Afro–Trinidadians and Tobagonians

Trinidadians and Tobagonians of African descent

Ethnic group

Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians

Afro-Trinidadians competing at the 2012 London Olympics.

Regions with significant populations
Trinidad and Tobago: 452,536 (2011 census)[1]
Languages
Trinidadian and Tobagonian English
Trinidadian Creole
Tobagonian Creole
Antillean Creole (Patois)
Religion
Majority:
Christianity
Minority:
Rastafari •  Islam • Others [2]
Related ethnic groups
Afro-Caribbeans • Douglas • Akans • Igbos • Afro-Jamaicans • Afro-Guyanese • Mandinkas • Yoruba • Merikins • Afro-Bajans

Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians, also known as Afro-Trinbagonians or Black Trinidadians and Tobagonians, are people from Trinidad and Tobago whose ancestors are of African origin, primarily from West Africa, brought to the islands during the transatlantic slave trade beginning in the 17th century.

According to the 2011 Trinidad and Tobago Census, Afro-Trinidadians and Tobagonians made up 34.2% of the population, the second largest ethnic group,[1] with an additional 22.8% identifying as Multiracial, including 7.7% who identified specifically as Dougla, a mix of African and Indian descent.[3][4]

During the colonial era, terms such as Mulatto, Creole, Dougla, Zambo, Maroon, Pardo, Quadroon, Octoroon, and Hexadecaroon (Quintroon) were used to classify people based on proportions of African ancestry. These classifications were common across the Caribbean, Latin America, and North American regions.[5][6][7]

## Origins

[edit]

Afro-Trinidadians during the post-emancipation period.

The ultimate origin of most African ancestry in Trinidad and Tobago is in West and Central Africa. The most common ethnic groups of the enslaved Africans in Trinidad and Tobago were Igbo, Kongo, Ibibio, Yoruba and Malinke people. All of these groups, among others, were heavily affected by the Atlantic slave trade. The population census of 1813 shows that among African-born slaves the Igbo were the most numerous.[8]

African ethnicities over 500 in Trinidad (1813)

Igbo | 2,863
Kongo | 2,450
Ibibio | 2,240
Malinke | 1,421
Total Africans | 13,984
Origins of Creoles over 400 in Trinidad (1813)
Trinidad | 7,088
Martinique | 962
Grenada | 746
Saint Vincent | 438
Guadeloupe | 428
Total Creoles | 11,633

Around half of Afro-Trinidadians were the descendants of migrants from other Caribbean islands, especially Martinique, Guadeloupe, Saint Vincent, and Grenada. The other half of Afro-Trinidadians traced their ancestry to the escaped enslaved Africans from America who were recruited by the British during the War of 1812 commonly known as “Merikins” to fight the Americans in exchange for freedom and migration to Trinidad and Tobago. As well as enslaved Africans and indentured laborers bought directly from West Africa.[9][10]

## History

[edit]

In 1498, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Trinidad, where he encountered the indigenous Taíno people. Shortly after Columbus's arrival, Trinidad became a territory of the Spanish Empire. The Spanish enslaved the native population and, over time, intermingled with them, leading to the emergence of the Mestizo identity. The term "Mulatto" originated when Europeans began transporting enslaved Africans to Trinidad and mixing with them in 1517, via the Atlantic slave trade.[11]

In 1783, the King of Spain enacted the Cedula of Population law, which promised free land to Europeans willing to relocate to Trinidad to work. This law encouraged French settlers from the French Antilles to migrate to Trinidad and establish sugar cane plantations. These settlers contributed to the island's diverse ancestry, giving rise to the Creole identity. Languages spoken included Spanish, French, and Antillean Creole (Patois).[12]

After emancipation in 1838, many Afro-Trinidadians left the plantations and settled in towns, villages, and developing urban centres across Trinidad. Significant migration took place to areas such as Port of Spain and San Fernando, where job opportunities were growing. Others moved to Arima, Chaguanas and Princes Town, while oil-rich regions, including Point Fortin, Fyzabad and La Brea, later attracted Afro-Trinidadians seeking employment in the energy sector. Some, particularly the Merikins (descendants of freed African-American soldiers), established their own villages in areas such as Moruga and south Trinidad. These movements helped shape the social and geographic landscape of post-emancipation Trinidad.[13][14]

