Ahom people

Ethnic group from Assam

Ethnic group

Tai Ahom

tái ahüm

Total population
1,600,000+[1]
Regions with significant populations
Assam| 1,464,000
Arunachal Pradesh| 100,000
Languages
Assamese (dominance),[2] and Ahom (only used mainly in religious and educational purposes.[3])
Religion
Majority:
Hinduism
Minority:
Ahom religion
Related ethnic groups
Other Tai peoples
Sukapha Kshetra's royal family Part of a series on the

Culture of Assam

History

Proto-historic

* Pragjyotisha kingdom

Classical

* Kamarupa kingdom

Medieval

* Dimasa–Kachari kingdom
* Kamata Kingdom
* Sutiya kingdom
* Baro-Bhuyan
* Ahom kingdom (Singarigharutha)

Modern

* Colonial Assam
* Assam Province

People

Assamese peoples

* Ahoms
* Brahmins
* Chutias
* Kaibartas
* Kalitas
* Muslims
* Sikhs
* Sylhetis

Scheduled tribes

* Boros
* Deoris
* Dimasas
* Karbis
* Misings
* Rabhas
* Rajbongshis
* Tea-tribes

Languages

Major

* Asamiya (Kamarupi Prakrit · Goalpariya dialects)
* Script

Minor

* Boro
* Hajong
* Kachari
* Karbi
* Kochi
* Rabha
* Rangpuri
* Sylheti
* Tiwa

Extinct

* Ahom[4]

Traditions

* Gamosa
* Hengdang
* Jaapi
* Kirtans, Namghars
* Lagundeoni
* Mekhela chador
* Pujas
* Riha
* Satras
* Silk (Eri, Muga, Pat)
* Xorai
* Zikir

Mythology and folklore

* Birinchi Kumar Barua
* Chand Sadagar
* Goalpariya Lokogeet
* Kamrupi Lokgeet

Cuisine

* Judima
* Masor Tenga
* Narikol'or Laru
* Pitha
* Poitabhat
* Tea
* Til'or Laru

Festivals

* Ali Ai Ligang
* Ambubachi Mela
* Bihu
* Durga Puja
* Me-Dam-Me-Phi
* Sahitya Sabhas

Religion

Major

* Hinduism[5][6] (Panentheistic: Ekasarana Dharma; Polytheistic: Shaktism)
* Islam
* Christianity

Others

* Ahom
* Animism
* Bathouism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Art

* Cultural development of Kamarupa
* Vrindavani vastra

Literature

History

* Beginnings
* Orunodoi Era
* Jonaki Era

Archives

* Charyapads
* Kotha Ramayana
* The Orunodoi
* The Jonaki
* The Hemkosh
* Kodom Koli

Genres

* Poetry
* Novels
* Folk literature

Institutions

* Assam Sahitya Sabha

Awards

* Assam Ratna
* Assam Sahitya Sabha Award
* Assam Valley Literary Award
* Kamal Kumari Foundation Award
* Krishnakanta Handique Award

Music and performing arts

* Folk dances
* Guwahati Theatre Festival
* Kohinoor Theatre

Media

* Cinema
* Brahmaputra Valley Film Festival
* Filmfare Awards East
* Gauhati Cine Club
* Joymoti (first Assamese motion picture)
* National
Film Award for Best Feature Film in Assamese

Monuments

* Tamreswari Temple

Symbols

* Coat of arms
* O Mur Apunar Desh (anthem)

Organisations

* Dr. Bhupen Hazarika Regional Government
Film and Television Institute
* Sadou Asom Lekhika Samaroh Samiti

* v
* t
* e

The Ahom (Pron: /ˈɑːhɒm/) or Tai-Ahom (Ahom: 𑜄𑜩 𑜒𑜑𑜪𑜨; Assamese: টাই-আহোম) is an ethnic group from the Indian states of Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. The members of this group are admixed descendants of the Tai people who reached the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in 1228 and the local indigenous people who joined them over the course of history. Sukaphaa, the leader of the Tai group and his 9,000 followers established the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826 CE), which controlled much of the Brahmaputra Valley in modern Assam until 1826 when the Treaty Of Yandabo was signed.

The modern Ahom people and their culture are a syncretism of the original Tai and their culture[7] and local Tibeto-Burman people and their cultures they absorbed in Assam. The local people of different ethnic groups of Assam that took to the Tai way of life and polity were incorporated into their fold which came to be known as Ahom as in the process known as Ahomisation.

