1998 United States embassy bombings

Attacks on US embassies in Africa

1998 United States embassy bombings

U.S. embassy in Nairobi after the explosion, with the collapsed Ufundi Building.

Location| Nairobi, Kenya
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
Coordinates| 01°17′21″S 36°49′36″E﻿ / ﻿1.28917°S 36.82667°E﻿ / -1.28917; 36.82667 and 06°47′21″S 39°16′46″E﻿ / ﻿6.78917°S 39.27944°E﻿ / -6.78917; 39.27944
Date| August 7, 1998; 26 years ago (1998-08-07)
10:30 a.m. - 10:40 a.m. EAT (UTC+3)
Target| United States embassies

Attack type

| Truck bombs
Weapons| TNT, ammonium nitrate, pistol, stun grenade
Deaths| 224 (213 in Nairobi, 11 in Dar es Salaam)
Injured| 4,000+
Perpetrators| al-Qaeda
Egyptian Islamic Jihad
Motive| Islamist extremism

* v
* t
* e

al-Qaeda attacks

* (1992) Aden hotels

* (1998) US embassies

* (2001) USS Cole
* 9/11

* (2002) Ghriba
* Faylaka Island
* Bali (1st)
* Mombasa

* (2003) Riyadh
* Casablanca
* Marriott Hotel
* Istanbul

* (2004) Madrid
* Khobar

* (2005) Amman

* (2007) Qahtaniya

* (2008) Islamabad

* (2009) Camp Chapman

* (2013) In Amenas

* (2015) Paris

The 1998 United States embassy bombings were attacks that occurred on August 7, 1998. More than 220 people were killed in two nearly simultaneous truck bomb explosions in two East African capital cities, one at the United States embassy in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, and the other at the United States embassy in Nairobi, Kenya.[1]

Fazul Abdullah Mohammed and Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah were deemed responsible with planning and orchestrating the bombings.[2][3][4]

## Motivation and preparation

[edit]

Many American sources concluded that the bombings were intended as revenge for U.S. involvement in the extradition and alleged torture of four members of Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ) who had been arrested in Albania in the two months prior to the attacks for a series of murders in Egypt.[5] Between June and July, Ahmad Isma'il 'Uthman Saleh, Ahmad Ibrahim al-Sayyid al-Naggar, Shawqi Salama Mustafa Atiya, and Mohamed Hassan Tita were all renditioned from Albania to Egypt with the co-operation of the United States; the four men were accused of participating in the assassination of Rifaat el-Mahgoub, as well as a later plot against the Khan el-Khalili market in Cairo.[6] The following month, a communique was issued warning the United States that a "response" was being prepared to "repay" them for their interference.[7] However, the 9/11 Commission Report claims that preparations began shortly after Osama bin Laden issued his February 1998 fatwa.[8]

A Nissan Atlas truck, similar to that used in Dar es-Salaam

According to journalist Lawrence Wright, the Nairobi operation was named after the Kaaba in Mecca; the Dar es Salaam bombing was called Operation al-Aqsa in Jerusalem, but "neither had an obvious connection to the American embassies in Africa. Bin Laden initially said that the sites had been targeted because of the 'invasion' of Somalia; then he described an American plan to partition Sudan, which he said was hatched in the embassy in Nairobi. He also told his followers that the genocide in Rwanda had been planned inside the two American embassies." Wright concludes that bin Laden's actual goal was "to lure the United States into Afghanistan, which had long been called 'The Graveyard of Empires.'"[9]

In the second half of 1999, Osama bin Laden spoke to a crowd of graduates from a training camp in Afghanistan about the attacks and explained the reasons for targeting the Nairobi embassy. Bin Laden said Operation Restore Hope in Somalia was directed from the Nairobi embassy and claimed the lives of 30,000 Muslims, the Southern Sudanese rebel leader John Garang was supported from there and it was the largest American Intelligence center in East Africa.[10]

In May 1998, a villa in Nairobi was purchased by one of the bombers to enable a bomb to be built in the garage. Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan purchased a beige Toyota Dyna truck in Nairobi and a 1987 Nissan Atlas refrigeration truck in Dar es Salaam. Six metal bars were used to form a "cage" on the back of the Atlas to accommodate the bomb.[11]

In June 1998, KK Mohamed rented House 213 in the Illala district of Dar es Salaam, about four miles (six kilometers) from the U.S. embassy. A white Suzuki Samurai was used to haul bomb components, hidden in rice sacks, to House 213.[12]

In both Nairobi and Dar es Salaam, Mohammed Odeh supervised construction of two very large 2,000-pound (900 kg) destructive devices. The Nairobi bomb was made of 400 to 500 cylinders of TNT (about the size of drink cans), ammonium nitrate, aluminum powder, and detonating cord. The explosives were packed into twenty specially designed wooden crates that were sealed and then placed in the bed of the trucks. Muhsin Musa Matwalli Atwah ran a wire from the bomb to a set of batteries in the back of the truck cab and then to a detonator switch beneath the dashboard.[11] The Dar es Salaam bomb was of slightly different construction: the TNT was attached to fifteen oxygen tanks and gas canisters and was surrounded with four bags of ammonium nitrate fertilizer and some sandbags to tamp and direct the blast.[13]

