Abrahamic religions

Category in comparative religion

From top to bottom: the Star of David (Judaism), the cross (Christianity), and the star and crescent (Islam) are the symbols commonly used to represent the three largest Abrahamic religions. Part of a series on

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* Judaism
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Founding figures

* Jesus (Christianity)
* Muhammad (Islam)
* Abraham (Judaism)
* Siddhartha Gautama (Buddhism)
* Guru Nanak (Sikhism)
* Mahavira (Jainism)
* Zoroaster (Zoroastrianism)
* Hamza ibn Ali (Druzism)
* Laozi (Taoism)
* Confucius (Confucianism)
* Baháʼu'lláh (Baháʼí Faith)

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The Abrahamic religions are a set of monotheistic religions that revere the Biblical figure Abraham, the three largest of which are Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The religions of this set share doctrinal, historical, and geographic overlap that contrasts them with Indian religions, Iranian religions, and East Asian religions.[1][2] The term has been introduced in the 20th century and superseded the term Judeo-Christian tradition for the inclusion of Islam. However, the categorization has been criticized for oversimplification of different cultural and doctrinal nuances.

## Usage

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The term Abrahamic religions (and its variations) is a collective religious descriptor for elements shared by Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.[3] It features prominently in interfaith dialogue and political discourse but also has entered academic discourse.[4][5] However, the term has also been criticized for being uncritically adopted.[4] The term appears first time in the second half of the 20th century.[6]

Although historically the term Abrahamic religions was limited to Judaism, Christianity, and Islam,[7] restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.[8][9] The late-19th-century Baháʼí Faith has been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields[10][11] since it is a monotheistic religion that recognizes Abraham.[12][13]

### Theological discourse

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The figure of Abraham is suggested as a common ground for Judaism, Christianity, Islam and a hypothesized eschatological reconciliation of the three.[14][15] Commonalities may include creation, revelation, and redemption, but such shared concepts vary significantly between and within the Abrahamic religions themselves.[15] Proponents of the term argue that all three religions are united through the deity worshipped by Abraham.[14]

The Catholic scholar of Islam, Louis Massignon, stated that the phrase "Abrahamic religion" means that all these religions come from one spiritual source.[16] The modern term comes from the plural form of a Quranic reference to dīn Ibrāhīm ("religion of Ibrahim"), the Arabic form of Abraham's name.[17]

In Christianity, Paul the Apostle, in Romans 4:11–12, refers to Abraham as "father of all", including those "who have faith, circumcised or uncircumcised." From its founding, Islam likewise conceived of itself as the religion of Abraham.[18] The Bahá’í scriptures state that the religion's founder, Baháʼu'lláh, descended from Abraham through his wife Keturah's sons.[19][20][21]

### Criticism

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The appropriateness of grouping Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as "Abrahamic religions" and related terms has been challenged.[22] Adam Dodds argues that the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, can be misleading, as it conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is a commonality among the religions, their shared ancestry is mainly peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences.[23] Alan L. Berger, professor of Judaic Studies at Florida Atlantic University, wrote that "while Judaism birthed both Christianity and Islam, the three monotheistic faiths went their separate ways" and "each tradition views the patriarchal figure differently as seen in the theological claims they make about him."[24] Aaron W. Hughes, meanwhile, describes the term as "imprecise" and "largely a theological neologism."[25]

The common Christian doctrines of Jesus' Incarnation, the Trinity, and the resurrection of Jesus, for example, are accepted in neither Judaism nor Islam. There are fundamental beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are likewise denied by most of Christianity (e.g., the restrictions on pork consumption found in Jewish and Islamic dietary law), and key beliefs of Islam, Christianity, and the Baháʼí Faith not shared by Judaism (e.g., the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus).[26]

## Religions

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### Judaism

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Main article: Jewish history

The Torah forms the basis and foundation of Judaism and corresponds to the first five books of the Bible.

Jewish tradition claims that the Twelve Tribes of Israel are descended from Abraham through his son Isaac and grandson Jacob, whose sons formed the nation of the Israelites in Canaan; Islamic tradition claims that twelve Arab tribes known as the Ishmaelites are descended from Abraham through his son Ishmael in the Arabian Peninsula.[27]

In its early stages, the Israelite religion shares traits with the Canaanite religions of the Bronze Age; by the Iron Age, it had become distinct from other Canaanite religions as it shed polytheism for monolatry. They understood their relationship with their god, Yahweh, as a covenant and that the deity promised Abraham a permanent homeland.[28]

While the Book of Genesis speaks of ʾĔlōhīm, comparable to the Enūma Eliš speaking of various gods of the Canaanite pantheon to create the earth, at the time of the Babylonian captivity, Jewish theologians attributed the six-day narrative all to Yahweh, reflecting an early conception of Yahweh as a universal deity.[29] The monolatrist nature of Yahwism was further developed in the period following the Babylonian captivity, eventually emerging as a firm religious movement of monotheism.[30][31][32] With the Fall of Babylon, Judaism incorporated concepts such as messianism, belief in free will and judgement after death, conception of heaven and hell, angels and demons, among others, into their belief-system.[33][34][35]

### Christianity

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Main article: History of Christianity

A Bible handwritten in Latin, on display in Malmesbury Abbey, Wiltshire, England. This Bible was transcribed in Belgium in 1407 for reading aloud in a monastery.

Christianity traces back their origin to the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah, as in the Confession of Peter; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,[36] who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God.

In the 1st century AD, under the Apostles of Jesus of Nazareth;[19] Christianity spread widely. Paul the Apostle interpreted the role of Abraham differently from the Jews of his time.[37] While for the Jews, Abraham was considered a loyal monotheist in a polytheistic environment, Paul celebrates Abraham as a man who found faith in God before adhering to religious law. In contrast to Judaism, adherence to religious law becomes associated with idolatry.[38]

While Christians fashioned their religion around Jesus of Nazareth, the siege of Jerusalem (70 CE), forced Jews to reconcile their belief-system with the destruction of the Second Temple and associated rituals.[39] At this time, both Judaism and Christianity had to systematize their scriptures and beliefs, resulting in competing theologies both claiming Abrahamic heritage.[40] Christians could hardly dismiss the Hebrew scriptures as Jesus himself refers to them according to Christian reports, and parallels between Jesus and the Biblical stories of creation and redemption starting with Abraham in the Book of Genesis.[41] The distant God asserted by Jesus according to the Christians, created a form of dualism between Creator and creation and the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo, which later heavily influenced Jewish and Islamic theology.[42] By that, Christians established their own identity, distinct from both Greeks and Jews, as those who venerate the deity of Jesus.[43]

After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis-à-vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century, the birth and growth of Protestantism during the Reformation further split Christianity into many denominations. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization.[44]

### Islam

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Main article: History of Islam

The Quran is the holy book of Islam forming the basis for the religion

Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, as the word Islam means submission, the main concept preached by all prophets. Although the Quran is the central religious text of Islam, which Muslims believe to be a revelation from God,[45] other Islamic books considered to be revealed by God before the Quran, mentioned by name in the Quran are the Tawrat (Torah) revealed to the prophets and messengers amongst the Children of Israel (Bani Israil), the Zabur (Psalms) revealed to Dawud (David) and the Injil (the Gospel) revealed to Isa (Jesus). The Quran also mentions God having revealed the Scrolls of Abraham and the Scrolls of Moses.