Many local ethnic groups that came in contact with the Tai settlers, including the Borahis who were of Tibeto-Burman origin, were completely subsumed into the Ahom community; while members of other communities, based on their allegiance to the Ahom kingdom or the usefulness of their talents, too were accepted as Ahoms. Currently, they represent the largest Tai group in India, with a population of nearly 4.6 million in Assam. Ahom people are found mostly in Upper Assam in the districts of Golaghat, Jorhat, Sibsagar, Charaideo, Dibrugarh, Tinsukia (south of Brahmaputra River); and in Lakhimpur, Sonitpur, Bishwanath, and Dhemaji (north) as well as some area of Nagaon, Guwahati.

Even though the already admixed group[8] Ahom made up a relatively small portion of the kingdom's population, they maintained their original Ahom language and practised their traditional religion till the 17th century, when the Ahom court as well as the commoners adopted the Assamese language.

## History

[edit]

Further information: Ahom kingdom

Statue of Ahom warriors near Sivasagar town, Assam

### Origins

[edit]

The Tai speaking people came into prominence first in the Guangxi region, in China, from where they moved to mainland Southeast Asia in the middle of the 11th century after a long and fierce battle with the Northern Han Chinese.[9] The Tai-Ahoms are traced to either Mong Mao of South China (present-day Dehong, Yunnan province of China)[10][11] or to the Hukawng Valley in Myanmar.[9]

Sukaphaa, a Tai prince of Mong Mao, and a band of followers reached Assam in 1228 with an intention of settling there.[12] They came with a higher technology of wet-rice cultivation then extant and a tradition of writing, record keeping, and state formation. They settled in the region south of the Brahmaputra River and to the east of the Dikhow River; the Ahoms today are found concentrated in this region.[13] Sukaphaa, the leader of the Tai group and his 9,000 followers established the Ahom kingdom (1228–1826 CE), which controlled much of the Bramhaputra valley until 1826.

### Initial formation in Assam

[edit]

In the initial phase, the band of followers of Sukaphaa moved about for nearly thirty years and mixed with the local population. He moved from place to place, searching for a seat. He made peace with the Borahi and Moran ethnic groups, and he and his mostly male followers married into them, creating an admixed population identified as Ahoms[8] and initiating the process of Ahomisation. The Borahis, a Tibeto-Burman people, were completely subsumed into the Ahom fold, though the Moran maintained their independent ethnicity. Sukaphaa established his capital at Charaideo near present-day Sivasagar in 1253 and began the task of state formation.

### Ahomisation

[edit]

The Ahoms held the belief that they were destined by a divine force to cultivate fallow land using their wet-rice farming methods and to assimilate stateless shifting cultivators into their society.[14] They were also conscious of their numerical minority.[15] As a result, the Ahom polity initially absorbed Naga, Borahi and Moran, and later large sections of the Chutia and the Dimasa-Kachari peoples. This process of Ahomisation went on until the mid-16th century, when the Ahom society itself came under the direct Hindu influence.[16] That many indigenous peoples were ceremonially adopted into Ahom clans are recorded in the chronicles.[17] Since the Ahoms married liberally outside their own exogamous clans and since their own traditional religion resembled the religious practices of the indigenous peoples the assimilation under Ahomisation had little impediment.[16][18]

### Localisation and Loss

[edit]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, the small Ahom community expanded their rule dramatically toward the west and they successfully saw off challenges from Mughal and other invaders, gaining them recognition in world history.[19] The rapid expansion resulted in the Ahom people becoming a small minority in their own kingdom, of which they kept control. Eventually, the Ahom court, as well as the Ahom peasants took to Ekasarana dharma, Shaktism and Saivism over the traditional Ahom religion;[20] and adopted Assamese over the Ahom language for secular purposes.[21] The modern Ahom people and their culture are a syncretism of the original Tai and their culture[7] and local Tibeto-Burman peoples and their cultures they absorbed in Assam.

