Aerobatics

Flying maneuvers involving attitudes not attained during normal flight

The Frecce Tricolori, the aerobatic demonstration team of the Italian Air Force, with the smoke trail representing the national colours of Italy, above the Victor Emmanuel II Monument in Rome during the celebrations of the Festa della Repubblica Patty Wagstaff show at JeffCo Airport in Denver, Colorado, June 2008

Aerobatics is the practice of flying maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in conventional passenger-carrying flights. The term is a portmanteau of "aeroplane" and "acrobatics".[1][2] Aerobatics are performed in aeroplanes and gliders for training, recreation, entertainment, and sport. Additionally, some helicopters, such as the MBB Bo 105, are capable of limited aerobatic manoeuvres.[3] An example of a fully aerobatic helicopter, capable of performing loops and rolls, is the Westland Lynx.

Most aerobatic manoeuvres involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal (roll) axis or lateral (pitch) axis. Other maneuvers, such as a spin, displace the aircraft about its vertical (yaw) axis.[4] Manoeuvres are often combined to form a complete aerobatic sequence for entertainment or competition. Aerobatic flying requires a broader set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to greater structural stress than for normal flight.[5] In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute when performing aerobatics.[6]

Aerobatic training enhances a pilot's ability to recover from unusual flight conditions, and thus is an element of many flight safety training programs for pilots. While many pilots fly aerobatics for recreation, some choose to fly in aerobatic competitions, a judged sport.[7]

## Overview

[edit]

In the early days of flying, some pilots used their aircraft as part of a flying circus to entertain. Maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during aerial combat or dogfights between fighter aircraft.

Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable. Specialist designs such as the Pitts Special, the Extra 200 and 300, and the Sukhoi Su-26M and Sukhoi Su-29 aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general purpose use such as touring, or ease of non aerobatic handling such as landing. At a more basic level, aerobatic capable aircraft, such as the Cessna 152 Aerobat or the R2160 Acrobin, can be dual purpose—equipped to carrying passengers and luggage, as well as being capable of basic aerobatic figures.

Flight formation aerobatics are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, although most teams fly between four and ten aircraft.[8] Some are state funded to reflect pride in the armed forces while others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag.

Aerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster, which increases the size of the figures and the length of time the pilot has to withstand increased g-forces. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations, which further restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown.

A "Lazy eight" aerobatic maneuver from the perspective of the wingtip

Aerobatics done at low levels and for an audience is called "stunt flying". To enhance the show effect of aerobatic manoeuvres, smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the vaporization of fog oil into a fine aerosol, achieved either by injecting the oil into the hot engine exhaust[9] or by the use of a dedicated device[10] that can be fitted in any position on the aircraft. The first military aerobatic team to use smoke at will during displays was Fleet Air Arm 702 Squadron "The Black Cats" at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1957.[11]

### Training

[edit]

A Spanish Air Force Colibri demonstrates its agility with a barrel roll

Aerobatics are taught to military fighter pilots as a means of developing flying skills and for tactical use in combat. Many aerobatic manoeuvres were indeed developed in military conflicts, e.g. the Immelmann turn or Split S.

Aerobatics and formation flying is not limited solely to fixed-wing aircraft; the British Army, Royal Navy, Spanish Air Force and the Indian Air Force, among others, have helicopter display teams.

All aerobatic manoeuvres demand training and practice to avoid accidents. Accidents due to aerobatic manoeuvres are very rare in competition aerobatics; most of them happen when performing formation flying or stunt flying at very low levels at airshows or air racing. Low-level aerobatics are extremely demanding and airshow pilots must demonstrate their ability before being allowed to gradually reduce the height at which they may fly their show.

In the EU, flying aerobatics requires special training and a rating. In Canada, no licence is required to perform aerobatics, but to carry passengers during aerobatics a pilot must have at least 10 hours dual flight instruction of aerobatic manoeuvres, or 20 hours of total aerobatic experience.[12]

### Competition

[edit]

Main article: Competition aerobatics

Aerobatic flying competitions are a worldwide phenomenon, rather like the Olympic games, and are governed by the FAI Aerobatics Commission (CIVA)

Competitions start at Primary, or Graduate level (in UK "Beginners") and proceed in complexity through Sportsman (in UK "Standard"), Intermediate and Advanced, with Unlimited being the top competition level. Experienced aerobatic pilots have been measured to pull ±5 g for short periods while unlimited pilots can perform more extreme maneuvers and experience higher g levels -possibly up to +8/−6 g.[13] The limits for positive g are higher than for negative g and this is due to the ability to limit blood pooling for positive g maneuvers, but it is generally accepted that +9 g for more than a few seconds will lead to loss of consciousness (also known as GLOC).[13][14]

### Performance

[edit]

The Utterly Butterly wingwalking team perform an aerobatic maneuver with their Boeing Stearmans

Aerobatics are most likely to be seen at public airshows in the form of stunt flying. Aerobatic competitions usually do not attract large crowds of spectators since the manoeuvers are flown at safe altitudes to avoid accidents.