The relationship between Islamic and Hebrew scriptures and New Testament differs significantly from the relationship between the New Testament and the Hebrew Bible.[46] Whereas the New Testament draws heavily on the Hebrew Bible and interprets its text in light of the foundations of the new religion, the Quran only alludes to various stories of Biblical writings, but remains independent of both, focusing on establishing a monotheistic message by utilizing the stories of the prophets in a religious decentralized environment.[46]

In the 7th century AD, Islam was founded by Muhammad in the Arabian Peninsula; it spread widely through the early Muslim conquests, shortly after his death.[19] Islam understands its form of "Abrahamic monotheism" as preceding both Judaism and Christianity, and in contrast with Arabian Henotheism.[47]

The teachings of the Quran are believed by Muslims to be the direct and final revelation and words of God. Islam, like Christianity, is a universal religion (i.e. membership is open to anyone). Like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of God, called tawhid or "strict monotheism".[48] The story of the creation of the world in the Quran is elaborated less extensively than in the Hebrew scripture, emphasizing the transcendence and universality of God, instead. According to the Quran, God says kun fa-yakūnu.[49] The Quran describes God as the creator of "heavens and earth", to emphasize that it is a universal God and not a local Arabian deity here.[49]

### Others

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While many sources limit the list of Abrahamic religions to only include Judaism, Christianity and Islam, some sources include other religions as well.

Samaritanism diverged from Judaism in the 6th to 3rd centuries BCE; although sometimes considered a branch of Judaism, most consider it to be an independent Abrahamic religion.

Some sources consider Mandaeism to be an Abrahamic religion – however, that classification is controversial, given Mandaeism does not accept Abraham as a prophet, despite revering as prophets several other figures from the Jewish scriptures – on the contrary, they believe that Abraham was originally a priest of their religion, but became an apostate from it.

Druze is another religion which emerged from Islam in the 11th century, and hence is sometimes also considered an Abrahamic religion. Yarsanism is a Kurdish religion which combines elements of Shi'a Islam with pre-Islamic Kurdish beliefs; it has been classified as Abrahamic due to its monotheism, incorporation of Islamic doctrines, and reverence for Islamic figures, especially Ali ibn Abi Talib, the fourth caliph and first imam of Shia Islam.

#### Modern era

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A number of sources include the Baháʼí Faith established in the 19th century,[10][11] since it historically emerged in an Islamic milieu, and shares several beliefs with the Abrahamic faiths, including monotheism and recognising Jewish, Christian and Islamic figures as prophets.[12][13] Some also include Bábism, another 19th century movement which was a precursor to the Baháʼí Faith.

Rastafari, an Afrocentric religion which emerged from Christianity in 1930s Jamaica, is also sometimes classified as Abrahamic, in particular due to its monotheism and use of the Bible as scripture.[50][51]

Chrislam, a group of related Nigerian religious movements which seek to syncretise Christianity and Islam, is sometimes also considered a minor Abrahamic religion.

## Common aspects

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All Abrahamic religions accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.[52][page needed] All of them are monotheistic, and all of them conceive God to be a transcendent creator and the source of moral law.[53] Their religious texts feature many of the same figures, histories, and places, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings.[54] Believers who agree on these similarities and the common Abrahamic origin tend to also be more positive towards other Abrahamic groups.[55]

In the three main Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), the individual, God, and the universe are highly separate from each other. The Abrahamic religions believe in a judging, paternal, fully external god to which the individual and nature are both subordinate. One seeks salvation or transcendence not by contemplating the natural world or via philosophical speculation, but by seeking reconciliation with God through acts of redemption and see divine revelation as outside of self, nature, and custom.

### Monotheism

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Main article: God in Abrahamic religions

All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, although believed by many comparative theologians to be one and the same known by different names.[52][page needed] Each of these religions preaches that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, punishes, and forgives.[23] However, although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods—but rather in three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence—the Trinitarian doctrine, a fundamental of faith for the vast majority of Christian denominations,[56][57] conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. Since the conception of a divine Trinity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam regards Christianity as variously polytheistic.[58]

Christianity and Islam both revere Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) but with vastly differing conceptions:

* Christians view Jesus as the saviour and regard him as God incarnate.
* Muslims see Isa as a Prophet of Islam[59][page needed] and Messiah. Isa (Jesus) is also believed by Muslims to return to Earth before the doomsday to defeat the Dajjal (the Anti-Christ) and restore peace for a period of time.[citation needed]

However, the worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God (known as shirk in Islam and as shituf in Judaism), is typically viewed as the heresy of idolatry by Islam and Judaism.[citation needed]

### Importance of Jerusalem

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Main article: Religious significance of Jerusalem

Further information: Jerusalem in Judaism, Jerusalem in Christianity, and Jerusalem in Islam

Jerusalem is considered Judaism's holiest city. Its origins can be dated to 1004 BCE,[60] when according to Biblical tradition David established it as the capital of the United Kingdom of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah.[61] Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews predates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital for the five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BCE (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.[62][63]

Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.[64] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Syria Palaestina was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.[64] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple[65] and for the feast of the Passover.[66] He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he was crucified on the cross and was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.