The everyday usage of Ahom language ceased completely by the early 19th-century.[22] The loss of religions is also nearly complete, with only a few priestly families practising some aspects of it.[23] While the written language (and ritualistic chants) survive in a vast number of written manuscripts,[24] much of the spoken language is lost because the Ahom script does not mark tone and under-specifies vowel contrasts.[25]

### Revivalism

[edit]

Though the first political organisation (All Assam Ahom Association) was created in 1893[26] it was in 1954 when Ahom connection to other Tai groups in Assam was formally established.[27]

## Society

[edit]

### Ban-Mong Social system

[edit]

The Tai-Ahom people's traditional social structure, called Ban-Mong, revolved around agriculture and centered on irrigation methods.[28] The Ban or Ban Na is a unit composed of families that settled by the side of the rivers. While many Bans together forms a Mong which refers state.[28]

### Ahom clans

[edit]

Ahom clans, called phoids, formed socio-political entities. At the time of ingress into Assam, or soon thereafter, there were seven important clans, called Satghariya Ahoms (Ahoms of the Seven Houses). There were Su/Tsu (Tiger) clan to which the Chao-Pha (Sukaphaa) belonged; his two chief counselors Burhagohain (Chao-Phrung-Mung) and Borgohain (Chao-Thao-Mung); and three priestly clans: Bailung (Mo-plang), Deodhai (Mo-sham), Mohan (Mo-hang) and Siring.[29][30][31] Soon the Satghariya group was expanded—four additional clans began to be associated with nobility: Dihingia, Sandikoi, Lahon and Duarah.[30] In the 16th-century Suhungmung added another great counselor, the Borpatrogohain and a new clan was established. Over time sub-clans began appearing. Thus during the Suhungmung's reign, the Chao-Pha's clan were divided into seven sub-clans--Saringiya, Tipamiya, Dihingiya, Samuguriya, Tungkhungiya, Parvatiya, and Namrupiya. Similarly, Burhagohain clan were divided into eight, Borgohain sixteen, Deodhai twelve, Mohan seven, and Bailung and Siring eight each. The rest of the Ahom gentry belonged to clans such as Chaodangs, Gharphalias, Likchows etc. In general, the secular aristocratic clans, the priestly class, and the gentry clans did not intermarry.

Some clans admitted people from other ethnic groups as well. For example, Miri-Sandikoi and Moran-Patar were Sandikoi and Patar from the Mising and Moran communities,[32] while the founders of Chetias and Lahons were from the Chutia community.[33] This was true even for the priestly clans: Naga-Bailung, Miri-Bailung and Nara-Bailung.[29]

## Literature

[edit]

The Ahoms were literate with a writing system based on the Ahom script,[34] which fell into disuse along with the language. The Ahom script evolved from an earlier script of the Tai Nuea language[35] which developed further under the present Chinese Government.[36] There exists today a large corpus of manuscripts in this script on history, society, astrology, rituals, etc. Ahom people used to write their chronicles known as Buranji.[37] The priestly classes (Mo'sam, Mo'hung, Mo'Plong) are the custodians of these manuscripts.

### Calendar

[edit]

The Ahom people used to use a sexagenary cycle known as Lak-Ni Tao-Si-Nga[38] with its origins in the middle kingdoms (Chung-Kuo). It has 12 months and an additional leap month with a ten days weekly cycle.[39][40] The first month is called Duin-Shing which gregorian equivalent is November-December and the new year festival is known as Pi-Mau Tai.[39] It is still in vogue in Chinese and Tai people.[41] The events in Buranji was counted with Lak-ni.

## Culture

[edit]

### Festivals

[edit]

#### Me-dam-me-phi

[edit]

Main article: Me-dam-me-phi

Me-dam-me-phi is the communal ancestor worship festival of Tai-Ahom. It's observed in the month of Duin-Ha (March–April)in the ancient times but now it's celebrated in the 31st January.[42]

#### Poi cheng ken

[edit]

Poi cheng ken is the traditional spring festival of the Tai-Ahom people, celebrated during the Ahom month of Duin-Ha in the Sexagenary cycle.[43] The festival includes rituals such as washing, particularly bathing household cattle, honoring ancestors, and worshipping the insignia Chum Pha Rueng Sheng Mueang.[43] The customs of Cheng Ken are documented in the ancient manuscript Khyek Lai Bet.[43] As stated:

> Duin ha jao pai ka duin ruk Poi cheng ken ao ma, hu ap nam, khai ap nam...., lit. '‘the month of Duin-ha is over. Poi cheng ken arrives in Duin-ruk. Cows and buffaloes are bathed in water.'