In the 1840s, European indentured servants began arriving, including the French, Spanish, Germans, Swiss, Portuguese, English, Scottish, Welsh, Cornish, Irish, Corsican, Italians, Dutch, Norwegian, and Polish. Over time, many of these settlers intermarried with the families of freed Afro-Trinidadian slaves, contributing to the island's mixed population and ethnic diversity within the Afro-Trinidadian demographic.[15]

Trinidadian Pan-Africanist George Padmore and Julia Semper on their wedding day, 1924.

On 30 May 1845, the British transported indentured servants from India to Trinidad. This day is known as Indian Arrival Day. A portion of this group of Indians began to racially mix into the already mixed Afro-Trinidadian populace, and their descendants became known as the Dougla people. After the system of indentured servitude was abolished in 1917, a second group of Indians steadily migrated to Trinidad from India, mostly for business.[15]

## Emergence of Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonians

[edit]

Afro-Trinidadian Ambassador Robert Torry of Trinidad and Tobago presenting credentials in Argentina.

Between 1968 and 1970, the "Black Power Revolution" gained strength in Trinidad and Tobago. The National Joint Action Committee (NJAC) was formed by a group of undergraduates at the St. Augustine Campus of the University of the West Indies. Influenced by people such as Fidel Castro, Stokely Carmichael and Malcolm X. The National Joint Action Committee demonstrated to bring about Black Power and a return to African heritage and African culture.[16]

On 6 April 1970, protester Basil Davis—a 24-year-old supporter of Trinidad and Tobago’s Black Power Movement—was fatally shot by police during a demonstration at Woodford Square. His killing, which occurred as he reportedly pleaded with officers not to arrest another protester, sparked national outrage and became a turning point for the Black Power Revolution in the country.[17]

This was followed by on 13 April with the resignation of A. N. R. Robinson, Member of Parliament for Tobago East who stepped down in protest over the government’s handling of the Black Power Movement and its failure to implement meaningful reforms.[18]

On 18 April, predominantly Indo-Trinidadian sugar workers, represented by the All Trinidad Sugar Estates and Factory Workers Union—went on strike in response to the killing of Basil Davis, as well as longstanding issues of unfair treatment, lack of job security, and poor working conditions. Their action marked a powerful show of solidarity with Afro-Trinidadian protesters involved in the Black Power Movement. The shared outrage and unified demand for justice helped bridge ethnic divides, strengthening the bond between the two major communities and intensifying calls for national reform.[19]

In response to this, Prime Minister Eric Williams at the time proclaimed a State of Emergency the 21 of April and arrested 15 Black Power leaders. Responding in turn, a portion of the Trinidad Defence Force, led by Raffique Shah and Rex Lassalle, mutinied and took hostages at the army barracks at Teteron. Through the action of the Coast Guard and negotiations between the Government and the rebels, the mutiny was contained and the mutineers surrendered on 25 April. It was around this time that the term Afro-Trinidadian started to be used.[20][21]

## Culture

[edit]

### Music

[edit]

Main articles: Calypso music and Soca music

Further information: Steelpan and Caribbean music

Afro-Trinidadians have played a foundational role in the development of Trinidad and Tobago’s musical identity.[22] Genres such as calypso music, soca music, and the invention of the steelpan originated largely within Afro-Trinidadian communities, reflecting a fusion of African rhythms, oral storytelling, and Caribbean innovation.[23][24][25]

Afro-Trinidadian steelpan and calypso players.

Soca music and many other Trinidadian genres like rapso, ragga soca, bouyon soca, and parang soca all trace their roots to Afro-Trinidadian culture and the foundation laid by calypso (Afro-Trinidadian-made genre of music). Born from West African rhythms and oral traditions, calypso served as a tool of resistance, expression, and storytelling during and after slavery. As it evolved, Afro-Trinidadians pioneered new sounds—fusing calypso with funk, reggae, and Afro beats—giving rise to modern forms like soca and its many offshoots. These genres continue to reflect Afro-Trinidadian identity and remain central to Trinidadian Carnival, social commentary, and cultural pride.[26]

### Sports

[edit]

Main articles: Trinidad and Tobago at the FIFA World Cup, Goat racing, and Trinidad and Tobago at the Olympics

Alvin Jones representing Trinidad and Tobago in international football.

