Al-Ghazali

Sunni Muslim polymath (c. 1058–1111)

Not to be confused with al-Ghazal.

For other uses, see Ghazali.

Imam

Al-Ghazali

غزالی

Title| Hujjat al-Islam ('Proof of Islam')[1]
Personal life
Born| c. 1058

Tus, Seljuk Empire

Died| 19 December 1111(1111-12-19) (aged 52–53)

Tus, Seljuk Empire

Era| Islamic Golden Age
Region| Seljuk Empire (Nishapur)[2]: 292
Abbasid Caliphate (Baghdad)
Fatimid Caliphate (Jerusalem) / (Damascus)[2]: 292
Main interest(s)| Sufism, theology (kalam), philosophy, logic, Sharia, Islamic jurisprudence, Principles of Islamic jurisprudence
Notable work(s)| The Revival of Religious Sciences, The Aims of the Philosophers, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, The Alchemy of Happiness, The Moderation in Belief, The Condensed in Imam Shafi’i’s Jurisprudence, On Legal theory of Muslim Jurisprudence
Religious life
Religion| Islam
Denomination| Sunni[3][4]
School| Shafi'i
Creed| Ashari[5][6]
Muslim leader

Influenced by

*     * Harith al-Muhasibi[7]
* al-Juwayni[8]
* Avicenna[9]
* Al-Raghib al-Isfahani

Influenced

*     * Ibn Rushd
* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi[10]
* Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani[11]
* Abu al-Qasim al-Rafi'i[12]
* al-Nawawi[13]
* Ibn Tumart[14]
* René Descartes[15]
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi[16]
* al-Suyuti[17]
* Maimonides[18]
* Tan Malaka
* Thomas Aquinas[19]
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi[20]
* David Hume[21]
* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi[22]
* Asad Mayhani[23]
* Ali al-Qari[24]
* Muhammad Ibn Yahya al-Janzi[25]

Al-Ghazali[a] (c. 1058 – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus,[b] was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, theologians, logicians and mystics in Islamic history.[29][30][31][32]

He is considered to be the 11th century's mujaddid,[33][34] a renewer of the faith, who, according to the prophetic hadith, appears once every 100 years to restore the faith of the Islamic community.[35][36][37] Al-Ghazali's works were so highly acclaimed by his contemporaries that he was awarded the honorific title "Proof of Islam" (Ḥujjat al-Islām).[38] Al-Ghazali was a prominent mujtahid in the Shafi'i school of law.[39]

Much of Al-Ghazali's work stemmed around his spiritual crises following his appointment as the head of the Nizamiyya University in Baghdad - which was the most prestigious academic position in the Muslim world at the time.[40][41] This led to his eventual disappearance from the Muslim world for over 10 years, realising he chose the path of status and ego over God.[42][43] It was during this period where many of his great works were written.[42] He believed that the Islamic spiritual tradition had become moribund and that the spiritual sciences taught by the first generation of Muslims had been forgotten.[44] This belief led him to write his magnum opus entitled Iḥyā’ ‘ulūm ad-dīn ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences").[45] Among his other works, the Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") is a landmark in the history of philosophy, as it advances the critique of Aristotelian science developed later in 14th-century Europe.[32]

## Biography

[edit]

Al-Ghazali was born in c. 1058 in Tus.[46] He was a Muslim scholar, law specialist, rationalist, and spiritualist of Persian descent.[47][48] He was born in Tabaran, a town in the district of Tus, Khorasan,[46] not long after Seljuks entered Baghdad and ended Shia Buyid Amir al-umaras. This marked the start of Seljuk influence over Caliphate. While the Seljuk dynasty's influence grew, Abu Suleiman Dawud Chaghri Beg married his daughter, Arslan Khatun Khadija[49] to caliph al-Qa'im in 1056.[50][51][8]