## In popular culture

[edit]

### Film

[edit]

* Cloud Dancer – 1980 drama film starring David Carradine
* The Great Waldo Pepper – 1975 film starring Robert Redford, Bo Svenson, Susan Sarandon, and Edward Herrmann.

### Video games

[edit]

* Ace Combat – Flight action video game series
* AeroWings – 1999 video game
* Flight Unlimited – 1995 flight simulation video game
* Microsoft Flight Simulator 2024 – 2024 simulation video game
* X-Plane (simulator) – Flight simulator produced by Laminar Research
* VRChat Flight Communities

## See also

[edit]

* List of air display teams
* List of aerobatic aircraft
* Aero GP
* Aerobatic maneuver
* Aerobatic pilots
* Aerobatics (radio-controlled aircraft)
* Air racing
* Aresti Catalog
* Competition aerobatics
* Flight dynamics
* Flypast
* HASELL

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Civil Aviation Rules Part 1" (PDF). Government publication. New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority. 23 October 2008. p. 16\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 October 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
2. ^ "FAR 91.303". USA Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2009.
3. ^ "Red Bull Bo-105 CBS Helicopter". Web page. Red Bull. Archived from the original on 1 May 2009. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
4. ^ Williams, Neil (1975). Aerobatics. L. R. Williams, Illustrator. Surrey, England: Airlife Publishing Ltd. pp. 32, et seq. ISBN 0-9504543-0-3.
5. ^ Langewiesche, Wolfgang (1944). Stick and Rudder. Jo Kotula, Illustrator. New York: McGraw Hill, Inc. p. 327. ISBN 0-07-036240-8. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
6. ^ "FAR 91.307(c)". USA Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on 8 December 2016. Retrieved 1 May 2009.
7. ^ Howard, Brian, ed. (2009). Official Contest Rules. Oshkosh, Wisconsin, US: International Aerobatic Club. pp. 1–7.
8. ^ The record is a 22-aircraft formation in 1958.
9. ^ "Bellanca Decathlon". www.northwestaerobatics.com. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011.
10. ^ "Patentscope: 1. (WO2006096918) Smoke Generator". World Intellectual Property Association. 21 September 2006.
11. ^ "Aerobatic Display Teams". Archived from the original on 1 August 2009. Retrieved 21 July 2009. "In June 1957 738 squadron was chosen to take part in a combined Naval display at the Farnborough Airshow in September 1957, despite having a full operational programme. It was decided to have a team of five Hawker Seahawks. They were the first aerobatic team to produce smoke at will, by modifying the fuel injection system."
12. ^ Canadian Aviation Regulations. Transport Canada. 21 June 2023. p. 602.28.
13. ^ a b "Effects of G forces on aerobatic pilots". historic.aerobatics.org.uk. Archived from the original on 24 December 2012. Retrieved 7 March 2021.
14. ^ FAA Advisory Circular 91-61 2/28/84

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aerobatics.

* Audio of an aerobatic ride with air show performer Brett Hunter in a Pitts S-2C
* Audio of an aerobatic ride with air show performer Michael Mancuso in an Extra 300L
* Aerobatics and formation in New Zealand

* v
* t
* e

Aerobatics

Aircraft|

* List of aerobatic aircraft

Competitions|

* European Gliding Championships
* FAI European Aerobatic Championships
* FAI World Aerobatic Championships
* FAI World Grand Prix
* Red Bull Air Race World Championship
* World Gliding Championships

Maneuvers|

* Loop (inside & outside)
* Aileron roll
* Barrel roll
* Cuban eight
* Falling leaf
* Hesitation roll
* Immelmann turn
* Kulbit
* Lomcovak
* Cobra maneuver
* Slip
* Spin
* Split S
* Stall turn/hammerhead
* Tailslide
* Scissors
* Whifferdill turn
* Zurabatic cartwheel

Organizations|

* British Aerobatic Association
* Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (Aresti Catalog)
* International Aerobatic Club
* International Miniature Aerobatic Club