The bombings were scheduled for August 7, the eighth anniversary of the arrival of U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia during the early stages of the Persian Gulf War, likely a choice by Osama bin Laden.[14]

When bin Laden's bodyguard asked him after the attacks whether so many victims were really necessary, he replied referring to al-Qaeda's 1996 and 1998 fatwas declaring war on America and Israel: "We warned the whole world what would happen to the friends of America. We weren't responsible for any victims from the minute we warned those countries."[15]

## Attacks and casualties

[edit]

Wreckage from the Nairobi bombing

On August 7 between 10:30 a.m. and 10:40 a.m. local time (3:30–3:40 a.m. EDT), suicide bombers in trucks loaded with explosives parked outside the embassies in Dar es Salaam and Nairobi, and almost simultaneously detonated.[16] A total of 213 people were killed in the Nairobi blast, while 11 were killed in Dar es Salaam.[17] An estimated 4,000 in Nairobi were wounded, and another 85 in Dar es Salaam.[18] Seismological readings analyzed after the bombs indicated energy of between 3 and 17 short tons (3 and 15 metric tons) of high-explosive material.[19] Although the attacks were directed at U.S. facilities, the vast majority of casualties were local citizens of the two African countries. Twelve Americans were killed,[20] including two Central Intelligence Agency employees in the Nairobi embassy, Tom Shah (aka Uttamlal Thomas Shah) and Molly Huckaby Hardy,[21] and one U.S. Marine, Sergeant Jesse "Nathan" Aliganga, a Marine Security Guard at the Nairobi embassy.[22][23] U.S. Army Sergeant Kenneth Ray Hobson II was one of the 12 Americans killed in the attack.[citation needed]

While Azzam drove the Toyota Dyna quickly toward the Nairobi embassy along with Mohamed Rashed Daoud Al-Owhali,[24][page needed] local security guard Benson Okuku Bwaku was warned to open the gate immediately and fired upon when he refused to comply. Al-Owhali threw a stun grenade at embassy guards before exiting the vehicle and running off.[25][page needed] Osama bin Laden later offered the explanation that it had been Al-Owhali's intention to leap out and shoot the guards to clear a path for the truck, but that he had left his pistol in the truck and subsequently ran off.[24][page needed] As Bwaku radioed to Marine Post One for backup, the truck detonated.[25][page needed]

The explosion damaged the embassy building and collapsed the neighboring Ufundi Building where most victims were killed, mainly students and staff of a secretarial college housed there. The heat from the blast was channeled between the buildings towards Haile Selassie Avenue where a packed commuter bus was burned. Windows were shattered in a radius of nearly 1⁄2 mi (800 meters). A large number of eye injuries occurred because people in buildings nearby who had heard the first explosion of the hand grenade and the shooting went to their office windows to have a look when the main blast occurred and shattered the windows.[26][27]

Meanwhile, the Atlas truck that attacked the U.S. Embassy at 36 Laibon Road, Dar es Salaam was being driven by Hamden Khalif Allah Awad, known as "Ahmed the German" due to his blond hair, a former camp trainer who had arrived in the country only a few days earlier.[11] The death toll was less than in Nairobi as the U.S. embassy was located outside the city center in the upscale Oysterbay neighborhood, and a water truck prevented the suicide bombers from getting closer to the structure.[28]

Following the attacks, a group calling itself the "Liberation Army for Holy Sites" took credit for the bombings. U.S. investigators believe the term was a cover used by Egyptian Islamic Jihad, who had actually perpetrated the bombing.[29]

## Aftermath and international response

[edit]

Memorial park at the site of the embassy in Nairobi, 2007 Servicemen unload a casket at Andrews Air Force Base containing the remains of an American killed in Nairobi

In response to the bombings, President Bill Clinton ordered Operation Infinite Reach, a series of cruise missile strikes on targets in Sudan and Afghanistan on August 20, 1998, announcing the planned strike in a prime-time address on U.S. television.[30]

The United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 1189 condemning the attacks on the embassies.[31]

Both embassies were heavily damaged and the Nairobi embassy had to be rebuilt. It is now located across the road from the United Nations Office at Nairobi for security purposes.