### Housing

[edit]

Like the rural Thai people of Thailand, the house rural Ahom families have been made of wood and bamboo, and two roofs are typically thatched.[44] Families' orchards and ploughed fields are situated near their house. Houses are built in a scattered fashion within bamboo groves.[44] At one time, the Ahom built their house on stilts called Rwan Huan[44] about two meters above ground level.

### Culinary traditions

[edit]

Food is one of the important variables of the culture of Tai-Ahom. Most Ahoms, particularly in rural areas, are non-vegetarian,[45] still maintaining a traditional cuisine similar to other Tai people. Rice is a staple food. Typical dishes are pork, chicken, duck, slices of beef, frogs, many kinds of fishes, hukoti maas (dry preserved fish mixture), muga lota (cocoon seeds of endi and muga worms), and eggs of red ants.[45] Certain insects are also popular foods for the Ahoms. Luk-Lao or Nam-Lao (rice beer, undiluted or diluted) are traditional drinks.[44] They consume "Khar" (a form of alkaline liquid extracted from the ashes of burned banana peels/bark), "Betgaaj" (tender cane shoots), and many other naturally grown herbs with medicinal properties. However beef for the general hindus and, pork for the Vaisnavites are avoided [46] During Siva Singha's reign, the people abandoned the free usage of meat and drinks.[47]

Ahom food specialties resemble Thai cuisine. Like the Thais, the Ahoms prefer boiled food that have little spices and directly burnt fish, meat and vegetables like brinjal, tomato, etc.[44] Some of them are Thu–dam (black lentil), Khao–Moon (Rice Frumenty), Xandohguri (a powder made from dry roasted rice), ChewaKhao (steamed rice), Chunga Chaul (sticky rice cooked in tender bamboo tubes), Til pitha (sesame rice rolls prepared from sticky rice powder), and Khao-tyek (rice flakes).[44] The process of preparation of this item was quite unknown to population other than the Ahoms and the Thais. Khao (unboiled soft rice prepared from a special variety of sticky rice with a unique technique), Tupula Khao (a kind of rice cooked and packed with a particular kind of plant leaf with good smell called 'tora pat' and preserved bamboo sauce are some of the favourite food[44] items of the Ahoms, which are similar to their traditional diet.

### Wedding

[edit]

Cho-klong

Chaklong[48] is the main marriage ritual among the twenty marriage rituals of Tai Ahom people.[49] The name Cho Klong is derived from the Tai Ahom language [Cho=to combine, klong=ritual]. The ritual is described in an ancient Tai Ahom script Lai Lit nang Hoon Pha.[50] 101 ban-phai-s (earthen lamps) or lights are lit. The bride offers the groom a heng-dan (sword)[51] to protect her, their children, family, race and country. Sum of twenty rituals are performed in ahom wedding along with cho klong, including:

* Ju-ron
* Rik-Khwan
* Aap-Tang [Aap=Bath, Tang=devine][52]
* Chow Ban [worshipping sun]
* Jon-ming [Blessing given by Moloung priests][52]

## Religion

[edit]

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|

Main article: Ahom religion

The majority of present-day Ahoms profess Hinduism as their religion, yet there's a movement aiming to rejuvenate the ancient Ahom faith. The Ahom religion started to decline since the days of Jayadhwaj Singha, he was the first Ahom king to adopt Ekasarana Dharma and to take initiation of the Auniati Mahanta. From Jayadhawaj Singha to Rantadhwaj Singha all were followers of Ekasarana Dharma. From Gadadhar Singha onwards the kings veered towards Shaktism. Siva Singha made the Shaktism the state religion, Suremphaa Rajeswar Singha (1751–1769) ordered Sanskritisation. All funerals were to be practised under the Hindu cremation rites, conducted by a Maithil Brahmin priest and a traditional priest.[53] Nevertheless, Me-Dam-Me-Phi is widely celebrated.