Pilots|

* Cecilia R. Aragon
* Hannes Arch
* Princess Basmah Bani Ahmad
* Lincoln J. Beachey
* Péter Besenyei
* Ladislav Bezák
* Marta Bohn-Meyer
* Cristian Bolton
* Paul Bonhomme
* Pip Borrman
* Mikaël Brageot
* Kirby Chambliss
* Julie Clark
* Marion Cole
* Vicki Cruse
* Mario de Bernardi
* Giovanni De Briganti
* Tommaso Dal Molin
* Glen Dell
* Matthias Dolderer
* Wilhelm Düerkop
* Walter Extra
* Markus Feyerabend
* Gerhard Fieseler
* Jozef Gabris
* Michael Goulian
* Matt Hall
* Wayne Handley
* Ray Hanna
* Charlie Hillard
* Bob Hoover
* Bevo Howard
* Nicolas Ivanoff
* Nader Jahanbani
* Petr Jirmus
* Steve Jones
* Jurgis Kairys
* Svetlana Kapanina
* Sándor Katona
* Petr Kopfstein
* Charlie Kulp
* Anatoly Kvochur
* Nigel Lamb
* Amanda Lee
* Jim LeRoy
* François Le Vot
* Leo Loudenslager
* Nancy Lynn
* Alejandro Maclean
* Pete McLeod
* Jerzy Makula
* Stanisław Makula
* Mikhail Mamistov
* Mike Mangold
* Scott Manning
* Catherine Maunoury
* Yoshihide Muroya
* Pyotr Nesterov
* Alexandr Panfierov
* Ivy May Pearce
* Adolphe Pégoud
* František Peřina
* Tom Poberezny
* Peter Podlunšek
* Maciej Pospieszyński
* Sergey Rakhmanin
* Amelia Reid
* Olaf Schmidt
* Art Scholl
* Klaus Schrodt
* Betty Skelton Erde
* Skip Stewart
* Martin Šonka
* Gene Soucy
* Chris Sperou
* Victor Tchmal
* Reinhold Tiling
* Ferenc Tóth
* Sean D. Tucker
* Nick Turvey
* Ernst Udet
* Gabor Varga
* Juan Velarde
* Frank Versteegh
* Pavel Vlasov
* Patty Wagstaff
* Kermit Weeks
* Neil Williams
* Walter Wolfrum
* Janusz Żurakowski

Other|

* 3D
* Radio control

* v
* t
* e

Modern aerobatic teams

Military

Jet aircraft|

* FAA Escuadrón Cruz del Sur
* BAF Belaya Rus
* RCAF Snowbirds
* PLAAF August 1st
* PLAAF Red Falcon
* EAF Silver Stars
* FiAF Midnight Hawks
* FAF Patrouille de France
* HAF F-16 Demo Team Zeus [de]
* IAF Surya Kiran
* TNI-AU Thunder
* IAF Frecce Tricolori
* JASDF Blue Impulse
* KAF Sunkar
* TUDM Smokey Bandits
* PAF Sherdils
* VVS Russian Knights
* VVS Swifts
* VVS Russian Falcons
* RSAF Saudi Falcons
* RSAF Black Knights
* ROKAF Black Eagles
* SpASF Patrulla Águila
* SWAF Team 60
* ChAF Patrouille Suisse
* ROCAF Thunder Tigers
* TUAF Türk Yıldızları
* TUAF SoloTürk
* UAEAF Al Fursan
* RAF Red Arrows
* USAF Thunderbirds
* USN Blue Angels

Propeller aircraft|

* RAAF Roulettes
* FAB Esquadrilha da Fumaça
* TUDB Alap-Alap Formation
* FACh Halcones
* PLAAF Sky Wing
* HRZ Wings of Storm
* TNI-AU Jupiter
* TNI-AL Neptunus
* IAF Aerobatic Team
* JMSDF White Arrows
* RJ Falcons
* FAM Escuadrilla Cuauhpopoca
* RMAF Marche Verte
* TUDM Kris Sakti
* RNZAF Black Falcons
* PLF Orlik
* SAAF Silver Falcons
* ChAF PC-7 Team
* RTAF Blue Phoenix

Rotorcraft|

* PLAGF Thunder
* VVS Berkuts
* IAF Sarang
* TNI AU Dynamic Pegasus
* AoPLF Scorpions
* PoAF Rotores de Portugal
* SpASF Patrulla Aspa
* ChAF Super Puma Display Team
* RAF Chinook Display Team
* RN Wildcat Demo Team

Disbanded military teams

Jet aircraft|

* RCAF Blue Devils
* RCAF Golden Centennaires
* RCAF Golden Hawks
* IN Sagar Pawan
* IIAF Golden Crown
* IAC Silver Swallows
* RNLAF Solo Display Team
* PAF Falcons
* PAF Paybills
* PAF Blue Diamonds
* PLF Team Iskry
* PoAF Asas de Portugal
* PoAF Dragões
* SAF Biele Albatrosy
* UAF Falcons
* RAF Black Arrows
* RAF Yellowjacks
* RAF Red Pelicans
* RN Simon's Sircus
* USN Air Barons
* / JRV/RVSCG Flying Stars

Propeller aircraft|

* RCAF Siskins
* FAF Cartouche Doré
* RNZAF Red Checkers

Rotorcraft|

* AAC Blue Eagles
* RN The Sharks

Civilian

Jet aircraft|

* Breitling
* Baltic Bees
* Flying Bulls
* Russ
* Patriots
* Starfighters
* Polaris Ghost Squadron

Propeller aircraft|

* Flying Bulls
* WeFly! Team
* Flying Lions
* P3 Flyers
* AeroSuperBatics
* Horsemen
* Skytypers
* Aeroshell
* Lima Lima

Other|

* Flying Dragons Team

Disbanded civilian teams

Propeller aircraft|

* French Connection
* The Blades

List of air display teams

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template