A posthumous tradition, the authenticity of which has been questioned in recent scholarship, is that his father died in poverty and left the young al-Ghazali and his brother Ahmad to the care of a Sufi. Al-Ghazali's contemporary and first biographer, 'Abd al-Ghafir al-Farisi, records merely that al-Ghazali began to receive instruction in fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) from Ahmad al-Radhakani, a local teacher and Abu ali Farmadi, a Naqshbandi sufi from Tus.[46]: 26–27 He later studied under al-Juwayni, the distinguished jurist and theologian and "the most outstanding Muslim scholar of his time,"[46] in Nishapur,[2]: 292 perhaps after a period of study in Gurgan. After al-Juwayni's death in 1085, al-Ghazali departed from Nishapur and joined the court of Nizam al-Mulk, the powerful vizier of the Seljuk empire, which was likely centered in Isfahan. After bestowing upon him the titles of "Brilliance of the Religion" and "Eminence among the Religious Leaders", Nizam al-Mulk advanced al-Ghazali in July 1091 to the "most prestigious and most challenging" professorial position at the time: the Nizamiyya madrasa in Baghdad.[46]

He underwent a spiritual crisis in 1095, which some speculate was brought on by clinical hysteria,[52][53][54] abandoned his career and left Baghdad on the pretext of going on pilgrimage to Mecca. Making arrangements for his family, he disposed of his wealth and adopted an ascetic lifestyle. According to biographer Duncan B. Macdonald, the purpose of abstaining from scholastic work was to confront the spiritual experience and more ordinary understanding of "the Word and the Traditions."[55] After some time in Damascus and Jerusalem, with a visit to Medina and Mecca in 1096, he returned to Tus to spend the next several years in uzla (seclusion). The seclusion consisted in abstaining from teaching at state-sponsored institutions, but he continued to publish, receive visitors and teach in the zawiya (private madrasa) and khanqah (Sufi lodge) that he had built.

Fakhr al-Mulk, grand vizier to Ahmad Sanjar, pressed al-Ghazali to return to the Nizamiyya in Nishapur. Al-Ghazali reluctantly capitulated in 1106, fearing rightly that he and his teachings would meet with resistance and controversy.[46] He later returned to Tus and declined an invitation in 1110 from the grand vizier of the Seljuq Sultan Muhammad I to return to Baghdad. He died on 19 December 1111. According to 'Abd al-Ghafir al-Farisi, he had several daughters but no sons.[46]

## School affiliations

[edit]

Part of a series on

Ash'arism

Rock carved with al-'Aqida al-Murshida by Ibn Tumart

Background

* Sunni Islam
* Kullabiyya
* Ahl al-Ra'y
* Kalam

Eminent scholars

3rd AH/9th AD

* Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari (d. 324/936)

* Ibn Khafif (d. 371/982)

4th AH/10th AD

* Al-Baqillani (d. 403/1013)

* Ibn Furak (d. 406/1015)

* Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini (d. 418/1027)

* 'Abd al-Qahir al-Baghdadi (d. 429/1037)

* Abu 'Imran al-Fasi (d. 430/1038–9)

* Abu Dharr al-Harawi (d. 434/1043)

* Al-Mawardi (d. 450/1058)

* Al-Bayhaqi (d. 458/1066)

* Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463/1071)

* Al-Qushayri (d. 465/1072)

* Abu al-Walid al-Baji (d. 474/1081)

* Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (d. 476/1083)

* Al-Juwayni (d. 478/1085)

5th AH/11th AD

* Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 502/1108)

* Al-Ghazali (d. 505/1111)

* Abu al-Qasim al-Ansari (d. 511 or 512/1117–19)

* Ibn 'Aqil (d. 513/1119)

* Ibn Rushd al-Jadd (d. 520/1126)

* Al-Mazari (d. 536/1141)

* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi (d. 543/1148)

* Al-Qadi 'Iyad (d. 544/1149)

* Al-Shahrastani (d. 548/1153)

* Ibn 'Asakir (d. 571/1176)

* Ahmad al-Rifa'i (d. 578/1182)

6th AH/12th AD

* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1209)

* Ibn al-Athir (d. 630/ 1233)

* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi (d. 631/1233)

* Ibn al-Hajib (d. 646/1248)

* 'Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam (d. 660/1262)

* Al-Qurtubi (d. 671/1272)

* Al-Nawawi (d. 676/1277)

* Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (d. 684/1285)

* Al-Baydawi (d. c. 685/1286)

* Ibn al-Nafis (d. 687/1288)

7th AH/13th AD

* Ibn Daqiq al-'Id (d. 702/1302)

* Ibn 'Ata' Allah (d. 709/1309)

* Safi al-Din al-Hindi (d. 715/1315)