## Language

[edit]

Main article: Ahom language

The Ahoms today use the Assamese language after the traditional language, the Ahom language, fell into complete disuse. The Ahom language, a member of the Tai branch of the Kra–Dai languages is now dead, with its tone system completely lost. Nevertheless, it is being revived by some Tai Ahom organisations.[54]

From the latter part of the 20th century through the early 21st century, there has been a resurgence of interest among the Ahoms in their culture and language, resulting in heightened scholarly focus and efforts towards revival.[55] The 1901 census of India enumerated approximately 179,000 people identifying as Ahom. The latest available census records slightly over 2 million Ahom individuals, however, estimates of the total number of people descended from the original Tai-Ahom settlers are as high as eight million.[56] The Ahom script also finds a place in the Unicode Consortium and the script declared the topmost in the South-East Asia category.[57]

## Ahom people today

[edit]

Ahom people today are categorised in the other backward classes (OBC) caste category; there is longstanding discussion and demand for Scheduled Tribe status.[58] The term "ethnic Assamese" is now associated by the Indian government with the various indigenous Assamese people.[59][60][61] According to Anthony Van Nostrand Diller, possibly eight million speakers of Assamese can claim genetic descent from the Ahoms.[56] Historian Yasmin Saikia contends that during pre-colonial eras, the Ahoms didn't constitute an ethnic community; instead, they formed a relatively inclusive social group. Any group entering the socio-economic framework of the Ahom state could acquire Ahom status, subject to the explicit approval of the king.[59]

## Notable people

[edit]

### Ahom Maharajas (Swargadeo)

[edit]

* Sukaphaa – 1st Ahom Maharaja
* Suteuphaa – 2nd Ahom Maharaja
* Subinphaa – 3rd Ahom Maharaja
* Tyao Sukhangphaa – 4th Ahom Maharaja
* Sukhrangphaa – 5th Ahom Maharaja
* Sutuphaa – 6th Ahom Maharaja
* Tyao Khamthi – 7th Ahom Maharaja
* Sudangphaa (Bamuni Konwar) – 8th Ahom Maharaja
* Sujangphaa – 9th Ahom Maharaja
* Suphakphaa – 10th Ahom Maharaja
* Susenphaa – 11th Ahom Maharaja
* Suhenphaa – 12th Ahom Maharaja
* Supimphaa – 13th Ahom Maharaja
* Suhungmung (Swarganarayan) – 14th Ahom Maharaja
* Suklenmung (Garhgayan Raja) – 15th Ahom Maharaja
* Sukhamphaa (Khura Raja) – 16th Ahom Maharaja
* Susengphaa (Pratap Singha) – 17th Ahom Maharaja
* Suramphaa (Jayaditya Singha) – 18th Ahom Maharaja
* Sutingphaa (Noriya Raja) – 19th Ahom Maharaja
* Sutamla (Jayadhwaj Singha) – 20th Ahom Maharaja
* Supangmung (Chakradhwaj Singha) – 21st Ahom Maharaja
* Sunyatphaa (Udayaditya Singha) – 22nd Ahom Maharaja
* Suklamphaa (Ramadhwaj Singha) – 23rd Ahom Maharaja
* Suhung – 24th Ahom Maharaja
* Gobar Raja – 25th Ahom Maharaja
* Sujinphaa (Arjun Konwar) – 26th Ahom Maharaja
* Sudoiphaa – 27th Ahom Maharaja
* Sulikphaa (Ratnadhwaj Singha) – 28th Ahom Maharaja
* Supatphaa (Gadadhar Singha) – 29th Ahom Maharaja
* Sukhrungphaa (Rudra Singha) – 30th Ahom Maharaja
* Sutanphaa (Siba Singha) – 31st Ahom Maharaja
* Sunenphaa (Pramatta Singha) – 32nd Ahom Maharaja
* Suremphaa (Rajeswar Singha) – 33rd Ahom Maharaja
* Sunyeophaa (Lakshmi Singha) – 34th Ahom Maharaja
* Suhitpangphaa (Gaurinath Singha) – 35th Ahom Maharaja
* Suklingphaa (Kamaleswar Singha) – 36th Ahom Maharaja
* Sudingphaa (Chandrakanta Singha) – 37th Ahom Maharaja
* Purandar Singha – 38th Ahom Maharaja
* Jogeswar Singha – 39th Ahom Maharaja

### Accomplished Figures

[edit]

