the capability to defend itself, persuading the United States and the remainder of the world to support it and the "victory over the Palestinian Arabs gave the Haganah the experience and self-confidence [...] to confront [...] the invading armies of the Arab states."[203]

Destroyed buildings in the Manshiya quarter of Jaffa, May 1948

According to Yoav Gelber, during the six weeks between the Haganah offensive on 1 April and the invasion of the Arab armies, the Arabs were defeated in almost every front. The Jewish forces captured four cities (Tiberias, Jaffa, Safed, and Haifa) and 190 villages; most of their residents fled. The refugees flooded Samaria, central Galilee, Mount Hebron region, Gaza region, as well as Transjordan, Lebanon, and southern Syria. With the defeat of the Palestinian forces and the ALA, the Arab League saw no other option than to invade at the end of the British Mandate. The process of deciding to invade and preparing for the attack began two or three weeks before the end of the Mandate, when the level of the defeat was revealed and it was clear the ALA could not prevent it.[204]

Although the Haganah was somewhat poorly armed, its offensive of the last weeks went well, because Arab villages did not come to the help of their neighboring Arab villages or towns. Moreover, only a few young Arab men from untouched areas (e.g. Nablus, Hebron) participated in the fighting in Jerusalem, Haifa, etc.[205] Anwar Nusseibeh, a supporter of the Mufti, said the Mufti refused to issue arms to anyone except his political supporters and only recruited his supporters for the forces of the Holy War Army. This partially accounts for the absence of an organized Arab force and for the insufficient amount of arms, which plagued the Arab defenders of Jerusalem.[206]

On 14 May 1948, David Ben-Gurion, on behalf of the Jewish leadership, declared the establishment of the State of Israel.[207] The 1948 Palestine war entered its second phase with the intervention of the Arab state armies and the beginning of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.

## See also

[edit]