* Ibn Juzayy (d. 741/1340)

* Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati (d. 745/1344)

* Taqi al-Din al-Subki (d. 756/1355)

* 'Adud al-Din al-'Iji (d. 757/1355)

* Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 771/1370)

* Shams al-Din al-Kirmani (d. 786/1384)

* Al-Taftazani (d. 793/1390)

* Badr al-Din al-Zarkashi (d. 794/1392)

8th AH/14th AD

* Ibn 'Arafa (d. 803/1401)

* Siraj al-Din al-Bulqini (d. 805/1405)

* Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi (d. 806/1404)

* Nur al-Din al-Haythami (d. 807/1404–5)

* Ibn Khaldun (d. 808/1406)

* Al-Sharif al-Jurjani (d. 816/1413)

* Ibn al-Jazari (d. 833/1429)

* Ibn Hajar al-'Asqalani (d. 852/1449)

* Jalal al-Din al-Mahalli (d. 864/1459)

* 'Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi (d. 875/1470)

* Ahmad Zarruq (d. 899/1493)

9th AH/15th AD

* Al-Sakhawi (d. 902/1497)

* Jalal al-Din al-Dawani (d. 907/1501 or 908/1502)

* Al-Suyuti (d. 911/1505)

* Al-Qastallani (d. 923/1517)

* Zakariyya al-Ansari (d. 926/1520)

* Al-Sha'rani (d. 973/1565)

* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami (d. 974/1567)

* Al-Khatib al-Shirbini (d. 977/1570)

10th AH/16th AD

* Ibn 'Ashir (d. 1040/1631)

* Ahmad al-Maqqari (d. 1041/1632)

* Ibrahim al-Laqqani (d. 1041/1631)

* Muhammad Mayyara (d. 1072/1662)

11th AH/17th AD

* Al-Hasan al-Yusi (d. 1102/1691)

* Muhammad al-Zurqani (d. 1122/1710)

* 'Abdallah ibn 'Alawi al-Haddad (d. 1132/1720)

* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi (d. 1176/1762)

12th AH/18th AD

* Ahmad al-Dardir (d. 1204/1786)

* Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (d. 1224/1809)

* Ibn Kiran (d. 1227/1812)

* Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1230/1815)

* Ibrahim al-Bajuri (d. 1276/1859–60)

* Muhammad 'Ilish (d. 1299/1882)

13th AH/19th AD

* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (d. 1304/1886)

* Yusuf al-Nabhani (d. 1350/1931)

* Bediüzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1379/1960)

* Muhammad al-'Arabi al-Tabbani (d. 1390/1970)

* Muhammad al-Tahir ibn 'Ashur (d. 1393/1973)

14th AH/20th AD

* Muhammad Mitwalli al-Sha'rawi (d. 1419/1998)

* Muhammad 'Alawi al-Maliki (d. 1425/2004)

* 'Abdullah al-Harari (d. 1429/2008)

* Nuh al-Qudah (d. 1432/2010)

* Muhammad Sa'id Ramadan al-Buti (d. 1434/2013)

* Wahbah al-Zuhayli (d. 1436/2015)

* Muhammad 'Ali al-Sabuni (d. 1442/2021)

Theological works

* Istihsan al-Khawd fi 'Ilm al-Kalam

* Mujarrad Maqalat al-Ash'ari

* Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari

* Al-'Aqida al-Tahawiyya

* Sharh al-'Aqa'id al-Nasafiyya

* Al-Insaf
* Al-Irshad
* Al-Iqtisad

* Tahafut al-Falasifa
* Al-Asma' wa al-Sifat

* Al-Risala al-Qushayriyya

* Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
* Al-Milal wa al-Nihal

* Asas al-Taqdis
* Daf' Shubah al-Tashbih

* Lubab al-Muhassal
* Al-Murshid al-Mu'een

* Jawharat al-Tawhid

Institutions

* Abi al-Hasan al-Ash'ari Center

* Al-Nizamiyya of Baghdad

* Al-Azhar University
* Al-Qarawiyyin University

* Al-Zaytuna Mosque
* Umayyad Mosque

* Dar al-Hadith al-Ashrafiyya

* Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)