* Krishna Kanta Handique – Sanskrit scholar, indologist, philanthropist educationist, recipient of Padma Shri and Padma Bhushan
* Ganesh Gogoi – Legendary poet
* Paran Barbarooah – Film producer and successful industrialist; great-great-great-grandson of Jogeswar Singha (39th Ahom Maharaja)
* Hiteswar Saikia – 10th Chief Minister of Assam
* Pandit Sashi Chandra Barbarooah – Writer and Vaishnav scholar; great-great-grandson of Jogeswar Singha (39th Ahom Maharaja)
* Tarun Gogoi – 13th Chief Minister of Assam
* Hiteswar Barbarooah – Historian and Sonnet Poet
* Surendranath Burhagohain – Deputy Minister in India’s first cabinet post-independence
* Gomdhar Konwar – Ahom prince and early freedom fighter
* Devanand Konwar – Governor of Tripura, Bihar, and West Bengal
* Kushal Konwar – Freedom fighter, martyred during the Quit India Movement
* Prerana Barbarooah - National Award-winning film director and writer
* Gaurav Gogoi – Deputy Leader of the Opposition in the Lok Sabha
* Lachit Borphukan – Commander of the Ahom Army, victor of the Battle of Saraighat (1671)
* Homen Borgohain – Writer and journalist
* Momai Tamuli Barbaruah – Eminent administrator and general
* Jahnu Barua – Acclaimed film director
* Kanseng Borpatragohain – Prominent Ahom noble
* Kaliabhumora Borphukan – Military leader and administrator
* Padmanath Gohain Baruah – First president of Asam Sahitya Sabha
* Jatindra Nath Duwara – Noted poet and author
* Dip Gogoi – Politician from Assam
* Lila Gogoi – Historian and author
* Ranjan Gogoi – 46th Chief Justice of India
* Hiren Gohain – Scholar and political commentator
* Akhil Gogoi – Social activist and politician

## See also

[edit]

* Ahom Dynasty
* Ahom history
* All Tai Ahom Students Union
* Assamese people
* Hengdang