A memorial park was constructed on the former embassy site, dedicated on the third anniversary of the attack.[32] Public protest marred the opening ceremony after it was announced that the park, including its wall inscribed with the names of the dead, would not be free to the public.[32]

Within months following the bombings, the United States Department of State Bureau of Diplomatic Security added Kenya to its Antiterrorism Assistance Program (ATA), which was originally created in 1983. While the addition was largely a formality to reaffirm U.S. commitment to fighting terrorism in Kenya, it nonetheless sparked the beginning of an active bilateral antiterrorism campaign by the United States and Kenya. The U.S. government also rapidly and permanently increased the monetary aid to Kenya. Immediate changes included a $42 million grant targeted specifically towards Kenyan victims.[33]

### Opati v. Republic of Sudan

[edit]

Main article: Opati v. Republic of Sudan

In 2001, James Owens and others filed a civil lawsuit against Sudan for its role in the attack under the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act with the recently-added 1996 amendments for state-sponsored terrorism.[34] They argued that Sudan was at fault for providing sanctuary to the bombers prior to the attack. The lawsuit was prolonged over a decade, hampered in part by the lack of Sudan sending counsel at times, but further struggled when the legal system ruled that foreign nations had sovereign immunity from causes of action in civil lawsuits based on the current language of the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act in a 2004 case. Congress amended the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act in 2008 to correct this and to allow its provisions to retroactively apply to existing lawsuits, including Owens' case. With that, hundreds more plaintiffs joined the suit, eventually with more than 700 parties listed.[35] By 2014, the district court awarded the plaintiffs over $10 billion.[36] Sudan, which had not appeared during the initial lawsuit, appealed the judgment, arguing it did not understand the US civil suit system and did not understand the consequences of not appearing, but also challenged the retroactive nature of the 2008 change to the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act.[37] The appeals court discounted Sudan's argument regarding its lack of understanding, and upheld the lower court's finding that Sudan was liable for the bombings, but ruled that the $4.3 billion of punitive damages could not be applied retroactively. The plaintiffs petitioned to the Supreme Court to appeal, and in May 2020, the Court ruled in Opati v. Republic of Sudan that the punitive damages could be retroactively applied, restoring the $4.3 billion that had been awarded at the District Court.[38]

In October 2020, President Donald Trump announced that the United States would remove Sudan from the State Sponsors of Terrorism list, after they had agreed to pay $335 million in compensation to the families of victims of the embassy bombings.[39]

## Indictment

[edit]

Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery

Following the investigation, an indictment was issued. It charges the following 21 people for various alleged roles in the bombings.[40] 20 of the cases have been resolved.

Name  | Disposition

|

Osama bin Laden | Killed in Abbottabad, Pakistan on May 2, 2011
Muhammad Atef | Killed in Kabul, Afghanistan on November 14, 2001
Ayman al Zawahiri | Killed in Kabul, Afghanistan on July 31, 2022
Saif al Adel | Fugitive
Mamdouh Mahmud Salim | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[41]
Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah | Killed in Tehran, Iran on August 7, 2020[42][43][44]
Muhsin Musa Matwalli Atwah | Killed in Naghar Kalai, Pakistan on April 12, 2006
Khalid al Fawwaz | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[45]
Wadih el Hage | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[46]
Anas al Libi | Died in 2015 while awaiting trial in the United States
Ibrahim Eidarous | Died in 2008 while under house arrest in the United Kingdom
Adel Abdel Bari | Served a sentence of 25 years imprisonment in the United States[47]
Fazul Abdullah Mohammed | Killed in Mogadishu, Somalia by Somali government troops on June 7, 2011[48]
Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali | Killed in Pakistan in 2010[49]
Mohammed Sadeek Odeh | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[50]
Mohamed Rashed Daoud al-'Owhali | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[51]
Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil | Killed in Afghanistan (date of death unknown)[52][53][54]
Khalfan Khamis Mohamed | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[55]
Ahmed Khalfan Ghailani | Serving a life sentence without parole in the United States[56]
Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam | Killed in Pakistan on January 1, 2009
Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan

## See also

[edit]

* Kenya portal
* Tanzania portal
* United States portal
* Politics portal
* 1990s portal

* List of terrorist incidents in 1998
* List of Islamist terrorist attacks
* Terrorism in Kenya
* 1998 World Cup terror plot