* List of modern conflicts in the Middle East

## Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ T.G Fraser, 'The Arab Israeli Conflict', (Basingstoke, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp.40, 41.
2. ^ a b c Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 85
3. ^ Yoav Gelber (2004) p. 104
4. ^ Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine A/RES/181(II)(A+B) 29 November 1947 Archived 17 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
5. ^ Melvin I. Urofsky (January 1982). A voice that spoke for justice: the life and times of Stephen S. Wise. SUNY Press. p. 282\. ISBN 978-0-87395-538-6.
6. ^ Charles Herbert Levermore; Denys Peter Myers (1921). Yearbook of the League of Nations. The Brooklyn Daily Eagle. p. 63.
7. ^ Khalidi, Walid (1 October 1988). "Plan Dalet: Master Plan for the Conquest of Palestine". Journal of Palestine Studies. 18 (1): 4–19\. doi:10.2307/2537591. ISSN 0377-919X. JSTOR 2537591.4-19&rft.date=1988-10-01&rft.issn=0377-919X&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2537591#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2307/2537591&rft.aulast=Khalidi&rft.aufirst=Walid&rft_id=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2537591&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
8. ^ Abu-Laban & Bakan 2022, p. 511, "over 80 per cent"; Pappe 2022, p. 128, "Three-quarters of a million Palestinians ... almost 90 per cent"; Khalidi 2020, p. 60, "Some 80 percent ... At least 720,000 ..."; Slater 2020, pp. 81 ("about 750,000"), 83 ("over 80 percent"), and 350 ("It is no longer a matter of serious dispute that in the 1947–48 period—beginning well before the Arab invasion in May 1948—some 700,000 to 750,000 Palestinians were expelled from or fled their villages and homes in Israel in fear of their lives—an entirely justifiable fear, in light of massacres carried out by Zionist forces."); Shenhav 2019, p. 49, "750,000"; Bashir & Goldberg 2018, p. 7, "some 750,000"; Bishara 2017, pp. 138 ("expelled close to 750,000") and 148 n. 21 ("number of the refugees displaced ranged between 700,000 and 900,000"; Bäuml 2017, p. 105, "approximately 750,000"; Cohen 2017, p. 87, "approximately 700,000 ... between half a million and a million"; Manna 2013, pp. 93 ("approximately 750,000") and 99 n. 12 ("Recently, both Palestinian and Israeli scholars seem to agree on this estimate of 700,000–750,000 refugees."); Masalha 2012, pp. 2, "about 90 per cent ... 750,000 refugees"; Wolfe 2012, p. 133, "some three quarters of a million"; Davis 2011, pp. 7 ("more than 750,000") and 237 n. 21 ("Most scholars generally agree with the UN number, which it was somewhere in the vicinity of 750,000"); Lentin 2010, pp. 6 ("at least 80 per cent") and 7 ("more than 700,000"); Ghanim 2009, p. 25, "Around 750,000-900,000"; Kimmerling 2008, p. 280, "700,000 to 900,000"; Morris 2008, p. 407, "some seven hundred thousand"; Sa'di 2007, pp. 297, "at least 780,000 ... more than 80 percent"
9. ^ Abu-Laban & Bakan 2022, p. 511; Manna 2022, p. 17; Pappe 2022, pp. 121 and 128 ("Half of the villages had been destroyed, flattened by Israeli bulldozers ..."); Khalidi 2020, p. 73, "conquest and depopulation ... of scores of Arab cities, towns, and villages"; Shenhav 2019, p. 49, "abolition of hundreds of Palestinian towns and villages"; Bashir & Goldberg 2018, p. 1, "destruction of hundreds of villages and urban neighborhoods ... evacuation of villages"; Cohen 2017, p. 80; Pappe 2017, p. 66, "In a matter of seven months, 531 villages were destroyed and eleven urban neighborhoods emptied." Rouhana & Sabbagh-Khoury 2017, p. 400, "Palestinian cities whose inhabitants were almost completely forced out ... hundreds of evacuated and destroyed towns"; Rashed, Short & Docker 2014, p. 10 (quoting Mark Levene) "With at least 5,000 men, women, and children slaughtered in the massacres, 531 villages and 11 major towns destroyed and up to 800,000 folk uprooted, mostly into exile, the point of Pappe's effort can only be affirmed."; Manna 2013, p. 91; Khoury 2012, p. 259; Masalha 2012, pp. 3 ("over 500 villages and towns and a whole country and its people disappeared from international maps and dictionaries ... Walid Khalidi ... listed 418 depopulated and destroyed villages. However, Salman Abu-Sitta's figure of 531 includes 77 destroyed Bedouin villages in the south"), 7 ("coastal cities of Palestine — Jaffa, Haifa and Acre — were largely depopulated"), 74 ("hundreds of villages had been completely depopulated and their houses blown up or bulldozed"), 90-91 ("Of the 418 depopulated villages documented by Khalidi, 293 (70 per cent) were totally destroyed and 90 (22 per cent) were largely destroyed."), 107 ("nearly 500 destroyed and depopulated villages"), and 115 ("towns and villages of southern Palestine, including the cities of Beer Sheba and al-Majdal, were completely depopulated"); Wolfe 2012, p. 161 n.1, "According to official Israeli estimates, over 85% of Palestinian villages were ‘abandoned’ in the Nakba, 218 villages being listed as destroyed."; Davis 2011, pp. 7 ("destruction of more than four hundred villages ... depopulation of Palestinians from cities"), 9 ("418 villages that were emptied"), and 237 n. 20 ("The total number of depopulated villages, hamlets, settlements, and towns is estimated to be between 290 and 472. The most comprehensive study and the clearest on its methods for including and eliminating population settlements is the massive All That Remains (W. Khalidi 1992), which estimates the number of villages to be 418. According to this study, Israeli topographical maps chart 290 villages, Benny Morris's 1987 study lists 369, and the Palestinian encyclopedia published by Hay’at al-Mawsu‘a al-Filastiniyya gives 391 (among other sources on the subject)."); Ghanim 2009, p. 25, "about 531 villages were deliberately destroyed"; Kimmerling 2008, p. 280, "Most of their villages, towns, and neighborhoods were destroyed or repopulated by Jewish residents"; Sa'di 2007, pp. 293-297 ("[p. 297] destruction of some 420 Palestinian towns and villages")
10. ^ Morris 2008, p. 180 and further
11. ^ Morris 2008, pp. 236, 237, 247, 253, 254
12. ^ Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine, volume 2, Fayard, Paris 2002, pp. 571–572.
13. ^ Walid Khalidi. "Before their Diaspora." IPS 1984; ISBN 0-88728-143-5. p. 253. Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem, 1947–1949, 2004, p. 343. Morris gives no precise date or number of casualties but describes the house as "suspected of being an Arab terrorist headquarters." He also states that on 20 May 1947 the Palamach blew up a coffee house in Fajja after the murder of two Jews in Petah Tikva.
14. ^ Morris 2004 p. 343:9 December 1947, the Givati brigade blew up a house in the village of Karatiyya; on 11 December a house was blown up in Haifa's Wadi Rishmiya neighbourhood. On 18 December 1947, two houses were destroyed by the Palmach in a raid on Khisas in the Galilee; On 19 December, the house of the mukhtar of Qazaza was partially demolished to revenge the murder of a Jew; On 26 December, several houses were blown up in Silwan; on 27 December 3 houses were blown up in Yalu; On 4 January 1948 Etzioni blew up the Christian-owned Semiramis Hotel in Jerusalem's Katamon quarter.
15. ^ Shay Hazkani, Dear Palestine: A Social History of the 1948 War, Stanford University Press, 2021 ISBN 978-1-503-62766-6 chapter 1.By the eve of the declaration of independence on May 1948, 105,000 men had answered the call of which 25,000 had been drafted into active service.
16. ^ "A/RES/181(II) of 29 November 1947". domino.un.org. 1947. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
17. ^ "Extracts from Time Magazine of that time". Archived from the original on 4 June 2012.
18. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 17
19. ^ This expression is taken from Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 111
20. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 65
21. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 111
22. ^ Morris 2008, p. 76
23. ^ a b Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 30
24. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 101
25. ^ Morris 2008, p. 76
26. ^ "This Day in Jewish History / Civil War Breaks Out in Palestine". Haaretz. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
27. ^ Morris, R.F.T.I.B.; Morris, B.; Clancy-Smith, J.A.; Benny, M.; Gershoni, I.; Owen, R.; Tripp, C.; Sayigh, Y.; Tucker, J.E. (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge Middle East Studies. Cambridge University Press. p. 139\. ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6. "Traditionally, Zionist historiography has cited these attacks as the first acts of Palestinian violence against the partition resolution. But it is probable that the attacks were not directly linked to the resolution – and were a product either of a desire to rob Jews... or of a retaliatory cycle that had begun with a British raid on a LHI training exercise (after an Arab had informed the British about the exercise), that resulted in several Jewish dead... The LHI retaliated by executing five members of the beduin Shubaki clan near Herzliya...; and the Arabs retaliated by attacking the buses on 30 Nov...."
28. ^ Radai, Itamar (2015). Palestinians in Jerusalem and Jaffa, 1948: A Tale of Two Cities. Routledge Studies on the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Taylor & Francis. p. 237\. ISBN 978-1-317-36805-2. Retrieved 17 April 2022. "In November they again strove to cool tempers, following an attack on a Jewish bus on its way to Holon, in retaliation against the killing of five young men of the Shubaki family by LEHI gunmen (who were in turn taking revenge because one of the members of the family had informed to the British about LEHI activities)."