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "Ahom in India report 2021". Retrieved 15 June 2021.
2. ^ Diller, A. (1993). Tai Languages. In International Encyclopedia of Linguistics (Vol. 4, pp. 128-131). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
3. ^ (Marwah 2020:76)
4. ^ "639 Identifier Documentation: aho – ISO 639-3". SIL International (formerly known as the Summer Institute of Linguistics). SIL International. Retrieved 29 June 2019. "Ahom [aho]"
5. ^ "Population by Religious Communities". Census India – 2001. Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India. Retrieved 1 July 2019. "Census Data Finder/C Series/Population by Religious Communities"
6. ^ "Population by religion community – 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015. "2011census/C-01/DDW00C-01 MDDS.XLS"
7. ^ a b "Conclusions" (PDF). Shodganga.
8. ^ a b "The Ahom kingdom’s establishment, traditionally dated at 1228, was done by a group migrating from the southeast, large numbers of whom were male army members, who would have taken local non-Tai speaking wives." (Morey 2014:51–52)
9. ^ a b (Terwiel 1996:275)
10. ^ (Gogoi 2011:V)
11. ^ "At present [Mong Mao] is known as Ruili in Chinese maps... The Mong Mao area is still predominantly Tai, who are called Dai (in Pin Yin), and they, together with the Singhpho, or Jingpho, form a dominant group, hence the whole zone is named as Dehong Dai-Jingpho Autonomous Prefecture in Yunnan." (Phukan 1991:889)
12. ^ " Sukapha and his band of Ahom migrants entered Upper Assam in 1228 with a view to permanently settling there." (Guha 1983:12)
13. ^ (Terwiel 1996:276)
14. ^ (Guha 1983:11–12)
15. ^ (Baruah 1977:251)
16. ^ a b (Guha 1983:12)
17. ^ "Thus the illustrious Ahom family of Miri Sandikai was founded by one Miri (Mising), the adopted son of a Burhagohain. (Purani Asam Buranji) King Gadadhar Sinha (1681–1696) accepted two Naga princesses as his consorts. (Tungkhungiya Buranji) The new converts, if possessed of efficiency, were even recruited to important administrative posts. Thus the second Barphukan, the governor of Lower Assam, was the son of a Naga of Banferra clan. (Purani Asam Buranji) Queen Phuleswari, who took the regalia to her hand during the reign of king Siva Singha (1714–1744), appointed a Bhutanese youth as her page. Kancheng, the first Barpatra Gohain was born and brought up in a Naga family. (Purani Asam Buranji)" (Baruah 1977:251)
18. ^ (Baruah 1977:251–252)
19. ^ "During the sixteenth, and more so during the seventeenth century, the Ahom people, in a series of spectacular expansionist moves, gained dominance over virtually the entire Brahmaputra Valley. The story of how Ahom-led armies fought against Muslim invaders has gained them a place in international history." (Terwiel 1996:276)
20. ^ "Not only at the Ahom court, but also among Ahom farmers, the Indian religion gained adherents: Saivism, Saktism, and Vaisnavism spread and largely replaced the old Tai Ahom religion. (Terwiel 1996:276)
21. ^ "The Ahom language and Ahom script were relegated to the religious sphere, where they were used only by some members of the traditional priestly clans, while Assamese speech and writing took over in secular life." (Terwiel 1996:276)
22. ^ "It seems that by early in the 19th century, everyday usage of Ahom language had ceased and that Ahom people all spoke Assamese as their mother tongue." (Morey 2014:50)
23. ^ "Only in a few priestly families was the original Ahom religion not wholly forgotten." (Terwiel 1996:280)
24. ^ "Tai Ahom is therefore usually regarded as a dead language, but it survives in three ways: (1) in vast collections of manuscripts, (2) as a ritual language in Ahom religious ceremonies, and (3) as a language undergoing revival." (Morey 2014:50)
25. ^ "While the Ahom script marks all consonants, because it does not mark tones and under specifies vowel contrasts, the same written word can have a large number of meanings." (Morey 2014:55)
26. ^ (Terwiel 1996:278)
27. ^ "In 1954, at a meeting of Ahom people at Patsaku, Sibsagar District, the Tai Historical and Cultural Society of Assam was founded (linking the Ahom with Tai groups that had arrived more recently, such as the Khamti, Khamyang, Phakey, and Aiton)." (Terwiel 1996:278)
28. ^ a b (Gogoi 1995:30)
29. ^ a b (Gogoi 2006:9)
30. ^ a b (Guha 1983:13)
31. ^ (Gogoi 1976:15)
32. ^ "For instance the Miri-Sandikoi and Moran Patar were the offices drawn from the Miris and the Morans"(Gogoi 2006:9)
33. ^ "The founders of noted Ahom families, like those of Chetia and Lahon were Chutiyas." (Dutta 1985:30)
34. ^ (Gogoi 2011:1.00)
35. ^ (Gogoi 2011:V)
36. ^ (Gogoi 2011:10)
37. ^ (Gogoi 2011)
38. ^ pp.271-278 in ABOURANJIK
39. ^ a b Phukan Baruah (1964), p. 193.
40. ^ Kapoor (2021), p. 668.
41. ^ Phukan, J.N.2006 pp.1
42. ^ (Gogoi 2011:69)
43. ^ a b c (Gogoi 2011:153–154)
44. ^ a b c d e f g (Phukan 2017:II)
45. ^ a b "Inspite of becoming Hindu, the Tai Ahoms have not given up their food habits, i.e., taking pork, beef, chicken, and rice beer. Hence we find that even in the religious ceremonies pork and chicken are taken." (Gogoi 2011:227)
46. ^ "The proselytizing function of the Vaisnavite monasteries helped the ongoing process of sanskritization of the Ahom and the tribal folk in the Brahmaputra valley. The Ahom were accepted as a low-ranking new Hindu peasant caste. The tribal neophytes, admitted first to the lowest rung of the caste ladder, had opportunities of upward social mobility through emulation of the higher castes. Individuals and groups did not only move from animism to vaisnavism, but also from tribes to peasant castes, from pile houses to mid-point house, from burial practice to cremation of the dead, from liberal food habits to abstinence from liquor, beef and pork, from a shifting to permanent cultivation, and so on." (Guha 1984:5)
47. ^ A history of Assam. Thacker, Spink & Company, 1906. 1906. p. 184\. ISBN 9780404168193. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
48. ^ Diller, Anthony; Edmondson, Jerry; Luo, Yongxian (30 November 2004). The Tai-Kadai Languages. Routledge. ISBN 9781135791162 - via Google Books.
49. ^ "AHOMS and CHAK-LONG THE UNIQUE TRADITIONAL MARRIAGE SYSTEM". www.esamskriti.com.
50. ^ Lailit nang hoon Pha, ancient Tai Ahom script
51. ^ "Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society". The Society. 28 March 1981 - via Google Books.
52. ^ a b Gogoi, Pushpa (28 March 1996). "Tai of North East India". Chumphra Printers and Publishers - via Google Books.
53. ^ (Saikia 2004)
54. ^ Dipima Buragohain. Issues of Language Contact and Shift in Tai Ahom
55. ^ Sikhamoni Gohain Boruah & Ranjit Konwar, The Tai Ahom of India and a Study of Their Present Status Hiteswar Saikia College and Sri Ranjit Konwar, Assam Forest Department
56. ^ a b "Ahom". Ethnologue.
57. ^ "Ahom script finds place in Unicode Consortium". The Sentinel. 29 June 2018.
58. ^ "AATASU reiterates demand for ST status to six communities". The Sentinel. 28 October 2017.
59. ^ a b Yasmin Saikia (2004). Fragmented Memories. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-3373-9.
60. ^ "ST status to Assam groups only from a national perspective". Archived from the original on 10 December 2007. Retrieved 11 March 2009.
61. ^ "Separatist strains". The Hindu. Retrieved 11 March 2009.