Jerusalem became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina. The Al-Aqsa, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Quran and its surroundings are addressed in the Quran as "the holy land". Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem. The first Muslims did not pray toward Kaaba, but toward Jerusalem. The qibla was switched to Kaaba later on to fulfill the order of Allah of praying in the direction of Kaaba (Quran, Al-Baqarah 2:144–150). Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,[67] where, according to traditional Muslim belief, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a horse like winged beast named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.[68][69]

### Significance of Abraham

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Main articles: Covenant of the pieces, Abraham § Christianity, and Abraham in Islam

Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[10]

For Jews, Abraham is the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."[70] With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come".[71] It is this covenant that makes Abraham and his descendants children of the covenant. Similarly, converts, who join the covenant, are all identified as sons and daughters of Abraham.[72]

Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in Hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition, Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.[73][74]

Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle,[75] with the Abrahamic covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply[76] (see also New Covenant and supersessionism). In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith,[77][non-primary source needed] and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus.[78][79]

Christian commentators have a tendency to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity subsequent to, and sometimes rather than (as in supersessionism), being applied to Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus.[neutrality is disputed] They argue this on the basis that just as Abraham as a Gentile (before he was circumcised) "believed God and it was credited to him as righteousness"[80] (cf. Rom. 4:3, James 2:23), "those who have faith are children of Abraham"[81] (see also John 8:39). This is most fully developed in Paul's theology where all who believe in God are spiritual descendants of Abraham.[82][a] However, with regards to Rom. 4:20[83] and Gal. 4:9,[84] in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"[85] rather than "children of Abraham".[86]

For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Adam to Muhammad, to whom God gave revelations,[Quran :verse=163 4 :163], who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba)[Quran :verse=127 2 :127] with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.[87] Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be "one of the first Muslims" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,[88] thus being referred to as ابونا ابراهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Also, the same as Judaism, Islam believes that Abraham rejected idolatry through logical reasoning. Abraham is also recalled in certain details of the annual Hajj pilgrimage.[89]

## Differences

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### God

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Main articles: God in Abrahamic religions, God in Judaism, God in Christianity, God in Islam, and God in the Baháʼí Faith

Further information: Yahweh, Tetragrammaton, El (deity), Elohim, Names of God in Judaism, Names of God in Christianity, and Names of God in Islam

The conception of God as universal remains a common feature of all Abrahamic religions.[90] The Abrahamic God is conceived of as eternal, omnipotent, omniscient and as the creator of the universe.[90] God is further held to have the properties of holiness, justice, omnibenevolence, and omnipresence.[90] Proponents of Abrahamic faiths believe that God is also transcendent, but at the same time personal and involved, listening to prayer and reacting to the actions of his creatures.

The Star of David (or Magen David) is a generally recognized symbol of modern Jewish identity and Judaism.

Jewish theology is unitarian. God is an absolute one, indivisible and incomparable being who is the ultimate cause of all existence. Jewish tradition teaches that the true aspect of God is incomprehensible and unknowable and that it is only God's revealed aspect that brought the universe into existence, and interacts with mankind and the world. In Judaism, the one God of Israel is the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, who is the guide of the world, delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt, and gave them the 613 Mitzvot at Mount Sinai as described in the Torah.

The national god of the Israelites has a proper name, written Y-H-W-H (Hebrew: יהוה) in the Hebrew Bible. The etymology of the name is unknown.[91] An explanation of the name is given to Moses when YHWH calls himself "I Am that I Am", (Hebrew: אהיה אשר אהיה ’ehye ’ăšer ’ehye), seemingly connecting it to the verb hayah (הָיָה), meaning 'to be', but this is likely not a genuine etymology. Jewish tradition accords many names to God, including Elohim, Shaddai, and Sabaoth.

The Christian cross (or crux) is the best-known religious symbol of Christianity; this version is known as a Latin Cross.

In Christian theology, God is the eternal being who created and preserves the world. Christians believe God to be both transcendent and immanent (involved in the world).[92][93] Early Christian views of God were expressed in the Pauline Epistles and the early[b] creeds, which proclaimed one God and the divinity of Jesus.

Around the year 200, Tertullian formulated a version of the doctrine of the Trinity which clearly affirmed the divinity of Jesus and came close to the later definitive form produced by the Ecumenical Council of 381.[94][95] Trinitarians, who form the large majority of Christians, hold it as a core tenet of their faith.[96][97] Nontrinitarian denominations define the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit in a number of different ways.[98]

The theology of the attributes and nature of God has been discussed since the earliest days of Christianity, with Irenaeus writing in the 2nd century: "His greatness lacks nothing, but contains all things."[99] In the 8th century, John of Damascus listed eighteen attributes which remain widely accepted.[100] As time passed, theologians developed systematic lists of these attributes, some based on statements in the Bible (e.g., the Lord's Prayer, stating that the Father is in Heaven), others based on theological reasoning.[101][102]

The word God written in Arabic

In Islamic theology, God (Arabic: الله Allāh) is the all-powerful and all-knowing creator, sustainer, ordainer and judge of everything in existence.[103] In contrast to the Jewish and Christian traditions, which depict God usually as anthropomorph, the Islamic conception of God is less personal, but rather of a conscious force behind all aspects of the universe only known through signs of nature, metaphorical stories, and revelation by the prophets and angels.[104] Islam emphasizes that God is singular (tawḥīd)[105] unique (wāḥid) and inherently One (aḥad), all-merciful and omnipotent.[106] According to Islamic teachings, God exists without place[107] and according to the Quran, "No vision can grasp him, but His grasp is over all vision: He is above all comprehension, yet is acquainted with all things."[108] God, as referenced in the Quran, is the only God.[109][110] Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian.

A distinct feature between the concept of God in Islam compared to Christianity is that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Quran titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent."[Quran :verse=1 112 :1]

### Salvation

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Christianity teaches Original Sin, the doctrine that humanity is inherently sinful since the fall of Adam.[111] Accordingly, salvation from death, suffering, and evil, the consequence of mankind's sinful nature, can only be brought by Death and Resurrection of Jesus[112]

Since humans obeyed the Devil by committing sin, according to Christian teachings of salvation, the Devil has authority over humans.[113] Only the crucifixion of Jesus could save humans from the grasps of the Devil. Accordingly, Christianity rejects that actions and repentance alone could achieve salvation. The notion that only through the sacrifice of Jesus, salvation could be achieved is emphasized in the Bible:

> "I am the way, and the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." (John 14:6).[114]

Salvation is thus, a grace bestowed by God, not an individual's work, and passages from the Bible are used in Christian theology to underline that message:

> "surely God is my salvation; I will trust and not be afraid"[114](Isaiah 12:2)

Christianity understands acceptance of Jesus' sacrifice as a transformation of the individual, by that the person sheds off its former sinful nature and dissolves in the will of Jesus, an idea attributed to Paul in the Bible:

> "If anyone is in Christ, he is a new cre-ation: the old has gone; the new has come."[114]

In Christianity, repentance is an external process; attained through faith.