29. ^ Morris, B. (2009). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. p. 76\. ISBN 978-0-300-15112-1. Retrieved 17 April 2022. "…the majority view in the HIS - supported by an anonymous Arab flyer posted almost immediately on walls in Jaffa - was that the attackers were driven primarily by a desire to avenge an LHI raid ten days before on a house near Raganana belonging to the Abu Kishk bedouin tribe."
30. ^ B. Morris, 2004, The Birth of the Palestinian refugee problem revisited, p. 66
31. ^ The Palestine Post of 31 December 1947: Archives of the newspaper Archived 20 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine
32. ^ Golani & Manna 2011, "70 village residents – including men, women and children – were murdered in their homes"
33. ^ Lockman 1996, "The Jewish attackers killed some sixty men, women, and children and destroyed several houses."
34. ^ Pappé 2006, "Over sixty Palestinians dead"
35. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), chap. 7, pp. 131–153
36. ^ a b Benny Morris (2003), p. 163
37. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 24
38. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 36
39. ^ The Times, 1 March 1948
40. ^ Newspapers of the time: The Palestine Post, 1 April 1948 and The Times, on the same day, attribute the incident to Lehi.
41. ^ a b c d e Henry Laurens (2005), p. 83
42. ^ a b Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 163
43. ^ a b c Benny Morris (2003), p. 67
44. ^ Henry Laurens, La Question de Palestine, vol. 3 Fayard 2007 p. 33.
45. ^ a b Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 51–56
46. ^ Morris 2008, p. 85
47. ^ "Ruhmloses Zwischenspiel: Fawzi al-Qawuqji in Deutschland, 1941–1947", by Gerhard Höpp in Peter Heine, ed., Al-Rafidayn: Jahrbuch zu Geschichte und Kultur des modernen Iraq (Würzburg: Ergon Verlag, 1995), ([1]), p. 16
48. ^ Barry Rubin; Wolfgang G. Schwanitz (2014). Nazis, Islamists, and the Making of the Modern Middle East. Yale University Press. p. 241\. ISBN 978-0-300-14090-3.
49. ^ Morris 2008, p. 403
50. ^ Yoav Gelber (2004), p. 67
51. ^ Special UN report Archived 3 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine by the United Nations Special Commission (16 February 1948), § II.5
52. ^ Ilan Pappe (2006), p. 72.
53. ^ Morris 2008, p. 113
54. ^ United Nations Special Commission (16 February 1948), § II.9.c
55. ^ Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins (1971), p. 185
56. ^ This policy would change; at the end of the mandate, the High Commissioner, Alan Cunningham, opposed the deployment of Arab Legion troops into the territory and threatened the Arab states with RAF intervention if they grouped their forces around the border or crossed it. (Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 115)
57. ^ L. Carl Brown, Diplomacy in the Middle East: The International Relations of Regional and Outside powers, I.B.Tauris, 2004, pp. 26–27.
58. ^ United Nations Special Commission (16 February 1948), § II.7
59. ^ Shishakli would seize the power in Syria between 29 October 1951 and 25 February 1954 (Henry Laurens (2005), pp. 115–116)
60. ^ Caden, C.; Arielli, N. (2021). "British Army and Palestine Police Deserters and the Arab–Israeli War of 1948". War in History. 28 (1): 200–222\. doi:10.1177/0968344518796688. ISSN 0968-3445.200-222&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0968344518796688&rft.issn=0968-3445&rft.aulast=Caden&rft.aufirst=C.&rft.au=Arielli,+N.&rft_id=https://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/135106/&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
61. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 51
62. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 55
63. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 56
64. ^ a b United Nations Special Commission (16 February 1948), § II.7.3
65. ^ United Nations Special Commission (16 February 1948), § II.6
66. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 113
67. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 113, quoting Milstein, Milhemet, vol. 2, p. 47
68. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 125
69. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p.77
70. ^ Henry Laurens (2005), p. 84
71. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p.71
72. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 13
73. ^ See the entry at 1 April 1948 Archived 3 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine
74. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 71–73
75. ^ See here
76. ^ a b c Yoav Gelber (2006). Palestine 1948: War, Escape And The Emergence Of The Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press. p. 50\. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0. "The ALA's diverse supply sources created a bizarre arsenal that caused serious logistic problems and rendered maintenance an impossible task. Munitions were often of low quality, damaging the barrels and failing to function when necessary. In December 1947 Syria bought a quantity of small arms from the Skoda plant in Czechoslovakia for the ALA. Jewish saboteurs blew up the ship that carried the cargo to the Middle East and sank it in the Italian port of Bari. The arms were later salvaged and reshipped in August 1948 to Syria – this time for arming Palestinian combatants – but the Israeli navy intercepted the freight and seized the weapons."
77. ^ For a discussion of the motivation of Czech aid, see L'aide militaire tchèque à Israël, 1948 Archived 18 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
78. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 14
79. ^ See for example the résumé of an article by Arnold Krammer L'aide militaire tchèque à Israël, 1948. Archived 18 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
80. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 13
81. ^ This term is important. Pappé underlined that they were not ready 'to have their own troops intervene' in the conflict, but that they would rather follow other solutions, such as delegating the task to a voluntary force, like the Arab Liberation Army, that they financed.
82. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 146
83. ^ a b c Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 147
84. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 5
85. ^ "UN Security Council 270th meeting report". Archived from the original on 6 May 2012.
86. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 137
87. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 305
88. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006). Palestine 1948: War, Escape And The Emergence Of The Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press. p. 52\. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0. "to avoid dependence on the population for supplies, and preclude possible intimidation of locals to donate provisions, the League's military committee had arranged to furnish the troops' rations through special contractors. This semblance of logistics apparently marked significant progress in comparison with the 1936–9 rebellion. Introducing medical services for the combatants and the population made an impression on both the British and the Jews."
89. ^ Benny Morris (2008), p.90.
90. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006). Palestine 1948: War, Escape And The Emergence Of The Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Academic Press. p. 13\. ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0. "The British blockade of the Palestinian coast prevented any substantial increase of these quantities until mid-May. Concurrently, the Arabs succeeded in smuggling into the country small arms that their emissaries had purchased in neighbouring countries. The ALA brought a certain number of support arms and a few artillery pieces and armoured vehicles. Although the gap narrowed, the picture did not materially change, and the Haganah continued to maintain its relative edge."
91. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 38
92. ^ http://www.עמותת-חיל-החימוש.co.il/?section=217#_ftn19 Archived 11 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine produced sten sub machine guns, 2" and 3" mortars and ammunition
93. ^ Joseph, Dov (1960). The faithful city: the siege of Jerusalem, 1948. Simon and Schuster. p. 8\. LCCN 60-10976. OCLC 266413. "For example, all the land mines used against Rommel came from Jewish factories in Palestine."
94. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 25
95. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), Chap. 12
96. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 240
97. ^ Morris, 2008, p.117, "The first shipment—of two hundred rifles, forty MG-34 machine guns, and 160,000 bullets—secretly landed during the night of 31 March–1 April at a makeshift airfield at Beit Daras in a chartered US Skymaster cargo plane.29 A second and far larger shipment, covered with onions and potatoes— of forty-five hundred rifles and two hundred machine guns, along with five million bullets—arrived at Tel Aviv port aboard the Nora on 2 April. (A third shipment—consisting of ten thousand rifles, 1,415 machine guns, and sixteen million rounds— reached the Yishuv by sea on 28 April.) Before this, the Haganah high command had had to "borrow" weapons from local units for a day or two for specific operations, and the units (and settlements) were generally reluctant to part with weapons, quite reasonably arguing that the Arabs might attack while the weapons were on loan. Now, at last, the Haganah command had at hand a stockpile of thousands of weapons that it could freely deploy. The two shipments proved decisive. As Ben-Gurion put it at the time, "After we have received a small amount of the [Czech] equipment . . . the situation is radically different in our favor." Without doubt, of all the shipments that subsequently reached the Yishuv, none was to have greater immediate impact or historical significance."
98. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p.79
99. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 31
100. ^ Joseph, pp. 23, 38. Gives the date of the call-up as 5 December.
101. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 80
102. ^ Levin, pp. 32, 117. Pay £P2 per month. c.f. would buy 2 lbs. of meat in Jerusalem, April 1948. p. 91.
103. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 16–17
104. ^ a b Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 34
105. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 8
106. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 28
107. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 214
108. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 122–123
109. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 7
110. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 36–37
111. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 27
112. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 37
113. ^ Łukasz Hirszowicz (10 November 2016). The Third Reich and the Arab East. Taylor & Francis. pp. 101–102\. ISBN 978-1-315-40939-9.101-102&rft.pub=Taylor+&+Francis&rft.date=2016-11-10&rft.isbn=978-1-315-40939-9&rft.au=Łukasz+Hirszowicz&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=BTV6DQAAQBAJ&pg;=PT101&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
114. ^ Mallmann, Klaus-Michael; Martin Cüppers (2010). Nazi Palestine: The Plans for the Extermination of the Jews in Palestine. Krista Smith (translator). Enigma Books. p. 200,201. ISBN 978-1-929631-93-3.
115. ^ a b Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 26
116. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 26
117. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 38
118. ^ a b c Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 27
119. ^ a b Pierre Razoux (2006), p. 66
120. ^ a b c Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 40
121. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 254
122. ^ Benny Morris, in the Birth revisited, 2003, p. 34.
123. ^ Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, 2006, p. 51
124. ^ Ilan Pappe, The ethnic cleansing of Palestine, 2006, p. 44
125. ^ David Tal, War in Palestine 1948, 2004, p. 362
126. ^ Benny Morris, in the Birth revisited, 2003, p. 16.
127. ^ Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, 2006, p.73.
128. ^ Ilan Pappe, The ethnic cleansing of Palestine, 2006, p. 44 gives the number of 50,000 with 30,000 fighting forces.
129. ^ "Plan D - Master Defense Plan of the Hagana". www.mideastweb.org. Archived from the original on 27 November 2010.
130. ^ Walid Khalidi (5 June 1996). "Islam, the West, and Jerusalem". American Committee on Jerusalem. Archived from the original on 16 July 2006. Retrieved 23 July 2011.
131. ^ Pappé, Ilan (2006). "The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine". Journal of Palestine Studies. 36 (1): 6–20\. doi:10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6. hdl:10871/15208. ISSN 0377-919X. JSTOR 10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6. S2CID 155363162.6-20&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info:hdl/10871/15208&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6&rft.issn=0377-919X&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:155363162#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Pappé&rft.aufirst=Ilan&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/jps.2006.36.1.6&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
132. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 369
133. ^ Benny Morris (2008). 1948: a history of the first Arab-Israeli war. Yale University Press. p. 116\. ISBN 9780300126969. ""At the time, Ben-Gurion and the HGS believed that they had initiated a one-shot affair, albeit with the implication of a change of tactics and strategy on the Jerusalem front. In fact, they had set in motion a strategic transformation of Haganah policy. Nahshon heralded a shift from the defensive to the offensive and marked the beginning of the implementation of tochnit dalet (Plan D)—without Ben-Gurion or the HGS ever taking an in principle decision to embark on its implementation."
134. ^ Yoav Gelber 2006, p. 83
135. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 372
136. ^ Benny Morris (Benny Morris (2003), p. 236) speaks of 3 resupply convoys but Lapierre and Collins (Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 456) speak of a fourth convoy of 300 lorries that left Kfar Biou on the dawn of 20 April.
137. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 457
138. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 455
139. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 456
140. ^ a b Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 89
141. ^ Benny Morris, Benjamin Z. Kedar, ‘Cast thy bread’: Israeli biological warfare during the 1948 War Middle Eastern Studies 19 September 2022, pages =1-25 pp.2-3.
142. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 403
143. ^ a b Benny Morris (2003), p. 240
144. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 426
145. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 242–243
146. ^ Benny Morris (2003), The destruction of the Arab villages, pp. 342–360.
147. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 242
148. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 427
149. ^ Benny Morris (2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab–Israeli War. Yale University Press. pp. 136. ISBN 9780300145243. "In reality, according to Ben-Gurion, some 640 Haganah soldiers had faced about twenty-five hundred ALA troops, with superior firepower—and bested them."
150. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 243–244
151. ^ a b Benny Morris (2003), p. 244
152. ^ a b Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, Appendix II[permanent dead link‍]
153. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 317
154. ^ a b c Benny Morris (2003), p. 239
155. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 528
156. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 429–442
157. ^ Robert Barr Smith, Fighting Jack Churchill Survived: A Wartime Odyssey Beyond Compare World War Two History, Profiles Column, July 2005
158. ^ This word is from Yoav Gelber (Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 93)
159. ^ Shafa 'Amr, Khirbet Kasayir et Hawsha
160. ^ a b Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 93
161. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 245
162. ^ Morris 2008, p. 137
163. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 225–226
164. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 134–135
165. ^ Benny Morris (2003), p. 248
166. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 248–250
167. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 249–252
168. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), p. 167
169. ^ War Diary 1948–1949, ed. Elhanan Orren and Gershon Rivlin, Israël Defence Ministry Press, Tel Aviv, 1982, p. 409
170. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 525–530
171. ^ Benny Morris (1881), p. 221
172. ^ Both theses are developed in Avi Shlaim, Collusion Across the Jordan: King Abdullah, the Zionist movement and the Partition of Palestine, Columbia University Press, 1988 and in Yoav Gelber, Israeli-Jordanian dialogue, 1948–1953: cooperation, conspiracy or collusion, Sussex Academic Press, 2004.
173. ^ Pierre Razoux (2006), p. 523
174. ^ Ilan Pappé (2000), pp. 168–169
175. ^ Efraïm Karsh (2002), p. 51
176. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 95
177. ^ a b c Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 96
178. ^ "Official site of the kibbutz". Archived from the original on 20 July 2011.
179. ^ Benny Morris, The road to Jerusalem, p. 139
180. ^ Moshe Dayan, 'The Story of My Life'. ISBN 0-688-03076-9. Page 130. Out of a total of 670 prisoners released.
181. ^ Morris 2008, p. 131
182. ^ a b c d Benny Morris (2002), pp. 155–156.
183. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 576
184. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 580–582
185. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 575–576
186. ^ According to this Israeli site with confirmation from this map from the Passia organization Archived 6 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
187. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 140
188. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 134–135 Although the last (the Lebanese) ultimately would not engage in combat
189. ^ Benny Morris (2003), pp. 252–254
190. ^ See, for example, in The New York Times archives: : Despair is voiced by Arab refugees
191. ^ Karsh, Efraim, The Arab-Israeli Conflict: The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing, 2002, pp. 87–92
192. ^ Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic cleansing of Palestine, pp. xii–xiii.
193. ^ Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Oxford University Press, 2004, Conclusions.
194. ^ a b Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 120
195. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 122–123
196. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 124–125
197. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 127
198. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 126
199. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), p. 128
200. ^ Yoav Gelber (2006), pp. 126, 132
201. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), pp. 453–454
202. ^ Dominique Lapierre et Larry Collins (1971), p. 133
203. ^ Benny Morris, 1948, p. 179.
204. ^ Yoav Gelber (2004) p. 118
205. ^ Morris 2008, p. 400
206. ^ Musa Budeiri. "The Battle for Jerusalem in the Memoirs of Anwar Nusseibeh". Jerusalem Quarterly File, 11–12, 2001.
207. ^ Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel: 14 May 1948. Archived 21 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine

## References

[edit]

* Abu-Laban, Yasmeen; Bakan, Abigail B. (July 2022). "Anti-Palestinian Racism and Racial Gaslighting". The Political Quarterly. 93 (3): 508–516\. doi:10.1111/1467-923X.13166. S2CID 250507449.508-516&rft.date=2022-07&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/1467-923X.13166&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250507449#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Abu-Laban&rft.aufirst=Yasmeen&rft.au=Bakan,+Abigail+B.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Elie Barnavi, Une histoire moderne d'Israël, Champs / Flammarion, 1988, ISBN 978-2-08-081246-9* Elie Barnavi, Une histoire moderne d'Israël, Champs / Flammarion, 1988, ISBN 978-2-08-081246-9
* Bashir, Bashir; Goldberg, Amos (2018). "Introduction: The Holocaust and the Nakba: A New Syntax of History, Memory, and Political Thought". In Bashir, Bashir; Goldberg, Amos (eds.). The Holocaust and the Nakba: A New Grammar of Trauma and History. Columbia University Press. pp. 1–42\. ISBN 978-0-231-54448-1.1-42&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-231-54448-1&rft.aulast=Bashir&rft.aufirst=Bashir&rft.au=Goldberg,+Amos&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=K2NbDwAAQBAJ&pg;=PT23&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Bäuml, Yair (2017). "Israel's Military Rule over Its Palestinian Citizens (1948–1968): Shaping the Israeli Segregation System". In Rouhana, Nadim N.; Huneidi, Sahar S. (eds.). Israel and its Palestinian Citizens: Ethnic Privileges in the Jewish State. Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–136\. ISBN 978-1-107-04483-8.103-136&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04483-8&rft.aulast=Bäuml&rft.aufirst=Yair&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipzDDQAAQBAJ&pg;=PA103&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Bickerton, Ian and Hill, Maria (2003). Contested Spaces: The Arab–Israeli Conflict. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-471217-7
* Bishara, Azmi (2017). "Zionism and Equal Citizenship: Essential and Incidental Citizenship in the Jewish State". In Rouhana, Nadim N.; Huneidi, Sahar S. (eds.). Israel and its Palestinian Citizens: Ethnic Privileges in the Jewish State. Cambridge University Press. pp. 137–155\. ISBN 978-1-107-04483-8.137-155&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04483-8&rft.aulast=Bishara&rft.aufirst=Azmi&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipzDDQAAQBAJ&pg;=PA137&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Cohen, Hillel (2017). "The First Israeli Government (1948–1950) and the Arab Citizens: Equality in Discourse, Exclusion in Practice". In Rouhana, Nadim N.; Huneidi, Sahar S. (eds.). Israel and its Palestinian Citizens: Ethnic Privileges in the Jewish State. Cambridge University Press. pp. 73–102\. ISBN 978-1-107-04483-8.73-102&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04483-8&rft.aulast=Cohen&rft.aufirst=Hillel&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipzDDQAAQBAJ&pg;=PA73&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Davis, Rochelle (2011). Palestinian Village Histories: Geographies of the Displaced. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7313-3.
* Yoav Gelber, Independence Versus Nakba; Kinneret–Zmora-Bitan–Dvir Publishing, 2004, ISBN 965-517-190-6 (in Hebrew)
* Yoav Gelber, Palestine 1948, Sussex Academic Press, Brighton, 2006, ISBN 978-1-84519-075-0
* Ghanim, Honaida (2009). "Poetics of Disaster: Nationalism, Gender, and Social Change Among Palestinian Poets in Israel After Nakba". International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society. 22 (1): 23–39\. doi:10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9. ISSN 0891-4486. S2CID 144148068. Archived from the original on 19 March 2024. Retrieved 31 December 2023.23-39&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144148068#id-name=S2CID&rft.issn=0891-4486&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9&rft.aulast=Ghanim&rft.aufirst=Honaida&rft_id=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10767-009-9049-9&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Alain Gresh and Dominique Vidal, Palestine 47, un partage avorté, Editions Complexe, 1994, ISBN 978-2-87027-521-4.
* Joseph, Dov (1960). The faithful city: the siege of Jerusalem, 1948. Simon and Schuster. LCCN 60-10976. OCLC 266413.
* Efraïm Karsh, The Arab–Israeli Conflict – The Palestine War 1948, Osprey Publishing, 2002, ISBN 978-1-84176-372-9
* Khalidi, Rashid (2020). The Hundred Years' War on Palestine: A History of Settler Colonialism and Resistance, 1917–2017. Metropolitan Books. ISBN 978-1-62779-854-9.
* Khoury, Elias (January 2012). "Rethinking the Nakba". Critical Inquiry. 38 (2): 250–266\. doi:10.1086/662741. S2CID 162316338.250-266&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/662741&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162316338#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Khoury&rft.aufirst=Elias&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Jon and David Kimche, A clash of destinies, The Arab–Jewish War and the founding of the state of Israel, Praeger, New York, 1960,
* Kimmerling, Baruch (2008). Clash of Identities: Explorations in Israeli and Palestinian Societies. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-14329-5.
* Dominique Lapierre and Larry Collins, O Jérusalem, Robert Laffont, 1971, ISBN 978-2-266-10698-6
* Henry Laurens, Paix et guerre au Moyen-Orient, Armand Colin, Paris, 2005, ISBN 2-200-26977-3
* Lentin, Ronit (2010). Co-memory and melancholia: Israelis memorialising the Palestinian Nakba. Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-1-84779-768-1.
* Harry Levin. Jerusalem Embattled – A Diary of the City under Siege. Cassels, 1997. ISBN 0-304-33765-X.
* Manna, Adel (2013). "The Palestinian Nakba and Its Continuous Repercussions". Israel Studies. 18 (2): 86–99\. doi:10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.86. JSTOR 10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.86. S2CID 143785830.86-99&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143785830#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.86#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.2979/israelstudies.18.2.86&rft.aulast=Manna&rft.aufirst=Adel&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Manna, Adel (2022). Nakba and Survival: The Story of Palestinians Who Remained in Haifa and the Galilee, 1948-1956. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/luminos.129. ISBN 978-0-520-38936-6.
* Masalha, Nur (9 August 2012). The Palestine Nakba: Decolonising History, Narrating the Subaltern, Reclaiming Memory. Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-84813-973-2. Retrieved 2 April 2021.
* Benny Morris, The Road to Jerusalem: Glubb Pasha, Palestine and the Jews, I.B.Tauris, 2002, ISBN 978-1-86064-989-9
* Benny Morris, Histoire revisitée du conflit arabo-sioniste, Editions complexe, 2003, ISBN 978-2-87027-938-0
* Benny Morris, The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6
* Morris, Benny (2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-14524-3. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
* Ilan Pappé, La guerre de 1948 en Palestine, La fabrique éditions, 2000, ISBN 978-2-264-04036-7* Eugène Rogan, Avi Shlaim et al., La guerre de Palestine 1948: derrière le mythe, Autrement, 2002, ISBN 978-2-7467-0240-0
* Ilan Pappe, The Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine, 2006. ISBN 978-1-85168-555-4.
* Pappe, Ilan (2017). Ten Myths About Israel. Verso Books. ISBN 978-1-78663-020-9. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
* Pappe, Ilan (2022) [2004]. A History of Modern Palestine (3rd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-108-24416-9. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
* Yitzhak Rabin, Mémoires, Buchet/Chastel, 1980,
* Rashed, Haifa; Short, Damien; Docker, John (May 2014). "Nakba Memoricide: Genocide Studies and the Zionist/Israeli Genocide of Palestine". Holy Land Studies. 13 (1): 1–23\. doi:10.3366/hls.2014.0076.1-23&rft.date=2014-05&rft_id=info:doi/10.3366/hls.2014.0076&rft.aulast=Rashed&rft.aufirst=Haifa&rft.au=Short,+Damien&rft.au=Docker,+John&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Pierre Razoux, Tsahal, nouvelle histoire de l'armée israélienne, Perrin, 2006, ISBN 978-2-262-02328-7
* Rouhana, Nadim; Sabbagh-Khoury, Areej (2017). "Memory and the Return of History in a Settler-Colonial Context: The Case of the Palestinians in Israel". In Rouhana, Nadim N.; Huneidi, Sahar S. (eds.). Israel and its Palestinian Citizens: Ethnic Privileges in the Jewish State. Cambridge University Press. pp. 393–432\. ISBN 978-1-107-04483-8.393-432&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-107-04483-8&rft.aulast=Rouhana&rft.aufirst=Nadim&rft.au=Sabbagh-Khoury,+Areej&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=ipzDDQAAQBAJ&pg;=PA393&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Sa'di, Ahmad H. (2007). "Afterword: Reflections on Representations, History and Moral Accountability". In Sa'di, Ahmad H.; Abu-Lughod, Lila (eds.). Nakba: Palestine, 1948, and the Claims of Memory. Columbia University Press. pp. 285–314\. ISBN 978-0-231-13579-5.285-314&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-231-13579-5&rft.aulast=Sa'di&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+H.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=MbKrAgAAQBAJ&pg;=PA285&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Shenhav, Yehouda (2019). "The Palestinian Nakba and the Arab-Jewish Melancholy". In Shai Ginsburg; Martin Land; Jonathan Boyarin (eds.). Jews and the Ends of Theory. Fordham University Press. pp. 48–64\. ISBN 978-0-8232-8201-2.48-64&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-0-8232-8201-2&rft.aulast=Shenhav&rft.aufirst=Yehouda&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=pouUDwAAQBAJ&pg;=PT77&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">
* Slater, Jerome (2020). Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917-2020. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-045908-6.
* Wolfe, Patrick (January 2012). "Purchase by Other Means: The Palestine Nakba and Zionism's Conquest of Economics". Settler Colonial Studies. 2 (1): 133–171\. doi:10.1080/2201473X.2012.10648830. hdl:1959.3/357334. S2CID 53367151.133-171&rft.date=2012-01&rft_id=info:hdl/1959.3/357334&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53367151#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1080/2201473X.2012.10648830&rft.aulast=Wolfe&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1080%2F2201473X.2012.10648830&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:1947–1948+civil+war+in+Mandatory+Palestine" class="Z3988">

## Further reading

[edit]

* Uri Milstein, History of Israel's War of Independence: A Nation Girds for War, vol. 1, University Press of America, 1996, ISBN 978-0-7618-0372-0
* Uri Milstein, History of Israel's War of Independence: The First Month, vol. 2, University Press of America, 1997, ISBN 978-0-7618-0721-6
* Uri Milstein, History of Israel's War of Independence: The First Invasion, vol. 3, University Press of America, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7618-0769-8
* Uri Milstein, History of Israel's War of Independence: Out of Crisis Came Decision, vol. 4, University Press of America, 1999, ISBN 978-0-7618-1489-4
* Salim Tamari, Jérusalem 1948: Les faubourgs arabes et leur destin durant la guerre, Institut des études palestiniennes, 2002, ISBN 978-9953-9001-9-3

### Online sources

[edit]

* Plan Daleth from mideastweb.org
* United Nations Special Commission, First Special Report to the Security Council: The Problem of Security in Palestine, 16 February 1948, from the United Nations website.
* Palestine remembered Palestinian view.