Jehue Gordon after winning gold at the 2013 World Championships. Levi Garcia during a 2019 Gold Cup match.

Football (soccer) and Track and Field are deeply rooted in Afro-Trinidadian culture, especially in urban areas like Laventille, Morvant, and San Fernando. Both serve as powerful sources of pride, identity, and community unity. In Tobago, these sports are also widely embraced, playing a key role in youth development and island life. Afro-Trinidadian athletes have brought international recognition to Trinidad and Tobago—most notably when the national football team qualified for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and through Olympic achievements in track and field, with medalists like Ato Boldon and Keshorn Walcott. In addition, goat racing—especially popular in Buccoo, Tobago—is a unique sport with deep Afro-Trinidadian roots, celebrated as both a cultural tradition and competitive event.[27][28][29]

### Cuisine

[edit]

Main articles: Trinidad and Tobago cuisine and Callaloo

Further information: Pelau and Macaroni pie

Afro-Trinidadian cuisine reflects a rich heritage rooted in African culinary traditions, adapted to local ingredients and cultural influences.[30] Signature dishes include Callaloo, a stew made with dasheen leaves, okra, and often crab or pigtail, simmered in coconut milk and spices. Another staple is pelau, a one-pot dish combining rice, pigeon peas, and meat, caramelized with brown sugar for depth of flavor. Macaroni pie, a baked macaroni and cheese casserole, is also a beloved side dish. These meals are central to Afro-Trinidadian identity, especially during family gatherings, Sunday lunches, and cultural celebrations.[31][32][33]

A traditional plate of chicken pelau, a signature Afro-Trinidadian dish.

Staples such as pelau, callaloo, oil down, stew chicken, and provision with saltfish trace back to African cooking methods brought by enslaved Africans. Over time, Afro-Trinidadians adapted these recipes using local foods, developing signature dishes like macaroni pie and bakes with fried fish. These meals remain central to Afro-Trinidadian identity, especially during family gatherings, Sunday lunches, and cultural celebrations.[34]

### Politics and activism

[edit]

Main articles: People's National Movement and Black Power Revolution

Further information: Eric Williams and Makandal Daaga

Afro-Trinidadians have played a pivotal role in shaping the political landscape of Trinidad and Tobago.[35] The People's National Movement (PNM), founded in 1956 by Eric Williams, the nation's first Prime Minister, has been historically supported by the Afro-Trinidadian community. Williams' leadership was instrumental in steering the country towards independence in 1962.[36][37]

A significant moment in Afro-Trinidadian political activism was the Black Power Revolution of 1970. Led by figures such as Makandal Daaga, this movement sought to address racial inequalities and promote Black consciousness, drawing inspiration from global Black Power movements. The revolution led to widespread demonstrations and brought about social and political reforms.[38][39]

Afro-Trinidadian intellectual C. L. R. James (left) with French Guianese poet Léon Damas at the 2nd Congress of Afrikan People in San Diego, 1972—a gathering of global Black thinkers, writers and activists.

Other notable Afro-Trinidadian political figures include Isabel Ursula Teshea, the first woman to serve in the House of Representatives and as a cabinet minister, and Camille Robinson-Regis, a long-serving member of parliament and minister in various portfolios. Their contributions have been vital in advancing social justice and political representation for Afro-Trinidadians.