* Islamic Education Movement

* International Islamic University Malaysia

Events

* 2016 International Islamic Conference

Related groups

Classic

* Maturidis
* Sufis
* Ahl al-Hadith

Modern

* Al-Ahbash
* Deobandis
* Barelvis

* Islam portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Al-Ghazali contributed significantly to the development of a systematic view of Sufism and its integration and acceptance in mainstream Islam. As a scholar of Islam,[56][57] he belonged to the Shafi'i school of Islamic jurisprudence and to the Asharite school of theology.[58] Al-Ghazali received many titles such as Zayn al-Dīn (زين الدين) and Ḥujjat al-Islām (حجة الإسلام).[38][35][36][37]

Mausoleum of al-Ghazali in Tus

He is viewed as the key member of the influential Asharite school of early Muslim philosophy and the most important refuter of the Mutazilites. However, he chose a slightly different position in comparison with the Asharites. His beliefs and thoughts differ in some aspects from the orthodox Asharite school.[58][5][59]

## Works

[edit]

A total of about 70 works can be attributed to al-Ghazali.[60][32][61] He is also known to have written a fatwa against the Taifa kings of al-Andalus, declaring them to be unprincipled, not fit to rule and that they should be removed from power. This fatwa was used by Yusuf ibn Tashfin to justify his conquest of al-Andalus.[62]

### Incoherence of the Philosophers

[edit]

Al-Ghazali's 11th-century book titled Tahāfut al-Falāsifa ("Incoherence of the Philosophers") marked a major turn in Islamic epistemology. The encounter with skepticism led al-Ghazali to investigate a form of theological occasionalism, or the belief that all causal events and interactions are not the product of material conjunctions but rather the immediate and present will of God.

In the next century, Ibn Rushd (or Averroes) drafted a lengthy rebuttal of al-Ghazali's Incoherence entitled The Incoherence of the Incoherence; however, the epistemological course of Islamic thought had already been set.[63] Al-Ghazali gave as an example of the illusion of independent laws of cause the fact that cotton burns when coming into contact with fire. While it might seem as though a natural law was at work, it happened each and every time only because God willed it to happen—the event was "a direct product of divine intervention as any more attention grabbing miracle". Averroes, by contrast insisted while God created the natural law, humans "could more usefully say that fire caused cotton to burn—because creation had a pattern that they could discern."[64][65][66]

The Incoherence also marked a turning point in Islamic philosophy in its vehement rejections of Aristotle and Plato. The book took aim at the Falāsifa, a loosely defined group of Islamic philosophers from the 8th through the 11th centuries (most notable among them Avicenna and al-Farabi) who drew intellectually upon the Ancient Greeks.

The influence of Al-Ghazali's book is still debated. Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science George Saliba in 2007 argued that the decline of science in the 11th century has been overstated, pointing to continuing advances, particularly in astronomy, as late as the 14th century.[67]

Professor of Mathematics Nuh Aydin wrote in 2012 that one the most important reasons of the decline of science in the Islamic world has been Al-Ghazali's attack of philosophers (scientists, physicists, mathematicians, logicians). The attack peaked in his book Incoherence, whose central idea of theological occasionalism implies that philosophers cannot give rational explanations to either metaphysical or physical questions. The idea caught on and nullified the critical thinking in the Islamic world.[68]

On the other hand, author and journalist Hassan Hassan in 2012 argued that while indeed scientific thought in Islam was stifled in the 11th century, the person mostly to blame is not al-Ghazali but Nizam al-Mulk.[69]

### The Revival of Religious Sciences (Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn)

[edit]

See also: The Revival of the Religious Sciences

Part of a series on Islam
Sufism

Ideas

* Abdal
* Al-Insān al-Kāmil
* Baqaa
* Dervish
* Dhawq
* Fakir
* Fana
* Hal
* Haqiqa
* Ihsan
* Irfan
* Ishq
* Karamat
* Kashf
* Lataif
* Manzil
* Ma'rifa
* Maqam
* Murid
* Murshid
* Nafs
* Nūr
* Qalandar
* Qayyum
* Qutb
* Silsila
* Sufi cosmology
* Sufi metaphysics
* Sufi philosophy
* Sufi poetry
* Sufi psychology
* Salik
* Tazkiah
* Wali
* Yaqeen