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Lifting the Veil — Understanding the Roots of Islamic Militancy | Harvard International Review". hir.harvard.edu. Archived from the original on September 28, 2011. Retrieved November 15, 2021.
2. ^ Bennett, Brian (June 12, 2011). "Al Qaeda operative key to 1998 U.S. embassy bombings killed in Somalia". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on June 13, 2011.
3. ^ "Al-Qaida timeline: Plots and attacks – World news – Hunt for Al-Qaeda". NBC News. April 23, 2004. Archived from the original on September 24, 2020. Retrieved January 21, 2013.
4. ^ "Читать онлайн 'The Black Banners' автора Soufan Ali H. - RuLit - Страница 83". Archived from the original on January 15, 2014.
5. ^ Mayer, Jane (2008). The Dark Side: The Inside Story of How The War on Terror Turned into a War on American Ideals. New York: Doubleday. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-385-52639-5.
6. ^ Advocate, Victoria (August 13, 1998). "Bombings connect to mysterious arrests".[permanent dead link‍]
7. ^ Higgins, Andrew (November 20, 2001). "A CIA-Backed Team Used Brutal Means to Crack Terror Cell". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on October 23, 2017.
8. ^ 9/11 Commission Report Archived November 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine p. 69
9. ^ Wright, Lawrence (2006). The Looming Tower: Al-Qaeda and the Road to 9/11. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 272\. ISBN 0-375-41486-X.
10. ^ Soufan, Ali; Freedman, Daniel (2020). The Black Banners (Declassified): How Torture Derailed the War on Terror after 9/11. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 96\. ISBN 978-0-393-54072-7.
11. ^ a b c Benjamin, Daniel; Simon, Steven (2002). The Age of Sacred Terror. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-50859-7.
12. ^ Hamm, Mark (2007). Terrorism As Crime: From Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and Beyond. NYU Press. p. 65\. ISBN 9780814737453. Retrieved June 23, 2016.
13. ^ Hamm, Mark S. (2007). Terrorism as Crime: From Oklahoma City to Al-Qaeda and Beyond. NYU Press. p. 66\. ISBN 978-0-8147-3696-8. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
14. ^ Gunaratna, Rohan (2002). Inside Al Qaeda. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 46. ISBN 0-231-12692-1.
15. ^ Bergen, Peter (2021). The Rise and Fall of Osama bin Laden. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 114\. ISBN 978-1-9821-7052-3.
16. ^ "U.S. Embassy Bombings". U.S. Department of State website. Archived from the original on August 5, 2007. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
17. ^ "Frontline: The trail of evidence - FBI executive summary". PBS.org. Archived from the original on January 21, 2015. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
18. ^ "Accountability Board Report: Nairobi-Tanzania Bombings -- Anti-US Mass Casualty Incidents". fas.org. Archived from the original on September 1, 2020. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
19. ^ "Some Practical Applications of Forensic Seismology" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 29, 2013. Retrieved November 3, 2010.
20. ^ "Profiles of Americans killed in Kenya embassy bombing". CNN.com. August 13, 1998. Archived from the original on December 16, 2006. Retrieved November 18, 2008.
21. ^ Associated Press, "Bin Laden raid avenged secret CIA deaths", Japan Times, May 30, 2011, p. 1.
22. ^ "Jesse Nathanael Aliganga". Archived from the original on March 3, 2016.
23. ^ "Fil-Am hero guard killed in Nairobi". Archived from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved December 24, 2011.
24. ^ a b Ressa, Maria (2003). Seeds of Terror. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-5133-4.
25. ^ a b Katz, Samuel M. (2002). Relentless Pursuit: The DSS and the manhunt for the al-Qaeda terrorists. New York: Forge/Tom Doherty. ISBN 0-7653-0402-3.
26. ^ "www.washingtonpost.com: E. Africa Bombings Report". www.washingtonpost.com. Archived from the original on November 21, 2019. Retrieved April 28, 2020.
27. ^ "Kenya's Blinded, Near-Blind Wait, Pray". Los Angeles Times. August 30, 1998. Archived from the original on September 1, 2020. Retrieved April 28, 2020.
28. ^ "Accountability Board Report: Nairobi-Tanzania Bombings -- Dar es Salaam". irp.fas.org. Archived from the original on September 13, 2021. Retrieved September 13, 2021.
29. ^ Global Briefings, Issue 27, "Osama bin Laden tied to other Fundamentalists", September 1998.
30. ^ "U.S. FURY ON 2 CONTINENTS; Clinton's Words: 'There Will Be No Sanctuary for Terrorists'". The New York Times. August 21, 1998. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on July 11, 2020. Retrieved May 27, 2020.
31. ^ "Security Council strongly condemns terrorist bomb attacks in Nairobi and Dar es Salaam on August 7". United Nations. August 13, 1998. Archived from the original on September 20, 2014.
32. ^ a b "Fee for Kenya memorial raises ire". The Arizona Republic. Phoenix, Arizona. The Washington Post. August 8, 2001. p. 13\. Archived from the original on November 5, 2018. Retrieved October 22, 2018 - via Newspapers.com.
33. ^ "United States Aid to Kenya: Regional Security and Counterterrorism". Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. Retrieved June 1, 2011.