Islam does neither acknowledge nor aspire salvation from evil in the world.[115] Instead, Islam teaches individual salvation from earthly and otherworldly sufferings through repentance (tawbah).[114]

There is no concept of original sin in Islam. The Fall of Adam is interpreted as an allegory for mankind's behavior; they sin, become aware of their sin, then repent.[116] Accordingly, Islam neither acknowledges nor aspires salvation from evil in the world.[115] Salvation is achieved by purifying one's soul, to go to paradise after death.[114] The importance of repentance is highlighted throughout Islamic scripture:

> "Indeed, Allah loves those who are constantly repentant and loves those who purify themselves" (Surah 2:22)

Sometimes compared to the concept of original sin, the devils (shayāṭīn) are said to "touch" humans at the moment of birth and a devil is said to move through humans like blood in the veins, causing an urge to sin.[117] Thus, humans are expected to have a sinful nature, but it could be overcome through repentance:[114]

> "Every son of Adam commits sin and the best for those who commit sin are those who repent." (Sunan Ibn Ma-jah)[114]

The devils as conceptualized in the New Testament are in odds with the Islamic idea of monotheism, thus closer to the Jewish understanding of Satan; not as an enemy, but a tempter.[118] According to Islamic monotheism, the devils are dependent on God.[118] According to Islamic teachings, evil is not traced back to devils, but to God, precisely to God's will:

> "For indeed, Allāh sends astray whom He wills and guides whom He wills." (Surah 35:8).[119][118]

The origin of good and evil do not depend on a person's will, the devils, or universal laws, but solely on God's judgement.[118]

### Circumcision

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See also: Religious male circumcision, Brit milah, Khitan (circumcision), Circumcision controversy in early Christianity, and History of circumcision

Preparing for a Jewish ritual circumcision.

Judaism and Samaritanism commands that males be circumcised when they are eight days old,[120] as does the Sunnah in Islam. Despite its common practice in Muslim-majority nations, circumcision is considered to be sunnah (tradition) and not required for a life directed by Allah.[121] Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called khitan) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males.

Today, many Christian denominations are neutral about ritual male circumcision, not requiring it for religious observance, but neither forbidding it for cultural or other reasons.[122] Western Christianity replaced the custom of male circumcision with the ritual of baptism,[123] a ceremony which varies according to the doctrine of the denomination, but it generally includes immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that Gentile Christians are not required to undergo circumcision. The Council of Florence in the 15th century[124] prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[125][126] By the 21st century, the Catholic Church had adopted a neutral position on the practice, as long as it is not practised as an initiation ritual. Catholic scholars make various arguments in support of the idea that this policy is not in contradiction with the previous edicts.[127][128][129] The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity did not require circumcision. Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage.[130] The Eritrean Orthodox Church and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia.[131]

Coptic Children wearing traditional circumcision garments.

Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents in Europe and Latin America have low circumcision rates, while both religious and non-religious circumcision is widely practiced in many predominantly Christian countries and among Christian communities in the Anglosphere countries, Oceania, South Korea, the Philippines, the Middle East and Africa.[132][133] Countries such as the United States,[134] the Philippines, Australia (albeit primarily in the older generations),[135] Canada, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia, Equatorial Guinea, Ghana, Nigeria, Kenya, and many other African Christian countries have high circumcision rates.[136][137][138] Circumcision is near universal in the Christian countries of Oceania.[133] In some African and Eastern Christian denominations male circumcision is an integral or established practice, and require that their male members undergo circumcision.[139] Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy and Eritrean Orthodoxy still observe male circumcision and practice circumcision as a rite of passage.[130][140] Male circumcision is also widely practiced among Christians from Egypt, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine, Israel, and North Africa. (See also aposthia.)

Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.[141]

Although circumcision is widely practiced by the Druze, the procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition,[142] and has no religious significance in the Druze faith.[143][144] Some Druze do not circumcise their male children, and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice".[145]

Circumcision is not a religious practice of the Bahá'í Faith, and leaves that decision up to the parents.[146]

### Proselytism

[edit]

See also: Christianization and Islamization

Judaism accepts converts, but has had no explicit missionaries since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of moral imperatives that, according to the Talmud, were given by God[c] as a binding set of laws for the "children of Noah"—that is, all of humanity.[147][d] It is believed that as much as ten percent of the Roman Empire followed Judaism either as fully ritually obligated Jews or the simpler rituals required of non-Jewish members of that faith.[148]

Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers, commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator." Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.[149][page needed] See also Conversion to Judaism.

The Sermon on the Mount by Carl Heinrich Bloch (1877)

Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forced conversions to Catholicism have been alleged at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernán Cortés. Forced conversions to Protestantism may have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).

Forced conversions are now condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offences are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one, therefore, is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[150] The Roman Catholic Church has declared that Catholics should fight anti-Semitism.[151]

Islam encourages proselytism in various forms. Dawah is an important Islamic concept which denotes the preaching of Islam. Da‘wah literally means "issuing a summons" or "making an invitation". A Muslim who practices da‘wah, either as a religious worker or in a volunteer community effort, is called a dā‘ī, plural du‘āt. A dā‘ī is thus a person who invites people to understand Islam through a dialogical process and may be categorized in some cases as the Islamic equivalent of a missionary, as one who invites people to the faith, to the prayer, or to Islamic life.

Da'wah activities can take many forms. Some pursue Islamic studies specifically to perform Da'wah. Mosques and other Islamic centers sometimes spread Da'wah actively, similar to evangelical churches. Others consider being open to the public and answering questions to be Da'wah. Recalling Muslims to the faith and expanding their knowledge can also be considered Da'wah.

In Islamic theology, the purpose of Da'wah is to invite people, both Muslims and non-Muslims, to understand the commandments of God as expressed in the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet, as well as to inform them about Muhammad. Da'wah produces converts to Islam, which in turn grows the size of the Muslim Ummah, or community of Muslims.