Practices

* Anasheed
* Dhikr
* Haḍra
* Muraqabah
* Qawwali
* Sama
* Whirling
* Ziyarat

Sufi orders

* Alians
* Ba 'Alawi
* Bektashi
* Qadiri
* Chishti
* Naqshbandi
* Shadhili
* Suhrawardi
* Rifaʽi
* Khalwati
* Rahmani
* Badawi
* Burhani
* Tijani
* Darqawi
* Idrisi
* Senusi
* Bayrami
* Jelveti
* Maizbhandari
* Malamati
* Mouridi
* Sülaymaniyya
* Salihiyya
* Azeemia
* Kubrawi
* Mevlevi
* Shattari
* Uwaisi
* Hurufi
* Ni'matullāhī
* Nuqtavi
* Qalandari
* Safavi
* Zahabiya
* Akbari
* Galibi
* Haqqani Anjuman
* Inayati
* Issawiyya
* Jerrahi
* Madari
* Mahdavi
* Noorbakshi
* Zahedi
* Zikri

List of sufis

* Notable early
* Notable modern
* Singers

Topics in Sufism

* Tawhid
* Sharia
* Tariqa
* Haqiqa
* Ma'rifa
* Art
* History
* Sufi music
* Persecution
* Ziyarat

Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

Another of al-Ghazali's major works is Iḥyāʾ ʿUlūm al-Dīn (The Revival of Religious Sciences).[70] It covers almost all fields of Islamic sciences: fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), kalam (theology) and sufism.[citation needed]

It contains four major sections: Acts of Worship (Rub' al-'ibadat), Norms of Daily Life (Rub' al-'adatat), The Ways to Perdition (Rub' al-muhlikat) and The Ways to Salvation (Rub' al-munjiyat). The Iḥyāʾ became the most frequently recited Islamic text after the Qur'an and the hadith. Its great achievement was to bring orthodox Sunni theology and Sufi mysticism together in a useful, comprehensive guide to every aspect of Muslim life and death.[71] The book was well received by Islamic scholars such as Nawawi who stated that: "Were the books of Islam all to be lost, excepting only the Ihya', it would suffice to replace them all."[72] This reception, however, was not universal as the book was burned in Almoravid Spain in 1109 and 1143 as al-Ghazali criticised the fuqaha for meddling in politics and due to al-Ghazali's syncretism[clarification needed] and support of Sufism.[73][74] Allegedly, al-Ghazali foretold outraged upon hearing of the burning of his book the rise of the Almohad dynasty and invested is founder Ibn Tumart with the duty to overthrow the Almoravid rule.[75]

### The Alchemy of Happiness

[edit]

See also: The Alchemy of Happiness

The Alchemy of Happiness is a rewritten version of The Revival of the Religious Sciences. After the existential crisis that caused him to completely re-examine his way of living and his approach to religion, al-Ghazali put together The Alchemy of Happiness.[76]

### Disciplining the Soul

[edit]

One of the key sections of Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences is Disciplining the Soul, which focuses on the internal struggles that every Muslim will face over the course of his lifetime.[77] The first chapter primarily focuses on how one can develop himself into a person with positive attributes and good personal characteristics . The second chapter has a more specific focus: sexual satisfaction and gluttony.[77] Here, Ghazali states that indeed every man has these desires and needs, and that it is natural to want these things.[77] However, the Prophet explicitly states that there must be a middle ground for man, in order to practice the tenets of Islam faithfully. The ultimate goal that Ghazali is presenting not only in these two chapters, but in the entirety of The Revival of the Religious Sciences, is that there must be moderation in every aspect of the soul of a man, an equilibrium. These two chapters were the 22nd and 23rd chapters, respectively, in Ghazali's Revival of the Religious Sciences.[77]

### The Eternity of the World

[edit]

Al-Ghazali crafted his rebuttal of the Aristotelian viewpoint on the creation of the world in The Eternity of the World. Al-Ghazali essentially formulates two main arguments for what he views as a sacrilegious thought process. Central to the Aristotelian approach is the concept that motion will always precede motion, or in other words, a force will always create another force, and therefore for a force to be created, another force must act upon that force.[32] This means that in essence time stretches infinitely both into the future and into the past, which therefore proves that God did not create the universe at one specific point in time. Al-Ghazali counters this by first stating that if the world was created with exact boundaries, then in its current form there would be no need for a time before the creation of the world by God.[32]