34. ^ Nick Divito (March 25, 2016). "Sudan On the Hook for Terrorism Judgments". Courthouse News. Washington DC. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 29, 2017. "Between March and October 2014, the D.C. District Court entered judgments of more than $10 billion on behalf of relatives and victims who had filed seven complaints after the attacks."
35. ^ Chung, Andrew (June 28, 2019). "U.S. Supreme Court to mull punitive damages against Sudan over embassy bombings". Reuters. Archived from the original on September 1, 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
36. ^ Adam Klasfeld (July 28, 2017). "D.C. Circuit Lightens Sudan's Load on Terrorism Judgments". Courthouse News. Washington DC. Archived from the original on July 29, 2017. Retrieved July 29, 2017. "On appeal, Sudan advanced several arguments for its district court no-show. The county had to grapple with natural disasters and civil wars, and argued it did not understand the U.S. legal process enough to appreciate the consequences of its absence."
37. ^ Patrick Boyle (March 24, 2016). "D.C. Judge Upholds $10B Against Sudan In Embassy Bombings". Law360. Washington DC. Archived from the original on July 31, 2017. Retrieved July 29, 2017. "A D.C. federal judge Wednesday upheld $10 billion in damages to victims of the 1998 U.S. embassy terrorist bombings who had accused Sudan of supporting the attacks, declaring the country had no grounds to overturn the award after failing to respond to the lawsuits for four years."
38. ^ Robinson, Kimberly Strawbridge (May 18, 2020). "Supreme Court Revives $4.3 Billion Terror Award Against Sudan". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on May 21, 2020. Retrieved May 18, 2020.
39. ^ "Trump set to remove Sudan from state sponsors of terrorism list". BBC News. October 20, 2020. Archived from the original on February 25, 2023. Retrieved October 20, 2020.
40. ^ "United States v. Osama bin Laden, et al" (PDF). (indictment). Provided by the Monterey Institute of International Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2012.
41. ^ Hoffman, Tod (2014). Al Qaeda Declares War: The African Embassy Bombings and America’s Search for Justice. University Press of New England. p. 219\. ISBN 978-1-61168-546-6.
42. ^ Axelrod, Tal (November 13, 2020). "Israeli agents killed Al Qaeda's No. 2 official on street in Iran: report". The Hill. Archived from the original on November 14, 2020. Retrieved November 14, 2020.
43. ^ Jakes, Lara; Schmitt, Eric; Barnes, Julian E. (January 12, 2021). "Pompeo Says Iran Is New Base for Al Qaeda, but Offers Little Proof". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on January 24, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
44. ^ "Pompeo Confirms Death of Al-Qaeda's No. 2 in Tehran Last August". Bloomberg. January 12, 2021. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 12, 2021.
45. ^ "Ex-Bin Laden aide sentenced to life in embassy bombings". BBC News. May 15, 2015. Archived from the original on January 31, 2016. Retrieved January 25, 2016.
46. ^ "Inmate Locator search for register number '42393-054'". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on March 10, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
47. ^ Weiser, Benjamin (February 7, 2015). "Egyptian Gets 25-Year Term in 1998 Embassy Bombings; Judge Calls Plea Deal Generous". The New York Times. Archived from the original on February 10, 2015. Retrieved February 14, 2015.
48. ^ Lahoud, Nelly (June 4, 2012). "Beware of Imitators: Al-Qa`ida through the Lens of its Confidential Secretary". Combating Terrorism Center.
49. ^ Miller, Greg (February 21, 2010). "Increased U.S. drone strikes in Pakistan killing few high-value militants". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on September 28, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
50. ^ "Inmate Locator search for register number '42375-054'". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
51. ^ "Inmate Locator search for register number '42371-054'". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
52. ^ ""Martyrs in a Time of Alienation" - Complete Blogger's Cut". Making Sense of Jihad. Archived from the original on November 17, 2020. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
53. ^ "INTELWIRE.com -- Open-source intelligence, primary source documents, analysis by J.M. Berger, co-author of ISIS: The State of Terror, author of Jihad Joe: Americans Who Got to War in the Name of Islam" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 16, 2014. Retrieved July 14, 2014.
54. ^ "Recommendation for Continued Detention Under DoD Control" (PDF). Department of Defense. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 5, 2016. Retrieved January 25, 2013.
55. ^ "Inmate Locator search for register number '44623-054'". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on September 19, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.
56. ^ "Inmate Locator search for register number '02476-748'". Federal Bureau of Prisons. Archived from the original on September 20, 2012. Retrieved December 8, 2012.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Bushnell, Prudence (2018). Terrorism, Betrayal, and Resilience: My Story of the 1998 U.S. Embassy Bombings. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-1-64012-483-7.
* Hoffman, Tod (2014). Al Qaeda Declares War: The African Embassy Bombings and America’s Search for Justice. Lebanon: University Press of New England. ISBN 978-1-61168-546-6.