While there were instances of forced conversions to Islam, these were neither the norm nor part of a systematic strategy of expansion. Many Muslim rulers practiced religious pluralism,[152] and the Quran explicitly prohibits compulsion in matters of faith.[153] Most conversions to Islam occurred gradually, driven by social, cultural, and economic influences rather than coercion.[154]

## Demographics

[edit]

See also: Abrahamic world

Worldwide percentage of adherents by Abrahamic religion, as of 2015[update][155]

1. Christianity (31.2%)
2. Islam (24.1%)
3. Judaism (0.18%)
4. Baháʼí Faith (0.07%)
5. Non-Abrahamic religions (45.45%)

Christianity is the largest Abrahamic religion with about 2.5 billion adherents, called Christians, constituting about 31.1% of the world's population.[156] Islam is the second largest Abrahamic religion, as well as the fastest-growing Abrahamic religion in recent decades.[156][157] It has about 1.9 billion adherents, called Muslims, constituting about 24.1% of the world's population. The third largest Abrahamic religion is Judaism with about 14.1 million adherents, called Jews.[156] The Baháʼí Faith has over 8 million adherents, making it the fourth largest Abrahamic religion,[158][159] and the fastest growing religion across the 20th century, usually at least twice the rate of population growth.[160] The Druze Faith has between one million and nearly two million adherents.[161][162]

Adherents of minor Abrahamic faiths  Religion  | Adherents

|

Baháʼí | 9–10 million[158][159]
Druze | 1–2 million[161][162]
Rastafari | 700,000–1 million[31]
Mandaeism | 60,000–100,000[163][164]
Azalism | ~1,000–2,000[24][165]
Samaritanism | ~840[166]

## See also

[edit]

* Judaism portal
* Christianity portal
* Islam portal
* Religion portal

* Abraham's family tree
* Abrahamic Family House, a complex in Abu Dhabi built in the spirit of Abrahamic unity
* Abrahamites
* Ancient Semitic religion
* Din-i Ilahi
* Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement
* Christianity and Islam
* Christianity and Judaism
* Christianity and other religions
* Gnosticism
* Interfaith dialogue
* Islamic–Jewish relations
* Islam and other religions
* Jesus in Christianity
* Jesus in Islam
* Jewish views on religious pluralism
* Judaism's view of Jesus
* Judeo-Christian ethics
* List of burial places of Abrahamic figures
* List of people in both the Bible and the Quran
* Religious perspectives on Jesus
* Yazidism
* Milah Abraham
* Nigerian Chrislam
* People of the Book
* Sabians
* Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions
* Yarsanism
* Manichaeism

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."[citation needed] "In other words, it is not the children by physical descent who are God's children, but it is the children of the promise who are regarded as Abraham's offspring."Romans 9:8
2. ^ Perhaps even pre-Pauline creeds.[citation needed]
3. ^ According to Encyclopedia Talmudit (Hebrew edition, Israel, 5741/1981, Entry Ben Noah, page 349), most medieval authorities consider that all seven commandments were given to Adam, although Maimonides (Mishneh Torah, Hilkhot M'lakhim 9:1) considers the dietary law to have been given to Noah.
4. ^ Compare Genesis 9:4–6.

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Brague, Rémi, 'The Concept of the Abrahamic Religions, Problems and Pitfalls', in Adam J. Silverstein, and Guy G. Stroumsa (eds), The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions (2015; online edn, Oxford Academic, 12 Nov. 2015), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199697762.013.5, accessed 12 Feb. 2024
2. ^ Goshen-Gottstein, Alon. "Abraham and ‘Abrahamic Religions’ in Contemporary Interreligious Discourse." Studies in Interreligious Dialogue 12.2 (2002): 165–183.
3. ^ Gaston, K. Healan. "The Judeo-Christian and Abrahamic Traditions in America." Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. 2018.
4. ^ a b Bakhos, Carol. The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Harvard University Press, 2014.
5. ^ Dodds, Adam. "The Abrahamic faiths? Continuity and discontinuity in Christian and Islamic doctrine." Evangelical Quarterly: An International Review of Bible and Theology 81.3 (2009): 230–253.
6. ^ Stroumsa, Guy G. "From Abraham's Religion to the Abrahamic Religions." Historia religionum: an international Journal: 3, 2011 (2011): 11–22. p. 21
7. ^ Abulafia, Anna Sapir (23 September 2019). "The Abrahamic religions". London: British Library. Archived from the original on 12 July 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2021.
8. ^ *Micksch, Jürgen (2009). "Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz". Herbert Quandt Stiftung. Archived from the original on 23 May 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
9. ^ Collins 2004, pp. 157, 160.
10. ^ a b c Lubar Institute 2016.
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12. ^ a b Smith 2008, p. 106.
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14. ^ a b Krista N. Dalton (2014) Abrahamic Religions: On Uses and Abuses of History by Aaron W. Hughes, Oxford University Press: New York, 2012, 191 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-993463-5 Parameter error in {{ISBN}}: checksum, US$55.00 (hardback), Religion, 44:4, 684–686, DOI: 10.1080/0048721X.2013.862421
15. ^ a b Hughes, Aaron W. Abrahamic religions: On the uses and abuses of history. Oxford University Press, 2012. p. 17
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17. ^ Stroumsa 2017, p. 7.
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19. ^ a b c Bremer 2015, p. 19–20.
20. ^ Able 2011, p. 219.
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22. ^ Boyd, Samuel L. (October 2019). "Judaism, Christianity, and Islam: The problem of 'Abrahamic religions' and the possibilities of comparison". Religion Compass. 13 (10). doi:10.1111/rec3.12339. ISSN 1749-8171. S2CID 203090839.
23. ^ a b Dodds 2009, pp. 230–253.
24. ^ a b Berger, Alan L., ed. Trialogue and Terror: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam after 9/11. Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2012.
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30. ^ Edelman (1995), p. 19; Gnuse (2016), p. 5; Carraway (2013), p. 66: "Second, it was probably not until the exile that monotheism proper was clearly formulated."; Finkelstein & Silberman (2002), p. 234: "The idolatry of the people of Judah was not a departure from their earlier monotheism. It was, instead, the way the people of Judah had worshiped for hundreds of years."
31. ^ a b "BBC Two – Bible's Buried Secrets, Did God Have a Wife?". BBC. 21 December 2011. Archived from the original on 15 January 2012. Retrieved 4 July 2012. Quote from the BBC documentary (prof. Herbert Niehr): "Between the 10th century and the beginning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would say it [the sentence "Jews were monotheists" – n.n.] is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true, but for the time before it, it is not true."
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40. ^ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 41–57
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42. ^ Burrell, David B., et al., eds. Creation and the God of Abraham. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 25–39
43. ^ Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 40
44. ^ Marvin Perry (1 January 2012). Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789. Cengage Learning. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-1-111-83720-4.
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46. ^ a b Cohen, Charles L. The Abrahamic religions: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, USA, 2020. p. 62
47. ^ Athamina, Khalil. "Abraham in Islamic perspective reflections on the development of monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia." (2004): 184–205.
48. ^ Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance Archived 21 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, BBC, 5 August 2009.
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50. ^ Petray, Theresa (2020). "Rastafarianism". In Possamai, Adam; Blasi, Anthony J. (eds.). The SAGE Encyclopedia of the Sociology of Religion. Los Angeles: Sage Publications. pp. 659–661\. ISBN 978-1473942202.
51. ^ Weidner, Veronika (2021). "Revelation in Abrahamic Faiths". In Goetz, Stewart; Taliaferro, Charles (eds.). The Encyclopedia of Philosophy of Religion. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 1–6\. doi:10.1002/9781119009924.eopr0337. ISBN 9781119010951. S2CID 237711314.
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78. ^ Rom. 8:32
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81. ^ Gal. 3:7
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84. ^ Galatians 4:9 King James Version (Oxford Standard, 1769)
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## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
Abrahamic religions