### The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief

[edit]

Al-Ghazali lays out in The Decisive Criterion for Distinguishing Islam from Clandestine Unbelief his approach to Muslim orthodoxy. Ghazali veers from the often hardline stance of many of his contemporaries during this time period and states that as long as one believes in the Prophet Muhammad and God himself, there are many different ways to practice Islam and that any of the many traditions practiced in good faith by believers should not be viewed as heretical by other Muslims.[46] While Ghazali does state that any Muslim practicing Islam in good faith is not guilty of apostasy, he does outline in The Criterion that there is one standard of Islam that is more correct than the others, and that those practicing the faith incorrectly should be moved to change.[46] In Ghazali's view, only the Prophet himself could deem a faithfully practicing Muslim an infidel, and his work was a reaction to the religious persecution and strife that occurred often during this time period between various Islamic sects.[46]

### Deliverance from Error

[edit]

Last page of al-Ghazali's autobiography in MS Istanbul, Shehid Ali Pasha no. 1712, dated AH 509 (AD 1115–1116).

The autobiography al-Ghazali wrote towards the end of his life, Deliverance From Error [ar] (المنقذ من الضلال al-Munqidh min al-Dalal), is considered a work of major importance.[78] In it, al-Ghazali recounts how, once a crisis of epistemological skepticism had been resolved by "a light which God Most High cast into my breast ... the key to most knowledge,"[79]: 66 he studied and mastered the arguments of kalam, Islamic philosophy, and Ismailism. Though appreciating what was valid in the first two of these, at least, he determined that all three approaches were inadequate and found ultimate value only in the mystical experience and insight he attained as a result of following Sufi practices. William James, in Varieties of Religious Experience, considered the autobiography an important document for "the purely literary student who would like to become acquainted with the inwardness of religions other than the Christian" because of the scarcity of recorded personal religious confessions and autobiographical literature from this period outside the Christian tradition.[80]: 307

### Works in Persian

[edit]

Al-Ghazali wrote most of his works in Persian and in Arabic. His most important Persian work is Kimiya-yi sa'adat (The Alchemy of Happiness). It is al-Ghazali's own Persian version of Ihya' 'ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences) in Arabic, but a shorter work. It is one of the outstanding works of 11th-century-Persian literature. The book was published several times in Tehran by the edition of Hussain Khadev-jam, a renowned Iranian scholar. It is translated to English, Arabic, Turkish, Urdu, Azerbaijani and other languages.[76]

Another authentic work of al-Ghazali is the so-called "first part" of the Nasihat al-muluk (Counsel for kings), addressed to the Saljuqid ruler of Khurasan Ahmad b. Malik-shah Sanjar (r. 490-552/1097-1157).[81] The text was written after an official reception at his court in 503/1109 and upon his request. Al-Ghazali was summoned to Sanjar because of the intrigues of his opponents and their criticism of his student's compilation in Arabic, al-Mankhul min taʿliqat al-usul (The sifted notes on the fundamentals), in addition to his refusal to continue teaching at the Nizamiya of Nishapur. After the reception, al-Ghazali had, apparently, a private audience with Sanjar, during which he quoted a verse from the Quran 14:24: "Have you not seen how Allah sets forth a parable of a beautiful phrase (being) like a beautiful tree, whose roots are firm and whose branches are in Heaven." The genuine text of the Nasihat al-muluk, which is actually an official epistle with a short explanatory note on al-Manḵul added on its frontispiece.[82]

The majority of other Persian texts, ascribed to him with the use of his fame and authority, especially in the genre of Mirrors for Princes, are either deliberate forgeries fabricated with different purposes or compilations falsely attributed to him. The most famous among them is Ay farzand (O Child!). This is undoubtedly a literary forgery fabricated in Persian one or two generations after al-Ghazali's death. The sources used for the forgery consist of two genuine letters by al-Ghazali's (number 4, in part, and number 33, totally); both appear in the Fazaʾil al-anam.[83] Another source is a letter known as ʿAyniya and written by Muhammad's younger brother Majd al-Din Ahmad al-Ghazali (d. 520/1126) to his famous disciple ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (492-526/1098-1131); the letter was published in the Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-i Ghazali (Collection of the Persian writings of Ahmad Ghazali).[84] The other is ʿAyn al-Quzat's own letter, published in the Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani (Letters by ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani).[85] Later, Ay farzand was translated into Arabic and became famous as Ayyuha al-walad, the Arabic equivalent of the Persian title. The earliest manuscripts with the Arabic translation date from the second half of the 16th and most of the others from the 17th century.[86] The earliest known secondary translation from Arabic into Ottoman Turkish was done in 983/1575.[87] In modern times, the text was translated from Arabic into many European languages and published innumerable times in Turkey as Eyyühe'l-Veled or Ey Oğul.[88]