### Film

[edit]

* Elie Chouraqui, Ô Jérusalem, 2006.

* v
* t
* e

Israeli–Palestinian conflict

Participants

| Israelis|

* Israel Defense Forces
* Israel Police
* Mossad
* Shabak (Shin Bet)

|

Palestinians|

| Principals|

* All-Palestine Protectorate
* Palestine Liberation Organization
* Fatah
* Hamas
* Palestinian Authority

|

Other groups|

* al-Aqsa Brigades
* Children
* DFLP
* Jenin Brigades
* Lions' Den
* PIJ
* PLF
* PPSF
* PFLP
* PFLP-GC
* PRC
* Sabireen Movement
* Sons of Zouari

Third-party groups|

* Arab League
* Hezbollah

Individuals

| Israelis|

* Moshe Arens
* Ami Ayalon
* Ehud Barak
* David Ben-Gurion
* Naftali Bennett
* Menachem Begin
* Meir Dagan
* Moshe Dayan
* Avi Dichter
* Yuval Diskin
* Benny Gantz
* Efraim Halevy
* Dan Halutz
* Tzipi Livni
* Golda Meir
* Shaul Mofaz
* Yitzhak Mordechai
* Benjamin Netanyahu
* Ehud Olmert
* Shimon Peres
* Yaakov Peri
* Yitzhak Rabin
* Amnon Lipkin-Shahak
* Yitzhak Shamir
* Ariel Sharon
* Shabtai Shavit
* Moshe Ya'alon
* Danny Yatom
* Zvi Zamir

|

Palestinians|

* Abu Abbas
* Mahmoud Abbas
* Moussa Arafat
* Yasser Arafat
* Yahya Ayyash
* Marwan Barghouti
* Mohammed Dahlan
* Mohammed Deif
* George Habash
* Wadie Haddad
* Ismail Haniyeh
* Nayef Hawatmeh
* Amin al-Husayni
* Ghazi Jabali
* Ahmed Jibril
* Abu Jihad
* Salah Khalaf
* Leila Khaled
* Sheikh Khalil
* Khaled Mashal
* Zuheir Mohsen
* Abu Ali Mustafa
* Abu Nidal
* Izz ad-Din al-Qassam
* Jibril Rajoub
* Abdel Aziz al-Rantisi
* Ali Hassan Salameh
* Salah Shehade
* Ramadan Shalah
* Fathi Shaqaqi
* Ahlam Tamimi
* Ahmed Yassin

* Timeline
* military operations

| Background|

| 1920–1948|

* 1920
* Nebi Musa riots
* Battle of Tel Hai
* 1921 Jaffa riots
* 1929 Palestine riots
* Hebron massacre
* 1936–1939 Arab revolt
* 1944–1947 Jewish insurgency
* 1947–1948 Civil War / Nakba

|

| 1948–1970|

* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* massacres
* 1948–present Fedayeen insurgency
* 1951–1967 Attacks against Israeli civilians
* 1950s–1960s Reprisal operations
* 1953 Qibya massacre
* 1956 Suez Crisis / Kafr Qasim / Khan Yunis / Rafah massacres
* 1967 Six-Day War
* 1967–1970 War of Attrition
* 1968 Battle of Karameh

|

Palestinian
insurgency

| 1968–1982|

* 1970 Avivim school bus bombing
* 1972 Sabena Flight 571 / Munich massacre / "Bayonet" (1973 Lillehammer affair)
* 1974 Kiryat Shmona massacre / Ma'alot massacre
* 1975 Savoy Hotel attack
* 1976 Entebbe raid
* 1978 Coastal road massacre / South Lebanon conflict
* 1980 Misgav Am hostage crisis

|

| 1973–1987|

* 1973 Yom Kippur War
* 1975 Zion Square bombing
* 1982 Lebanon War
* Siege of Beirut
* 1983 1983 West Bank fainting epidemic
* 1984 Bus 300 affair
* 1985 Achille Lauro hijacking / "Wooden Leg"
* 1987 Night of the Gliders

|

First Intifada|

| 1987–1991|

* 1988 Tunis raid
* 1989 Bus 405 attack
* 1990 Temple Mount killings
* 1990s Palestinian suicide attacks
* list
* 1994 Cave of the Patriarchs massacre

|

Second Intifada|

| 2000–2005|

* Palestinian rocket attacks
* Palestinian suicide attacks
* list
* Israeli assassinations
* 2000 October events
* 2001 Santorini
* 2002 Karine A / "Defensive Shield" / Battle of Jenin / Battle of Nablus / "Determined Path"
* 2003 Ain es Saheb airstrike
* 2004 "Rainbow" / Beit Hanoun raid / "Days of Penitence"

|

Palestinian dissident
campaigns

| 2006–present|

* 2006 "Bringing Home the Goods"
* 2008 Jerusalem yeshiva attack / Jerusalem bulldozer attack
* 2009 Al-Aqsa clashes
* 2010 Palestinian militancy campaign
* 2015–2016 violence
* 2017 Temple Mount crisis
* 2021 Israel–Palestine crisis
* 2022 Al-Aqsa clashes

|

Gaza–Israel
conflict

| 2006–present|

* 2006 Gaza beach explosion / Gaza cross-border raid / "Summer Rains" / "Autumn Clouds" / Beit Hanoun shelling
* 2008 Egypt–Gaza border breach / "Hot Winter"
* 2008–2009 Gaza War
* 2010 Gaza flotilla raid
* 2012 "Returning Echo" / "Pillar of Defense"
* 2014 "Protective Edge"
* 2015 Freedom Flotilla III
* 2018 Gaza border protests / November clashes
* 2019 May clashes / "Black Belt"
* 2021 "Guardian of the Walls"
* 2022 "Breaking Dawn"
* 2023 "Shield and Arrow" / Israel–Hamas war

|

Diplomacy/law

| Timeline|

| 1948–1991|

* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
* depopulated towns and villages
* 1949 Lausanne Conference
* 1967–present Israeli settlement
* settler violence
* international law

|

1990s|

* 1981–1982 Fahd Plan
* 1991 Madrid Conference
* 1993–1995 Oslo Accords
* 1994 Paris Protocol
* 1994 Gaza–Jericho Agreement
* 1994–present US security assistance to the PA
* 1997 Hebron Agreement
* 1998 Wye River Memorandum
* 1999 Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum

2000s|

* 2000 Camp David Summit / Clinton Parameters
* 2001 Taba Summit
* 2002 Quartet established
* 2003 Road Map
* 2005 Israeli disengagement from Gaza
* 2005 Agreement on Movement and Access
* 2006 Valley of Peace initiative
* 2007 Annapolis Conference
* 2009 Aftonbladet Israel controversy

2010s|

* 2010–11 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks
* 2011 Palestine Papers
* 2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks
* 2023–present Gaza genocide