## References

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* Gogoi, Shrutashwinee (2011). Tai ahom religion a philosophical study (PhD). hdl:10603/116167. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
* Baruah, S. L. (1977). "Ahom Policy Towards the Neighbouring Hill Tribes". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 38: 249–256\. JSTOR 44139078.
* Dutta, Sristidhar (1985), The Mataks and their Kingdom, Allahabad: Chugh Publications
* Gogoi, Nitul Kumar (2006), Continuity and Change among the Ahoms, Concept Publishing Company, Delhi
* Gogoi, Nitul Kumar (1995). Acculturation in the Brahmaputra Valley: the Ahom Case (PhD). hdl:10603/66134. Retrieved 29 December 2018.
* Gogoi, Padmeshwar (1976), Tai Ahom Religion and Customs, Publication Board, Gauhati, Assam
* Guha, Amalendu (December 1983), "The Ahom Political System: An Enquiry into the State Formation Process in Medieval Assam (1228-1714)", Social Scientist, 11 (12): 3–34, doi:10.2307/3516963, JSTOR 3516963
* Guha, Amalendu (June 1984). "Pre-Ahom Roots and the Medieval State in Assam: A Reply". Social Scientist. 12 (6): 70–77\. doi:10.2307/3517005. JSTOR 3517005.
* Marwah, Reena (2020). Reimagining India-Thailand Relations: A Multilateral And Bilateral Perspective. World Scientific. ISBN 9789811212055.
* Morey, Stephen (2014), "Ahom and Tangsa: Case studies of language maintenance and loss in North East India", in Cardoso, Hugo C. (ed.), Language Endangerment and Preservation in South Asia, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, pp. 46–77
* Phukan, J N (1991). "Relations of the Ahom Kings of Assam with Those of Mong Mao (in Yunnan, China) and of Mong Kwang (Mogaung in Myanmar)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 52: 888–893\. JSTOR 44142722.
* Terwiel, B.J. (1996). "Recreating the Past: Revivalism in Northeastern India". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 152 (2): 275–92\. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003014. JSTOR 27864746.
* Phukan, Dr. Girin (2017), Cultural Linkage of TheAhom with the Tais of Southeast Asia: A case study of Ahom— Thai Linkage, vol. I, II, IV, Khwan Mung Magazine
* Kapoor, Ramesh (2021), "Fixing the chronology in Tai-Ahom chronicles by using astronomical references", Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage, 24 (3): 665–687, doi:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2021.03.07
* Phukan Baruah, B. N.N. (1964). Ahom lexicon. The government of Assam in the department of historical and antiquarian studies.

## Further reading

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* Phukon, G. (1998). State of Tai culture among the Ahoms. [Assam, India?]: G. Phukon.
* Saikia, Yasmin (2004). Fragmented Memories. Duke University. ISBN 978-0-8223-3373-9.

## External links

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Wikisource has texts related to Ahom people.

* Lambert, Eric T.D. (1952). "A short account of the Ahom people" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. JSS Vol.40.1 (digital). Siam Society: image. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
* Terwiel, Barend Jan (1983). "Ahom and the Study of Early Thai Society" (PDF). Journal of the Siam Society. JSS Vol. 71.0 (digital). Siam Society: image. Retrieved 10 November 2013.
* The Tai-Ahom connection by Yasmin Saikia in Gateway to the East, June 2005.
* Polities mentioned in the Chinese Ming Shi-lu, several references are made to a Tai Ahom kingdom in this translation of an important Ming dynasty historical source

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