A less famous Pand-nama (Book of counsel) also written in the genre of advice literature is a very late compilatory letter of an unknown author formally addressed to some ruler and falsely attributed to al-Ghazali, obviously because it consists of many fragments borrowed mostly from various parts of the Kimiya-yi saʿadat.[89]

## Influence

[edit]

During his life, Al-Ghazali wrote over seventy books on science, Islamic philosophy, and Sufism.[90][91][92][31][32][78][93][94][95][96][excessive citations] Al-Ghazali played a major role in integrating Sufism with Shariah. He was also the first to present a formal description of Sufism in his works. His works also strengthened the status of Sunni Islam against other schools. The Batinite (Ismailism) had emerged in Persian territories and were gaining more and more power during al-Ghazali's period, as Nizam al-Mulk was assassinated by the members of Ismailis. In his Fada'ih al-Batiniyya (The Infamies of the Esotericists) al-Ghazali declared them unbelievers whose blood may be spilled.[97][page needed] Al-Ghazali succeeded in gaining widespread acceptance for Sufism at the expense of philosophy.[98] At the same time, in his refutation of philosophers he made use of their philosophical categories and thus helped to give them wider circulation.[98]

The staple of his religious philosophy was arguing that the creator was the center point of all human life that played a direct role in all world affairs. Al-Ghazali's influence was not limited to Islam, but in fact his works were widely circulated among Christian and Hebrew scholars and philosophers. Western scholars influenced by al-Ghazali include Dante, Thomas Aquinas, and David Hume. Moses Ben Maimon, a Jewish theologian was deeply influenced by the works of al-Ghazali. One of the more notable achievements of al-Ghazali was his writing and reform of education that laid out the path of Islamic Education from the 12th to the 19th centuries. Al-Ghazali's works were heavily relied upon by Islamic mathematicians and astronomers such as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi.[99][dead link]

Al-Ghazali believed himself to be more mystical or religious than he was philosophical; however, he is more widely regarded by some scholars as a leading figure of Islamic philosophy and thought. He describes his philosophical approach as a seeker of true knowledge, a deeper understanding of the philosophical and scientific, and a better understanding of mysticism and cognition.[100] The period following Ghazali "has tentatively been called the Golden Age of Arabic philosophy" initiated by Ghazali's successful integration of logic into the Islamic seminary Madrasah curriculum.[101]

Ghazali was cited by Isaac Abravanel to argue that the Greeks borrowed their scientific and philosophical knowledge from Jewish sources.[102]

## Number of works

[edit]

Al-Ghazali mentioned the number of his works "more than 70" in one of his letters to Sultan Sanjar in the late years of his life.[citation needed] Some "five dozen" are plausibly identifiable, and several hundred attributed works, many of them duplicates because of varying titles, are doubtful or spurious.

The tradition of falsely attributing works to al-Ghazali increased in the 13th century, after the dissemination of the large corpus of works by Ibn Arabi.[60]

Bibliographies have been published by William Montgomery Watt (The Works Attributed to Al-Ghazali), Maurice Bouyges (Essai de chronologie des oeuvres d'Al-Ghazali) and others.