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* "Religion: Year In Review 2010". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 2010.
* Assmann, Jan (1998). Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-58739-7.
* Bakhos, Carol (2014). The Family of Abraham: Jewish, Christian, and Muslim Interpretations. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-05083-9.
* Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5.
* Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
* Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
* Johansson, Warren (1990). "Abrahamic Religions". In Dynes, Wayne R. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Homosexuality (PDF). New York: Garland. ISBN 978-0-8240-6544-7. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 May 2008. Retrieved 26 July 2006.
* Kritzeck, James (1965). Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems. Helicon.
* Longton, Joseph (1987–2009). "Fils d'Abraham: Panorama des communautés juives, chrétiennes et musulmanes" [Sons of Abraham: Overview of Jewish, Christian and Muslim Communities]. In Longton, Joseph (ed.). Fils d'Abraham (in French). S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous. ISBN 978-2-503-82344-7.
* Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-074-0.
* de Perceval, Armand-Pierre Caussin (1847). Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane [Calcutta review – Essay on the history of the Arabs before Islamism, during the time of Muhammad, and up to the reduction of all the tribes under Muslim rule] (in French). Paris: Didot. OCLC 431247004.
* Reid, Barbara E. (1996). Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Liturgical Press.
* Silverstein, Adam J.; Stroumsa, Guy G., eds. (2015). The Oxford Handbook of the Abrahamic Religions. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-969776-2.
* Peters, F. E. (2003). Islam, a guide for Jews and Christians. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691122335.
* Smith, Jonathan Z. (1998). "Religion, Religions, Religious". In Taylor, Mark C. (ed.). Critical Terms for Religious Studies. University of Chicago Press. pp. 269–284\. ISBN 978-0-226-79156-2.
* Lupieri, Edmundo (2001). The Mandaeans: The Last Gnostics. Grand Rapids, Michigan & Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans. pp. 65–66, 116, 164. ISBN 978-0802833501.

## External links

[edit]

* Quotations related to Abrahamic religions at Wikiquote

* v
* t
* e

Religion

Religious groups and denominations

| Western
and Middle
Eastern|

| Abrahamic|

| Judaism|

* Orthodox
* Haredi
* Hasidic
* Modern
* Zionist
* Conservative
* Reform
* Karaite
* Haymanot
* Reconstructionist
* Renewal
* Humanistic
* list

|

Christianity|

* Catholicism
* Latin
* Eastern
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Nestorianism
* Ancient
* Assyrian
* Proto-Protestantism
* Hussites/Moravians
* Waldensians
* Protestantism
* Adventism
* Anabaptism
* Amish
* Brethren
* Hutterites
* Mennonites
* Schwenkfelder Church
* Anglicanism
* Baptists
* Calvinism
* Congregationalism
* Presbyterianism
* Reformed
* Charismatic Christianity
* Pentecostal
* Charismatic
* Neo-charismatic
* Evangelicalism
* Irvingism
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Holiness
* Non-denominational
* Plymouth Brethren
* Quakerism
* Restorationism
* Esoteric
* The Christian Community
* Independent Catholicism
* Old Catholic
* Judaizers
* Nontrinitarianism
* Bible Students
* Associated Bible Students
* Free Bible Students
* Friends of Man
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Kitawala
* Laymen's Home Missionary Movement
* Christadelphians
* Mormonism
* Oneness Pentecostalism
* Spiritual
* Swedenborgianism
* Tolstoyan
* Unitarianism
* list

Islam|

* Sunnism
* Ash'arism
* Maturidism
* Atharism
* Salafism
* Wahhabism
* Modernist Salafism
* Shi'ism
* Alawism
* Ali-Illahism
* Ismailism
* Twelver Shi'ism
* Zaydism
* Sufism
* Khawarij
* Ibadism
* Alevism
* Ishikism
* Kurdish Alevism
* Ahmadi
* Mahdavism
* Quranism
* Milah Abraham
* Non-denominational
* list

Other|

* Bábism
* Azalism
* Baháʼí Faith
* Druze
* Mandaeism
* Rastafari
* Samaritanism

Iranian|

| Zoroastrian|

* Blagovery
* Ilm-e-Khshnoom
* Mazdaznan
* Zurvanism

|

Kurdish|

* Shabakism
* Yarsanism

Other|

* Assianism/Uatsdin
* Roshani
* Manichaeism
* Chinese Manichaeism
* Yazdânism
* Yazidism

Eastern|

| East Asian|

| Chinese|

* Chinese folk religion
* Confucianism
* Luoism
* Nuo
* Salvationist
* Xiantiandao
* Yiguandao
* Falun Gong
* Taoism
* Folk Taoism
* Yao Taoism

|

Japonic|

* Shinto
* list
* Shugendō
* New religions
* Tenrikyo
* Ryukyuan

Korean|

* Korean shamanism
* Cheondoism
* Jeungsanism

Vietnamese|

* Vietnamese folk religion
* Đạo Mẫu
* Caodaism
* Hoahaoism
* Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương

Indian|

| Hinduism|

* Vaishnavism
* Krishnaism
* Sri Vaishnavism
* Brahma Sampradaya
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Pushtimarg
* Mahanubhava
* Ramanandi
* Warkari
* Swaminarayan
* Shaivism
* Shaiva Siddhanta
* Ganapatya
* Kashmiri
* Kapalika
* Kaumaram
* Lingayatism
* Nath
* Balinese
* Shaktism
* Smartism
* Śrauta
* Sant Mat
* Neo-Hinduism
* list

|

Buddhism|

* Theravada
* Mahayana
* Chan/Zen/Thiền
* Amidism
* Nichiren
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan
* Neo-Buddhism
* list

Other|

* Ayyavazhi
* Kalash
* Jainism
* Digambara
* Śvetāmbara
* Sarnaism
* Kirat Mundhum
* Vedda religions
* Ravidassia
* Sikhism
* Khalsa
* Sects

Ethnic|

| Altaic|

* Turko-Mongolic
* Burkhanism
* Tengrism
* Vattisen Yaly
* Tungusic
* Evenki
* Manchu

|

Austroasiatic|

* Sarnaism

Austronesian|

* Batak Parmalim
* Dayak
* Kaharingan
* Indonesian
* Aliran Kepercayaan
* Kejawèn
* Kapitayan
* Karo Pemena
* Malaysian
* Traditional Sabahan religions
* Philippine Dayawism
* Tagalog
* Polynesian
* Hawaiian
* Māori
* Sumbese Marapu
* Sundanese Wiwitan

Native
American|

* Abenaki
* Alaskan
* Anishinaabe
* Ojibwe
* Midewiwin
* Wabunowin
* Apache
* Blackfoot
* Californian
* Kuksu
* Miwok
* Ohlone
* Pomo
* Chilote
* Choctaw
* Crow
* Ghost Dance/Sun Dance
* Guarani
* Haida
* Ho-Chunk
* Iroquois
* Cherokee
* Four Mothers Society
* Keetoowah Society
* Longhouse
* Mohawk
* Muscogee Creek
* Seneca
* Wyandot
* Jivaroan
* Kwakwakaʼwakw
* Lenape
* Mapuche
* Mesoamerican
* Aztec
* Maya
* Purépecha
* Muisca
* Native American Church
* Navajo
* Nuu-chah-nulth
* Pawnee
* Pueblo
* Acoma Pueblo
* Hopi
* Zuni
* Sioux
* Lakota
* Wocekiye
* Tsimshian
* Ute
* Washat Dreamers
* Yaqui

Tai and Miao|

* Ahom
* Hmongism
* Mo
* Satsana Phi

Tibeto-Burmese|

* Bon
* Burmese
* Benzhuism
* Bimoism
* Bathouism
* Bongthingism
* Dongba
* Donyi-Polo
* Gurung
* Heraka
* Kiratism
* Qiang
* Sanamahism

Traditional
African|

| North African|

* Berber
* Guanche church

|

Sub-Saharan
African|

* Akamba
* Akan
* Baluba
* Bantu
* Kongo
* Zulu
* Bushongo
* Dinka
* Dogon
* Efik
* Fon and Ewe
* Ik
* Lotuko
* Lozi
* Lugbara
* Maasai
* Mbuti
* Odinala
* San
* Serer
* Tumbuka
* Urhobo
* Waaqeffanna
* Yoruba
* Ifá

* Diasporic:
* Candomblé
* Bantu
* Jejé
* Ketu
* Comfa
* Convince
* Espiritismo
* Kumina
* Obeah
* Palo
* Quimbanda
* Santería
* Tambor de Mina
* Trinidad Orisha
* Umbanda
* Vodou
* Voodoo
* Winti

Other ethnic|

* Aboriginal Australian
* Inuit
* Papuan
* Siberian

New
religious
movements|

| Syncretic|

* Blagovery
* Brahmoism
* Chinese
* Falun Gong
* Coconut Religion
* Japanese
* Meivazhi
* Modekngei
* New Acropolis
* New Age
* New Thought
* Rajneesh
* Rastafari
* Sant Mat
* Radha Soami
* Spiritualism
* Subud
* Tensegrity
* Thelema
* Theosophy
* Neo-Theosophy
* Agni Yoga and Roerichism
* Transcendental Meditation
* Unitarian Universalism
* White Brotherhood

|

Modern
paganism|

* African
* Godianism
* Armenian
* Baltic
* Dievturība
* Romuva
* Caucasian
* Abkhaz
* Circassian
* Celtic
* Druidry
* Germanic
* Hellenism (modern religion)
* Neoshamanism
* Ossetian
* Polytheistic reconstructionism
* Italo-Roman
* Kemetism
* Romanian
* Slavic
* Authentism
* Uralic
* Estonian
* Finnish
* Hungarian
* Mari
* Erzya
* Sámi
* Udmurt
* Wicca
* Zalmoxianism
* list

De novo|

* Anthroposophy
* The Christian Community
* Discordianism
* Eckankar
* Fourth Way
* Goddess
* Jediism
* Satanism
* Scientology
* UFO religion
* Raëlism

Historical religions

* Prehistoric
* Paleolithic
* Ainu
* Armenian
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Old Prussian
* Basque
* Celtic
* Druidism
* Irish
* Cook Islands
* Dravidian
* Egyptian
* Atenism
* Etruscan
* Finnish
* Fuegian
* Selkʼnam
* Georgian
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Frankish
* Norse
* Greek
* Gnosticism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Hermeticism
* Mysteries
* Orphism
* Guanche
* Harappan
* Hittite
* Hungarian
* Hurrian
* Illinois
* Inca
* Jamaican Maroon
* Manichaeism
* Mazdakism
* Melanesian
* Mesopotamian
* Babylonian
* Sumerian
* Micronesian
* Nauruan indigenous religion
* Olmec
* Paleo-Balkan
* Albanian
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Thracian
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Iranian
* Vedic
* Ancestral Pueblo
* Pueblo II
* Pueblo III
* Pueblo IV
* Rapa Nui
* Roman
* Cult of Magna Mater
* Gallo-Roman
* Imperial cult
* Mithraism
* Mysteries of Isis
* Natale di Roma
* Semitic
* Arabian
* Canaanite
* Yahwism
* Punic
* Scythian
* Slavic
* Somali
* Tongan
* Turkic
* Tengrism
* Urartu
* Vainakh
* Zapotec