Afro-Trinidadians have been central to the political leadership of Trinidad and Tobago since independence. They’ve dominated national politics through key parties like the People’s National Movement (PNM), founded by Dr. Eric Williams, the country's first Prime Minister and "Father of the Nation". Other notable Afro-Trinidadian leaders include A. N. R. Robinson, who served as both Prime Minister and President, and Patrick Manning, known for his contributions to economic development. Dr. Keith Rowley, who served as Prime Minister from 2015 to 2025, continued this legacy, focusing on economic diversification and regional leadership. Their leadership has helped shape the country’s institutions, policies, and national identity.[40][41]

Cathedral in Trinidad and Tobago

## Religion

[edit]

Main article: Religion in Trinidad and Tobago

Majority of Afro-Trinidadian and Tobagonians are Christian, with the largest group being Roman Catholics 60%, and (in Tobago) Methodists 31%. Smaller numbers follow Afro-Caribbean syncretic faiths such as Rastafari and the Spiritual Baptist Church. Non-Christians include adherents of Islam, the Orisha-Shango (Yoruba) faith, Afro-Caribbean religions, the Baháʼí Faith, Hinduism or are followers of Sai Baba.[42][43]

## See also

[edit]

* Trinidad and Tobago portal
* Africa portal

* Slavery in the British and French Caribbean
* Creole peoples
* Dougla people
* Demographics of Trinidad and Tobago