United Nations|

* Israel and the UN
* Palestine and the UN
* 1947 UN Resolution 181
* 1948 UN Resolution 194
* 1967 UN Resolution 242
* ICJ cases
* 2004 Wall construction
* 2023–present South African allegation of genocide
* 2024 Nicaragua v. Germany
* 2023–2024 Israeli occupation

Analysis

* Anti-Palestinianism
* Comparisons between Israel and Nazi Germany
* Criticism
* Criticism of Hamas
* Criticism of Israel
* Israeli criticism of the occupation
* Media coverage
* Racism in Israel
* Racism in Palestine
* Timeline of anti-Zionism
* There was no such thing as Palestinians

* v
* t
* e

Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine

Background|

* Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine
* Franco-Syrian War
* Sinai and Palestine campaign

1920s|

* Battle of Tel Hai
* 1920 Nebi Musa riots
* Jaffa riots
* 1921 Jerusalem Riots

1930s|

* Black Hand insurgency (1930–1935)
* 1933 Palestine riots
* 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine

During World War II|

* Operation Atlas (Mandatory Palestine)
* Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine
* The Saison

After World War II|

* 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine

Actors|

* British commissioner

* Arab Palestinians
* Arab Higher Committee
* Jewish Palestinians
* Jewish Agency for Israel
* German Templar community
* Nazi Party in Mandatory Palestine

Prominent figures|

* British
* Herbert Louis Samuel
* Jewish Palestinian
* David Ben-Gurion
* Arab Palestinian
* Amin al-Husseini
* Nazism
* Gotthilf Wagner

Category:Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine

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Anti-Jewish attacks in Arab countries during the 1948 Palestine war and its aftermath

1947|

* Aleppo riots (Syria)
* Aden riots (Aden)
* Manama riots (Bahrain)

1948|

* Oujda and Jerada riots (Morocco)
* Cairo bombings (Egypt)
* Tripolitania riots (Libya)

1949|

* Menarsha synagogue attack (Syria)

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Nakba

Background|

* Mandatory Palestine
* Israeli Declaration of Independence
* Sectarian conflict in Mandatory Palestine
* New Historians
* Palestine
* Plan Dalet
* 1947 partition plan

Main articles|

* 1947–1949 Palestine war
* 1947–1948 civil war
* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
* causes
* UNRWA
* Nakba Day
* Nakba denial
* Palestine refugee camps
* Palestinian refugee
* Palestinian right of return
* Present absentee
* Transfer Committee
* Resolution 194

Key incidents|

* The battle of Hatikvah Neighborhood (1947)
* Battle of Haifa
* Deir Yassin massacre
* Expulsion from Lydda and Ramle

Notable writers|

* Aref al-Aref
* Yoav Gelber
* Efraim Karsh
* Walid Khalidi
* Nur Masalha
* Benny Morris
* Ilan Pappé
* Tom Segev
* Avraham Sela
* Avi Shlaim
* The Origins and Evolution of the Palestine Problem

Related categories/lists|

* Villages depopulated during the 1948 Palestinian exodus

Related templates|

* Palestinians
* Arab–Israeli conflict
* Israeli–Palestinian conflict
* Gaza–Israel conflict

The Holocaust and the Nakba

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* e

Cold War

* United States
* Soviet Union
* NATO
* Warsaw Pact
* ANZUS
* METO
* SEATO
* NEATO
* Rio Pact
* Non-Aligned Movement

1940s|

* Morgenthau Plan
* Hukbalahap rebellion
* Jamaican political conflict
* Dekemvriana
* Guerrilla war in the Baltic states
* Operation Priboi
* Operation Jungle
* Occupation of the Baltic states
* Cursed soldiers
* Operation Unthinkable
* Gouzenko Affair
* Division of Korea
* Indonesian National Revolution
* Operation Masterdom
* Operation Beleaguer
* Operation Blacklist Forty
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Greek Civil War
* Baruch Plan
* Corfu Channel incident
* Turkish Straits crisis
* Restatement of Policy on Germany
* First Indochina War
* 1947 Polish parliamentary election
* Truman Doctrine
* Asian Relations Conference
* May 1947 crises
* Partition of India
* Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948
* 1947–1949 Palestine war
* 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine
* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
* Marshall Plan
* Comecon
* 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
* Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council
* Al-Wathbah uprising
* Tito–Stalin split
* Berlin Blockade
* Annexation of Hyderabad
* Madiun Affair
* Western betrayal
* Iron Curtain
* Eastern Bloc
* Western Bloc
* Chinese Civil War
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* Malayan Emergency
* March 1949 Syrian coup d'état
* Operation Valuable

1950s|

* Bamboo curtain
* McCarthyism
* Korean War
* Arab Cold War (1952–1979)
* 1952 Egyptian revolution
* Iraqi Intifada (1952)
* Mau Mau rebellion
* East German uprising of 1953
* 1953 Iranian coup d'état
* Pact of Madrid
* Bricker Amendment
* 1954 Syrian coup d'état
* Petrov Affair
* Domino theory
* 1954 Geneva Conference
* 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état
* Capture of the Tuapse
* First Taiwan Strait Crisis
* Jebel Akhdar War
* Algerian War
* Kashmir Princess
* Bandung Conference
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Vietnam War
* Cyprus Emergency
* "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences"
* 1956 Poznań protests
* Hungarian Revolution of 1956
* Polish October
* Suez Crisis
* "We will bury you"
* Operation Gladio
* Syrian Crisis of 1957
* Sputnik crisis
* Ifni War
* Iraqi 14 July Revolution
* 1958 Lebanon crisis
* Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
* 1959 Mosul uprising
* 1959 Tibetan uprising
* Laotian Civil War
* Kitchen Debate
* Cuban Revolution
* Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution
* Sino-Soviet split

1960s|

* Congo Crisis
* Simba rebellion
* 1960 U-2 incident
* Bay of Pigs Invasion
* 1960 Turkish coup d'état
* Albanian–Soviet split
* Expulsion of Soviets from Albania
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* First Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* Berlin Wall
* Annexation of Goa
* Papua conflict
* Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
* Sand War
* Portuguese Colonial War
* Angolan War of Independence
* Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
* Mozambican War of Independence
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* El Porteñazo
* Sino-Indian War
* Communist insurgency in Sarawak
* Ramadan Revolution
* Eritrean War of Independence
* North Yemen Civil War
* 1963 Syrian coup d'état
* Assassination of John F. Kennedy
* Aden Emergency
* Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964
* Shifta War
* Mexican Dirty War
* Tlatelolco massacre
* Guatemalan Civil War
* Colombian conflict
* 1964 Brazilian coup d'état
* Dominican Civil War
* Rhodesian Bush War
* Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966
* Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)
* ASEAN Declaration
* 1966 Syrian coup d'état
* Cultural Revolution
* Argentine Revolution
* South African Border War
* Korean DMZ Conflict
* 12-3 incident
* Greek junta
* 1967 Hong Kong riots
* Years of Lead (Italy)
* Six-Day War
* War of Attrition
* Dhofar War
* Al-Wadiah War
* Nigerian Civil War
* Protests of 1968
* May 68
* Prague Spring
* USS Pueblo incident
* 1968 Polish political crisis
* 1968–1971 East Pakistan communist insurgency
* Communist insurgency in Malaysia
* Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
* 17 July Revolution
* 1968 Peruvian coup d'état
* Revolutionary Government
* 1969 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1969 Libyan revolution
* Goulash Communism
* Sino-Soviet border conflict
* New People's Army rebellion