Topics

| Aspects|

* Apostasy / Disaffiliation
* Behaviour
* Beliefs
* Call to prayer
* Laicism / Laity
* Covenant
* Conversion
* Deities
* Denomination
* Entheogens
* Faith
* God
* Goddess
* Meditation
* Monasticism
* Monk
* Novice
* Nun
* Mysticism
* Mythology
* Ordination
* Orthodoxy
* Orthopraxy
* Paganism
* Prayer
* Prophecy
* Religious experience
* Ritual
* Liturgy
* Purification
* Sacrifice
* Sacred space
* Bodies of water
* Groves
* Mountains
* Trees
* Soul
* Spirituality
* Supernatural
* Symbols
* Text
* Truth
* Water
* Worship
* Astral
* Fire
* Nature
* Place

|

Theism|

* Animism
* Deism
* Dualism
* Henotheism
* Monotheism
* Nontheism
* Pandeism
* Panentheism
* Pantheism
* Polytheism
* Transtheism

Religious
studies|

* Anthropology
* Cognitive science
* Comparative
* Demographics
* Ethnic
* Folk
* Indigenous
* Major
* World
* Evolutionary origin of religion
* Evolutionary psychology
* History
* Neurotheology
* Philosophy
* Psychology
* Sociology
* Soteriology
* Salvation
* Theology
* Theories about religion
* Women

Religion
and society

* Agriculture
* Business
* Clericalism / Clergy
* Monasticism
* Ordination
* Priest
* Conversion
* Assimilation
* Missionary
* Proselytism
* Disability
* Education
* Fanaticism
* Freedom
* Pluralism
* Syncretism
* Toleration
* Universalism
* Fundamentalism
* Growth
* Gender
* Happiness
* LGBTQ people
* Homosexuality
* Intersex people
* Transgender people
* Minorities
* National church
* National religiosity levels
* Politics
* Populations
* Religiocentrism
* Schism
* School
* Science
* Sexuality
* State
* Suicide
* Theocracy
* Vegetarianism
* Video games
* Violence
* Persecution
* Terrorism
* War
* Sectarian
* Wealth

Secularism
and irreligion

* Agnosticism
* Antireligion
* Atheism
* Criticism
* Deconstruction
* Objectivism
* Secular humanism
* Secular religion
* Secular theology
* Secularization
* Separation of church and state
* Unaffiliated

Overviews
and lists

* Abrahamic prophets
* Deification
* Deities
* Founders
* Index
* Mass gatherings
* Names of God
* New religious movements
* Organizations
* Outline
* Religions and spiritual traditions
* Scholars
* Timeline

Religion by country

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Comoros
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

|

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus
* Georgia
* Hong Kong
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Korea
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Macau
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palestine
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Austria
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Czechia
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Kosovo
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* England
* Northern Ireland
* Scotland
* Wales

North America|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Belize
* Canada
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* El Salvador
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Jamaica
* Mexico
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Trinidad and Tobago
* United States

Oceania|

* Australia
* Fiji
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

South America|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Chile
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* Guyana
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

* Category
* Portal

* v
* t
* e

Angels in Abrahamic religions

Angels in
Judaism|

| Individuals|

* Michael
* Gabriel
* Raphael
* Uriel
* Angel of the Lord
* Angel of the Presence
* Destroying Angel
* Azrael
* Ariel
* Arariel
* Azazel
* Camael
* Cassiel
* Dobiel
* Dumah
* Eisheth
* Hadraniel
* Haniel
* Jerahmeel
* Jophiel
* Kushiel
* Lailah
* Mastema
* Metatron
* Nuriel
* Pravuil
* Raziel
* Sachiel
* Samael
* Samyaza
* Sandalphon
* Senoy, Sansenoy and Semangelof
* Tzaphqiel
* Yahoel
* Zadkiel
* Zerachiel

|

Groups|

* Seraphim
* Chayot
* Ophanim
* Cherubim
* Hashmallim
* Ishim
* Sons of God
* Recording angels

Angels in
Christianity|

| Individuals|

* Michael
* Gabriel
* Abaddon
* Raphael
* Uriel
* Ariel
* Azazel
* Sariel
* Sandalphon
* Raguel
* Ramiel
* Selaphiel
* Barachiel
* Jegudiel
* Camael
* Guardian Angel of Portugal
* Jerahmeel
* Jophiel
* Metatron
* Samyaza
* Pravuil
* Sachiel
* Zadkiel
* Sarathiel
* Zerachiel
* Phanuel
* Aker
* Gabuthelon
* Arphugitonos
* Beburos
* Zebuleon
* Daniel
* Kerubiel
* Kokabiel
* Kushiel
* Leliel
* Muriel
* Pahaliah
* Seraphiel
* Shamsiel
* Chazaqiel

|

Groups|

* Seraphim
* Cherubim
* Ophanim/Thrones
* Dominions/Lordships
* Virtues
* Powers/Authorities
* Principalities/Rulers
* Archangels
* Watchers/Guardian angels

Angels in
Islam|

| Individuals|

* Mikha'il
* Jibra'il
* Israfil
* Azra'il
* ar-Rūḥ
* ʿAzāzīl
* Iblis
* Artiya'il
* Darda'il
* Dumah
* Kalqa'il
* Futrus
* Ḥabīb
* Harut and Marut
* Mālik
* Munkar and Nakir
* Riḍwan

|

Groups|

* Mu'qarrabun (Cherubim and Seraphim)
* Archangels
* Angels of Hell
* Hafaza (Guardian angel)
* Recording angels
* Nāzi'āt and Nāshiṭāt

Uthras (angels) in
Mandaeism|

| Individuals|

* Yushamin
* Abatur
* Ptahil
* Hibil
* Shitil
* Anush
* Sam Ziwa
* Manda d-Hayyi
* Shilmai
* Nidbai
* Adathan and Yadathan
* Yufin-Yufafin
* Urfeil and Marfeil
* Tar and Tarwan
* Bihram
* Zihrun
* Etinsib Ziwa
* Nbat
* Nsab
* Gubran
* Shihlun
* Yurba
* Yukabar
* Yukashar
* Yawar Ziwa
* Simat Hayyi
* Saureil

|

Groups|

* Niṭufta
* Gupna
* Ziwa

Related|

* Angel Moroni
* Mormonism
* Hierarchy of angels
* Heavenly host
* Seven Archangels
* Three Angels' Messages
* Watcher
* Fallen angels
* List of angels in theology
* List of angels in Ars Paulina
* Ambiguous
* Chalkydri
* Elioud
* Nephilim
* Teraphim

In culture|

* Art
* List of angels in fiction
* List of films about angels

Authority control databases

National|

* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Spain
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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