## External links

[edit]

* Rewards for Justice – Most Wanted Terrorists
* Transcripts of Sentencing Phase of Embassy Bombers Trial
* Primer on the attacks
* U.S. District Court for DC finds "direct assistance" from Tehran, Sudan and Hezbollah in bombing
* Oral History with Ambassador Prudence Bushnell to the Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training on the embassy bombings

* v
* t
* e

Nairobi, Kenya

* Buildings
* Economy
* Education
* Government
* County governor
* History
* Timeline
* Media
* People
* Sport
* Transport

Nairobi Coat of Arms

Neighbourhoods|

* Bahati
* Buruburu
* Dagoretti
* Dandora
* Donholm
* Eastleigh
* Embakasi
* Gigiri
* Githurai 44
* Highridge
* Highrise
* Hurlingham
* Huruma
* Imara Daima
* Jericho
* Lang'ata
* Lavington
* Loresho
* Lucky Summer
* Kahawa
* Kaloleni
* Kamulu
* Kangemi
* Karen
* Kariobangi
* Kasarani
* Kawangware
* Kayole
* Kiambiu
* Kibera
* Kileleshwa
* Kilimani
* Kitisuru
* Komarock
* Korogocho
* Kwa Njenga
* Kware
* Kyuna
* Madaraka
* Majengo
* Makadara
* Makongeni
* Marurui
* Mathare
* Matopeni
* Mihang'o
* Mountain View
* Mowlem
* Mugumo-ini
* Mukuru
* Muirigo
* Muthaiga
* Muthangari
* Mutu-ini
* Mwiki
* Nairobi West
* Ng'ando
* Ngara
* Njiru
* Nyayo
* Ofafa
* Pangani
* Parklands
* Pipeline
* Pumwani
* Riruta
* Roysambu
* Ruai
* Ruaraka
* Runda
* Sarang'ombe
* Shauri Moyo
* South B
* South C
* Spring Valley
* Starehe
* Thome
* Umoja
* Upper Hill
* Utawala
* Uthiru
* Waithaka
* Westlands
* Woodley
* Viwandani
* Zimmerman
* Ziwani

County divisions|

* Central
* Dagoretti
* Embakasi
* Kasarani
* Kibera
* Makadara
* Pumwani
* Westlands

Transport|

* Jomo Kenyatta International Airport
* Mombasa–Nairobi Railway

Education|

| Tertiary|

* University of Nairobi
* Kenyatta University
* Strathmore University
* Business School
* Law School
* Daystar University
* United States International University Africa

|

Primary/
secondary|

see template

Landmarks|

* KICC
* Nairobi National Museum
* Times Tower
* Uhuru Park

Nairobi at Wikimedia Commons .  Kenya portal

* v
* t
* e

Dar es Salaam

Categories|

* Buildings
* Districts
* Economy
* Education
* Government
* History
* Timeline
* Landmarks
* People
* Sports
* Transport
* Wards

Districts|

* Ilala
* Kigamboni
* Kinondoni
* Temeke
* Ubungo

History|

* Kunduchi Ruins
* Kimbiji Ruins
* Mwalimu Nyerere Memorial House, Mzimuni
* 1998 United States embassy bombings

Education|

* Open University of Tanzania
* Shaaban Robert Secondary School
* International School of Tanganyika
* University of Dar es Salaam
* College of Education
* Dar es Salaam Institute of Technology
* College of Business Education

Transport|

* Julius Nyerere International Airport
* Bus rapid transit
* Commuter rail

Landmarks|

* National Museum of Tanzania
* Nyerere Bridge
* Uhuru Monument
* Askari Monument

National Parks|

* Dar es Salaam Marine Reserve
* Pande Game Reserve

* Category
* Commons
* Tanzania Portal

* v
* t
* e

Al-Qaeda

Leadership|

* Saif al-Adel
* Abd al-Rahman al-Maghribi
* Ali Mohamed Rage
* Sa'ad bin Atef al-Awlaki
* Ahmad Umar
* Iyad Ag Ghaly
* Ezedin Abdel Aziz Khalil
* Abu Ubaidah Youssef al-Annabi
* Ali Sayyid Muhamed Mustafa al-Bakri
* Ibrahim al-Banna
* Ibrahim al Qosi
* Abu Walid al-Masri
* Mahad Karate
* Mohammed Showqi Al-Islambouli
* Abdukadir Mohamed Abdukadir
* Fuad Qalaf
* Jehad Mostafa
* Abu Humam al-Shami
* Sami al-Oraydi

Former
leadership|

| Killed|

* Osama bin Laden (killing)
* Ayman al-Zawahiri (killing)
* Mohammed Atef
* Qaed Salim Sinan al-Harethi (killing)
* Mustafa Mohamed Fadhil
* Haitham al-Yemeni
* Abu Hamza Rabia
* Muhsin Musa Matwalli Atwah
* Abu Musab al-Zarqawi
* Omar al-Faruq
* Haitham al-Badri
* Abu Yaqub al-Masri
* Abu Talha al-Sudani
* Abu Laith al-Libi
* Abu Sulayman Al-Jazairi
* Midhat Mursi
* Mohamed Moumou
* Khalid Habib
* Abu Ghadiya
* Abu Zubair al-Masri
* Rashid Rauf
* Mohammad Hasan Khalil al-Hakim
* Fahid Mohammed Ally Msalam
* Sheikh Ahmed Salim Swedan
* Saad bin Laden
* Saleh Ali Saleh Nabhan
* Abdullah Said al Libi
* Saleh al-Somali
* Saeed al-Masri
* Hamza al-Jawfi
* Ahmed Mohammed Hamed Ali
* Mohamed Abul-Khair
* Sheikh Fateh
* Huthaifa al-Batawi
* Ilyas Kashmiri
* Fazul Abdullah Mohammed
* Atiyah Abd al-Rahman
* Anwar al-Awlaki
* Samir Khan
* Tariq al-Dahab
* Muhammad Sa'id Ali Hasan
* Fahd al-Quso
* Abu Yahya al-Libi
* Hassan Ghul
* Abu-Zaid al Kuwaiti
* Said Ali al-Shihri
* Farman Ali Shinwari
* Abdelhamid Abou Zeid
* Ibrahim Haji Jama Mee'aad
* Abu Mansoor Al-Amriki
* Said Bahaji
* Abu Khalid al-Suri
* Omar Ould Hamaha
* Ahmed Abdi Godane
* Abu Yusuf Al-Turki
* Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah
* Adam Yahiye Gadahn
* Harith bin Ghazi al-Nadhari
* Othman Ahmad Othman al-Ghamdi
* Ibrahim Sulayman Muhammad al-Rubaysh
* Nasser bin Ali al-Ansi
* Nasir al-Wuhayshi
* Muhsin al-Fadhli
* Abu Khalil al-Madani
* Matiur Rehman
* Abu Firas al-Suri
* Ahmed Refai Taha
* Mokhtar Belmokhtar
* Abu Khayr al-Masri
* Ibrahim al-Asiri
* Hamza bin Laden
* Sari Shihab
* Asim Umar
* Qasim al-Raymi
* Abdelmalek Droukdel (killing)
* Khalid al-Aruri
* Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah
* Abu Muhsin al-Masri