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "2011 Trinidad and Tobago Population and Housing Census: Demographic Report" (PDF). Central Statistical Office. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
2. ^ "2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Trinidad and Tobago". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
3. ^ "Census: Mixed population on the rise". Trinidad Express. 19 February 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
4. ^ Ryan, Selwyn D. (1972). Race and Nationalism in Trinidad and Tobago: A Study of Decolonization in a Multiracial Society. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9780802052568. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
5. ^ Brereton, Bridget (1981). A History of Modern Trinidad, 1783–1962. Heinemann. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
6. ^ Trotman, David V. (1986). Crime in Trinidad: Conflict and Control in a Plantation Society, 1838–1900. University of Tennessee Press. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
7. ^ Ryan, Selwyn D. (1972). Race and Nationalism in Trinidad and Tobago. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 9781487582081. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
8. ^ Higman, B. W. (1995). Slave Populations of the British Caribbean, 1807–1834 (reprint ed.). The Press, University of the West Indies. p. 450\. ISBN 978-976-640-010-1.
9. ^ "Trinidad's Slave Census of 1813: Representative of African Ethnic Origins". Retrieved 18 April 2025.
10. ^ National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago. Celebrating the Merikins: Our Heritage, Our Faith, Our Future. Retrieved May 16, 2025.
11. ^ "Slavery and Emancipation in Trinidad and Tobago". Nalis.gov.tt. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
12. ^ "Slavery and Emancipation in Trinidad and Tobago". Nalis.gov.tt. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
13. ^ "Our African Legacy: Roots and Routes" (PDF). natt.gov.tt. National Archives of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
14. ^ "Merikins: Free Black Settlers 1815–1816". nalis.gov.tt. National Library and Information System Authority (NALIS). Retrieved 16 May 2025.
15. ^ a b "NRI: East Indians in Trinidad". NRI Internet. Retrieved 20 August 2017.
16. ^ Matroo, Carol (23 February 2020). "NJAC marks 50th anniversary of Black Power revolution". Trinidad and Tobago Newsday. Retrieved 10 May 2022.
17. ^ Alexander, Ryan (21 April 2022). "NJAC remembers Basil Davis, the first martyr of the 1970 Black Power Revolution". Wired868. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
18. ^ "ANR Robinson obituary". The Guardian. 13 April 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
19. ^ Blankson, Perry (26 February 2023). "Remembering Trinidad and Tobago's Black Power Revolution". Tribune Magazine. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
20. ^ "Black Power: State of Emergency Remembered". Trinidad and Tobago Guardian. 16 April 2015. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
21. ^ Toussaint, Roger (21 April 2020). "1970: Remembering the Black Power Revolution in Trinidad & Tobago". Big Drum Nation. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
22. ^ Duncan, Natricia (5 March 2025). "The Long Wave: Trinidad and Tobago carnival celebrates African roots". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Key elements like calypso music and the steel pan evolved from African traditions and were means of defiance against colonial repression."
23. ^ "Calypso Music Guide: A Brief History of Calypso Music". MasterClass. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Calypso music first emerged in the eighteenth century in Trinidad among communities of African slaves. The musical style was an evolution of West African kaiso, and the satirical lyrics often mocked slave masters through double entendre."
24. ^ "Soca". Britannica. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Soca, Trinidadian popular music that developed in the 1970s and is closely related to calypso."
25. ^ "The Origins of Steel Pan". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "The steel pan (also known as steel drums, or 'pan') was created in Trinidad and Tobago in the 1930s. It was established in contexts of Carnival resistance, its history being traced back to the enslaved Africans who were brought to the Caribbean in the 1700s."
26. ^ Rodriguez, Jasmine (10 June 2021). "What Is Soca Music? Guide to the Genre's Caribbean Roots". MasterClass. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
27. ^ Campbell, Colin (2014). "Languaculture and grassroots football: 'Small goal' in Trinidad". International Review for the Sociology of Sport. 50 (6): 745–760\. doi:10.1177/1012690214552431. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
28. ^ "Goat Racing: What It Is and Why It's a Big Deal in Tobago". Visit Tobago. Tobago Tourism Agency. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
29. ^ Beckles, Jelani (7 July 2022). "A Celebration of Trinidad and Tobago's Olympic Medallists". Trinidad and Tobago Newsday. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
30. ^ "African Influence on Trinbagonian's Cuisine". Life in Trinidad & Tobago. 5 August 2024. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Callaloo originated among African slaves in Trinidad and Tobago, who adapted traditional cooking methods and ingredients to locally available resources."
31. ^ Darlene (25 May 2023). "Our Journey to Trinidad and Tobago". International Cuisine. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Callaloo... has African roots and is made with dasheen or taro leaves, okra, crab, pumpkin, onions and coconut milk... It is typically served with a cornbread called coo coo."
32. ^ Washington, Brigid (17 March 2022). "To Learn About Trinidad and Tobago, Start by Cooking Pelau". Bon Appétit. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Pelau... is a flavorful fusion of African, Indian, and Caribbean traditions... combining rice, protein (typically chicken or beef), and aromatic seasonings... Unique to pelau is the use of 'browning,' a rich syrup made from burned sugar, which imparts a deep flavor and color."
33. ^ Ramkirpal-Senhouse, Alica (22 May 2024). "Trinidadian Macaroni Pie". Simply Recipes. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "The macaroni, typically bucatini, is seasoned with pimento peppers, garlic, sometimes onions... Evaporated milk, ketchup, mustard, and lots of cheese are stirred in, then baked in a casserole until golden and firm."
34. ^ "African Influence on Trinbagonian's Cuisine". Life in Trinidad & Tobago. 5 August 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
35. ^ "Trinidad and Tobago". Minority Rights Group International. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "With their urban presence and educational background Afro-Trinidadians were in the forefront of the post war anti-colonial movement and early foreign emigration."
36. ^ "Leader & Statesman - UT Libraries Exhibits". University of Texas Libraries. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "Eric Williams was the founder and Political Leader of the People's National Movement (PNM), Trinidad and Tobago's first modern political party."
37. ^ "Dr. Eric Williams - Trinidad and Tobago: Struggle for Independence". Steph Richardson Blog. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "On August 31st 1962 Trinidad and Tobago under the Leadership of Eric Williams gained independence from Britain and were now on the path of nation building."
38. ^ Blankson, Perry (26 February 2023). "Remembering Trinidad and Tobago's Black Power Revolution". Tribune Magazine. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "On 26 February 1970, scores of Trinidadians, mostly trade unionists and students, took to the streets across the country, and slogans of 'Power to the People' reverberated through the crowds. Fists were outstretched in a gesture which had become the worldwide symbol of a radical phenomenon sweeping the globe: 'Black Power!' was the protestors' cry."
39. ^ Ghany, Hamid (14 August 2016). "Makandal Daaga and Black Power". Trinidad and Tobago Guardian. Retrieved 19 May 2025. "The 1970 Black Power uprising is largely associated with the movement that he led called the National Joint Action Committee (NJAC)."
40. ^ "Eric Williams". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
41. ^ "Dr. Keith Rowley". Parliament of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 17 May 2025.
42. ^ "Trinidad and Tobago 2011 Population and Housing Census: Religion". Central Statistical Office of Trinidad and Tobago. Retrieved 16 May 2025.
43. ^ "2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Trinidad and Tobago". U.S. Department of State. Retrieved 16 May 2025.

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