1970s|

* Détente
* Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
* Black September
* Alcora Exercise
* Corrective Movement (Syria)
* Western Sahara conflict
* Cambodian Civil War
* Communist insurgency in Thailand
* 1970 Polish protests
* Koza riot
* Realpolitik
* Ping-pong diplomacy
* 1971 JVP insurrection
* Corrective revolution (Egypt)
* 1971 Turkish military memorandum
* 1971 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1971 Bolivian coup d'état
* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China
* North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972
* First Yemenite War
* Munich massacre
* 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état
* 1973 Afghan coup d'état
* 1973 Chilean coup d'état
* Yom Kippur War
* 1973 oil crisis
* Carnation Revolution
* Spanish transition to democracy
* Metapolitefsi
* Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
* Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Turkish invasion of Cyprus
* 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état
* Siege of Dhaka (1975)
* Sipahi-Janata revolution
* Angolan Civil War
* Cambodian genocide
* June 1976 protests
* Mozambican Civil War
* Oromo conflict
* Ogaden War
* 1978 Somali coup attempt
* Western Sahara War
* Ethiopian Civil War
* Lebanese Civil War
* Sino-Albanian split
* Third Indochina War
* Cambodian–Vietnamese War
* Cambodian conflict
* Operation Condor
* Dirty War (Argentina)
* 1976 Argentine coup d'état
* Egyptian–Libyan War
* German Autumn
* Korean Air Lines Flight 902
* Nicaraguan Revolution
* Uganda–Tanzania War
* NDF Rebellion
* Chadian–Libyan War
* Second Yemenite War
* Grand Mosque seizure
* Iranian revolution
* Saur Revolution
* Sino-Vietnamese War
* New Jewel Movement
* 1979 Herat uprising
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

1980s|

* Salvadoran Civil War
* Soviet–Afghan War
* 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts
* Gera Demands
* Peruvian Revolution
* Gdańsk Agreement
* Solidarity
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* 1980 Turkish coup d'état
* Ugandan Bush War
* Gulf of Sidra incident
* Martial law in Poland
* Casamance conflict
* Falklands War
* 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War
* Ndogboyosoi War
* United States invasion of Grenada
* Able Archer 83
* Star Wars
* 1985 Geneva Summit
* Iran–Iraq War
* Somali Rebellion
* Reykjavík Summit
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* South Yemen civil war
* Toyota War
* 1987 Lieyu massacre
* Operation Denver
* 1987–1989 JVP insurrection
* Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* 8888 Uprising
* Solidarity (Soviet reaction)
* Contras
* Central American crisis
* Operation RYAN
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* People Power Revolution
* Glasnost
* Perestroika
* Bougainville conflict
* First Nagorno-Karabakh War
* Afghan Civil War
* United States invasion of Panama
* 1988 Polish strikes
* Polish Round Table Agreement
* 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
* Revolutions of 1989
* Fall of the Berlin Wall
* Fall of the inner German border
* Velvet Revolution
* Romanian Revolution
* Peaceful Revolution

1990s|

* Mongolian Revolution of 1990
* Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident
* Gulf War
* Min Ping Yu No. 5202
* German reunification
* Yemeni unification
* Fall of communism in Albania
* Breakup of Yugoslavia
* Dissolution of the Soviet Union
* 1991 August Coup
* Dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Frozen conflicts|

* Abkhazia
* China-Taiwan
* Korea
* Kosovo
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria
* Sino-Indian border dispute
* North Borneo dispute

Foreign policy|

* Truman Doctrine
* Containment
* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Domino theory
* Hallstein Doctrine
* Kennedy Doctrine
* Peaceful coexistence
* Ostpolitik
* Johnson Doctrine
* Brezhnev Doctrine
* Nixon Doctrine
* Ulbricht Doctrine
* Carter Doctrine
* Reagan Doctrine
* Rollback
* Kinmen Agreement

Ideologies|

| Capitalism|

* Liberalism
* Chicago school
* Conservatism
* American conservatism
* Keynesianism
* Libertarianism
* Monetarism
* Neoclassical economics
* Reaganomics
* Supply-side economics
* Democratic capitalism

|

Socialism|

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Castroism
* Eurocommunism
* Guevarism
* Hoxhaism
* Juche
* Ho Chi Minh Thought
* Maoism
* Trotskyism
* Stalinism
* Titoism

Other|

* Imperialism
* Anti-imperialism
* Nationalism
* Ultranationalism
* Chauvinism
* Ethnic nationalism
* Racism
* Zionism
* Anti-Zionism
* Fascism
* Neo-Nazism
* Islamism
* Totalitarianism
* Authoritarianism
* Autocracy
* Liberal democracy
* Illiberal democracy
* Guided democracy
* Social democracy
* Third-worldism
* White supremacy
* White nationalism
* White separatism
* Apartheid

Organizations|

* NATO
* SEATO
* METO
* EEC
* Warsaw Pact
* Comecon
* Non-Aligned Movement
* NN States
* ASEAN
* SAARC
* Safari Club

Propaganda|

| Pro-communist|

* Active measures
* Izvestia
* Neues Deutschland
* Pravda
* Radio Moscow
* Rudé právo
* Trybuna Ludu
* TASS
* Soviet Life

|

Pro-Western|

* Amerika
* Crusade for Freedom
* Paix et Liberté
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

* Red Scare
* Voice of America

Technological
competition|

* Arms race
* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race

Historians|

* Gar Alperovitz
* Thomas A. Bailey
* Michael Beschloss
* Archie Brown
* Warren H. Carroll
* Adrian Cioroianu
* John Costello
* Michael Cox
* Nicholas J. Cull
* Norman Davies
* Willem Drees
* Robert D. English
* Herbert Feis
* Robert Hugh Ferrell
* André Fontaine
* Anneli Ute Gabanyi
* John Lewis Gaddis
* Lloyd Gardner
* Timothy Garton Ash
* Gabriel Gorodetsky
* Fred Halliday
* Jussi Hanhimäki
* John Earl Haynes
* Patrick J. Hearden
* Tvrtko Jakovina
* Tony Judt
* Harvey Klehr
* Gabriel Kolko
* Walter LaFeber
* Walter Laqueur
* Melvyn P. Leffler
* Geir Lundestad
* Vojtech Mastny
* Jack F. Matlock Jr.
* Thomas J. McCormick
* Timothy Naftali
* Marius Oprea
* David S. Painter
* William B. Pickett
* Ronald E. Powaski
* Yakov M. Rabkin
* M. E. Sarotte
* Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
* Ellen Schrecker
* Giles Scott-Smith
* Shen Zhihua
* Timothy Snyder
* Athan Theoharis
* Andrew Thorpe
* Vladimir Tismăneanu
* Patrick Vaughan
* Alex von Tunzelmann
* Odd Arne Westad
* William Appleman Williams
* Jonathan Reed Winkler
* Rudolph Winnacker
* Ken Young

Espionage and
intelligence|

* List of Eastern Bloc agents in the United States
* Soviet espionage in the United States
* Russian espionage in the United States
* American espionage in the Soviet Union and Russian Federation
* CIA and the Cultural Cold War
* CIA
* MI5
* MI6
* United States involvement in regime change
* Soviet involvement in regime change
* MVD
* KGB
* Stasi

See also|

* Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
* Soviet Union–United States relations
* Soviet Union–United States summits
* Russia–NATO relations
* War on terror
* Brinkmanship
* Second Cold War
* Russian Revolution

* Category
* List of conflicts
* Timeline

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