|

Captured|

* Mamdouh Mahmud Salim
* Wadih el-Hage
* Khalid al-Fawwaz
* Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri
* Khalid Sheikh Mohammed
* Walid bin Attash
* Riduan Isamuddin
* Ali al-Bahlul
* Ahmed Ghailani
* Abu Faraj al-Libbi
* Mustafa Setmariam Nasar
* Abdul Hadi al Iraqi
* Muhammad Jafar Jamal al-Kahtani
* Mohamed Atiq Awayd Al Harbi
* Younis al-Mauritani
* Sulaiman Abu Ghaith
* Abu Anas al-Libi
* Muhanad Mahmoud Al Farekh
* Mukhtar Robow
* Amin al-Haq

Other|

* Abu Ubaidah al-Banshiri (died)
* Abu Ubaidah al-Masri (died)
* Mahfouz Ould al-Walid (left)
* Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi (expelled)
* Ahmed al-Sharaa (left)
* Abu Maria al-Qahtani (left)
* Ahmad Salama Mabruk (left)
* Abu Omar al-Turkistani (left)
* Abu Sulayman al-Muhajir (left)
* Khalid Batarfi (died)

Timeline
of attacks|

* 1992 Aden hotel bombings
* 1998 United States embassy bombings
* 2000 USS Cole bombing
* 2001 September 11 attacks
* 2002 Bali bombings
* 2004 Madrid train bombings
* 2005 London bombings
* 2007 Algiers bombings
* 2008 Islamabad Danish embassy bombing
* 2008 Islamabad Marriott Hotel bombing
* 2008 Sanaa United States embassy attack
* 2013 In Amenas hostage crisis
* 2013 Westgate shopping mall attack
* 2015 Charlie Hebdo shooting
* 2015 Garissa University College attack
* 2015 Bamako hotel attack
* 2016 Ouagadougou attacks
* 2016 Grand-Bassam shootings
* 2016 Bamako attack
* 2019 Naval Air Station Pensacola shooting

Wars|

* Soviet–Afghan War
* Afghan Civil War (1989–1992)
* Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)
* First Chechen War
* Afghan Civil War (1996–2001)
* Second Chechen War
* War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)
* Iraq War
* Somali Civil War
* War in North-West Pakistan (drone strikes)
* Insurgency in the Maghreb (2002–present)
* Syrian civil war
* Yemeni civil war (2014–present)
* Al-Qaeda insurgency in Yemen
* Houthi insurgency

Affiliates|

* Al-Shabaab (Somalia)
* Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen)
* Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (North Africa)
* Al-Qaeda in the Indian subcontinent (Indian subcontinent)
* Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (Mali)

Charity organizations|

* Benevolence International Foundation
* Al-Haramain Foundation

Media|

* Al Qaeda Handbook
* Al Neda
* As-Sahab
* Al-Andalus Media
* Al-Kataib Media Foundation
* Radio al-Andalus
* Shahada News Agency
* Al-Malahem Media
* Inspire
* Az-Zallaqa Foundation
* Fatawā of Osama bin Laden
* Al-Khansaa
* Kuala Lumpur al-Qaeda Summit
* Management of Savagery
* Voice of Jihad
* Qaedat al-Jihad
* Umar Media
* Global Islamic Media Front
* Al-I'tisam Media Foundation

Video and audio|

* Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden
* Videos and audio recordings of Ayman al-Zawahiri

Related|

* Safe houses
* Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory
* Timeline

Category:Al-Qaeda

* v
* t
* e

Osama bin Laden

Background|

* Childhood, education, and personal life
* Militant activity
* Beliefs and ideology
* Search
* Khartoum compound
* Abbottabad compound
* Death
* reactions
* code name controversy
* conspiracy theories

Family|

* Muhammad bin Ladin (father)
* Hamida al-Attas (mother)
* Najwa Ghanhem (first wife)
* Abdallah bin Laden (son)
* Hamza bin Laden (son)
* Saad bin Laden (son)
* Omar bin Laden (son)

Work|

* al-Qaeda
* Wadi al Aqiq
* Messages to the World
* Fatawā
* Videos and audio recordings
* 2004 video
* 19 January 2006 tape
* 6 September 2007 video
* 11 September 2007 video
* 20 September 2007 tape
* Letter to the American People

In media|

* In popular culture
* Growing Up bin Laden
* Holy War, Inc.
* The Looming Tower
* No Easy Day
* Where in the World Is Osama bin Laden?
* Zero Dark Thirty
* Interviews

Related|

* Soviet–Afghan War
* Allegations of a support system in Pakistan for Osama bin Laden
* Bodyguards
* Issue Station
* Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory
* Timeline
* September 11 attacks
* Allegations of CIA assistance to Osama bin Laden
* Gary Brooks Faulkner

* v
* t
* e

Bill Clinton

* 42nd President of the United States (1993–2001)
* 40th and 42nd Governor of Arkansas (1979–1981, 1983–1992)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inaugurations
* 1993
* 1997
* Timeline
* 1993
* 1994
* 1995
* 1996
* 1997
* 1998
* 1999
* 2000
* January 2001
* Economic policy
* AmeriCorps
* Health care plan
* North American Free Trade Agreement
* Balanced Budget
* Foreign policy
* International trips
* Clinton Doctrine
* Oslo I Accord
* Israel–Jordan peace treaty
* Dayton Agreement
* 2000 Camp David Summit
* Cruise missile strikes on Iraq
* 1993
* 1996
* Operation Infinite Reach
* Bombing of Yugoslavia
* Bombing of Iraq (1998)
* National Highway System Designation Act of 1995
* Transportation Equity Act
* One America Initiative
* Riegle-Neal Act
* Gramm–Leach–Bliley Act
* Lead-Based Paint Disclosure Regulation
* Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996
* Telecommunications Act of 1996
* Communications Decency Act
* Section 230
* Nannygate
* Lincoln Bedroom for contributors controversy
* Commerce Department trade mission controversy
* 1996 United States campaign finance controversy
* Clinton–Lewinsky scandal
* Starr Report
* Impeachment
* efforts
* inquiry
* trial
* White House Millennium Council
* Pardons
* list
* Cabinet
* Gore vice presidency
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* controversies
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations
* Presidential transition of George W. Bush

Life and
legacy|

* Childhood home
* Early life and career
* Governorships of Arkansas
* Presidential Library
* Post-presidency
* Official White House portrait
* Clinton Foundation
* Clinton School of Public Service
* Clinton Bush Haiti Fund
* Chairman, National Constitution Center
* Honors and awards
* Public image
* Troopergate
* Sexual misconduct allegations
* Whitewater controversy

Speeches|

* Joint session of Congress (1993)
* Joint session of Congress (health care reform) (1993)
* State of the Union addresses
* 1994
* 1995
* 1996
* 1997
* 1998
* 1999
* 2000

Elections|

| U.S. House|

* 1974

|

Gubernatorial|

* 1978
* 1980
* 1982
* 1984
* 1986
* 1990

Presidential|

* 1992 campaign
* "Make America Great Again"
* primaries
* running mate selection
* convention
* debates
* election
* theme song
* 1996 campaign
* primaries
* convention
* debates
* election

Books|

* Between Hope and History (1996)
* My Life (2004)
* Giving: How Each of Us Can Change the World (2007)
* Back to Work (2011)
* The President Is Missing (2018)
* The President's Daughter (2021)
* Citizen: My Life After the White House (2024)

Namesakes|

* William Jefferson Clinton Federal Building
* Bill Clinton Boulevard
* Clinton National Airport
* USS William J. Clinton

Popular
culture|

* Saturday Night Live parodies of Bill Clinton
* The War Room (1993 documentary)
* The Silence of the Hams (1994 film)
* Primary Colors (1998 film)
* The Final Days (2000 short film)
* The Hunting of the President (2004 film)
* The Special Relationship (2010 film)
* Clinton (2012 film)
* Hillary and Clinton (2016 play)
* Impeachment: American Crime Story (2021 miniseries)
* The American Presidency with Bill Clinton (2022 documentary series)

Family|

* Hillary Rodham Clinton (wife)
* Chelsea Clinton (daughter)
* William Jefferson Blythe Jr. (father)
* Virginia Clinton Kelley (mother)
* Roger Clinton Sr. (first stepfather)
* Roger Clinton Jr. (brother)
* Jeff Dwire (second stepfather)
* Socks (cat)
* Buddy (dog)
* Whitehaven (residence)

* ← George H. W. Bush
* George W. Bush →

* Category

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template