Abdel Rahman Badawi's Bibliography of all works attributed to Al-Ghazali[103] Pages  | Content

|

1–72  | works definitely written by al-Ghazali
73–95  | works of doubtful attribution
96–127  | works which are almost certainly not those of al-Ghazali
128–224  | are the names of the Chapters or Sections of al-Ghazali's books that are mistakenly thought by him
225–273  | books written by other authors on al-Ghazali's works
274–389  | books of other unknown scholars/writers regarding al-Ghazali's life and personality
389–457  | the name of the manuscripts of al-Ghazali's works in different libraries of the world:
Short List of Major Works of Gazali  Title  | Description  | Type

|
|

al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error  | Theology
Hujjat al-Haq | Proof of the Truth  | Theology
al-Iqtisād fī al-iʿtiqad | The Moderation in Belief | Theology
Iljām al-Awām an Ilm il-Kalām | Bridling the Common Folk Away From the Science of Theological Speculation  | Theology
al-maqsad al-asna fi sharah asma' Allahu al-husna | The best means in explaining God's Beautiful Names  | Theology
Jawahir al-Qur'an wa duraruh | Jewels of the Qur'an and Its Pearls  | Theology
Faysal al-tafriqa bayn al-Islam wa-l-zandaqa | The Criterion of Distinction between Islam and Clandestine Unbelief  | Theology
al-radd al-jamil li-ilahiyyat ‘Isa bi-sarih al-Injil | The Excellent Refutation of the Divinity of Jesus through the Text of the Gospel  | Theology
Mishkāt al-Anwār[104] | The Niche for Lights, a commentary on the Verse of Light | Theology
Tafsir al-yaqut al-ta'wil |  | Theology
Mizan al-'amal | Criterion of Action  | Tasawwuf
Ihya'e Ulum-ed'Deen | The Revival of the Religious Sciences | Tasawwuf
Bidayat al-hidayah | The Beginning of Guidance | Tasawwuf
Kimiya-yi sa'ādat  | The Alchemy of Happiness [a résumé of Ihya'ul ulum, in Persian]  | Tasawwuf
Nasihat al-muluk | Counseling Kings in Persian  | Tasawwuf
al-Munqidh min al-dalal | Rescuer from Error  | Tasawwuf
Minhaj al-'Abidin | Methodology for the Worshipers  | Tasawwuf
Fada'ih al-Batiniyya | The Infamies of the Esotericists, a refutation of esoteric Sufism in general and Isma'ili doctrines in particular  | Tasawwuf
Maqasid al falasifa | Aims of the Philosophers written in the beginning of his life, in favour of philosophy and presenting the basic theories in Philosophy, mostly influenced by Avicenna's works  | Philosophy
Tahāfut al-Falāsifah | The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Book refutes the Greek Philosophy aiming at Avicenna and al-Farabi; and of which Ibn Rushd wrote his famous refutation Tahāfut al-Tahāfut (The Incoherence of the Incoherence)  | Philosophy
Miyar al-Ilm fi fan al-Mantiq | Criterion of Knowledge in the Art of Logic  | Philosophy
Mihak al-Nazar fi al-mantiq | Touchstone of Reasoning in Logic  | Philosophy
al-Qistas al-mustaqim | The Correct Balance  | Philosophy
Fatawy al-Ghazali | Verdicts of al-Ghazali  | Jurisprudence
al-wajiz fi fiqh al-imam al-shafi’i | The Condensed in Imam Shafi’i’s Jurisprudence | Jurisprudence
Kitab tahzib al-Isul | Prunning on Legal Theory  | Jurisprudence
al-Mustasfa fi 'ilm al-isul | The Clarified in Legal Theory | Jurisprudence
Asas al-Qiyas | Foundation of Analogical reasoning  | Jurisprudence
The Jerusalem Tract [105] |  | Jurisprudence
Sources:[106][107]: 29

## Economic philosophy

[edit]

This section relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.
Find sources: "Al-Ghazali" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2023)

|

Al-Ghazali's economic philosophy was primarily influenced by his Islamic beliefs. He argued that the importance of economic activity lay both in its benefit to society, as well being necessary for salvation.[108]

He established three goals of economic activity that he believed were part of one's religious obligation: "achievement of self-sufficiency for one's survival; provision for the well-being of one's progeny; and provision for assisting those in economic need."[108] He argued that subsistence living, or living in a way that provides the basic necessities for only one's family, would not be an acceptable practice to be held by the general population because of the detrimental results that he believed that would bring upon the economy, but he acknowledged that some people may choose to live the subsistence lifestyle at their own will for the sake of their personal religious journey. Conversely, he discouraged people from purchasing or possessing excessive material items, suggesting that any additional money earned could be given to provide for the poor.[108]

Al-Ghazali believed that the imposition of income equality in society should not be a necessity. Instead, he advocated for individuals to be guided by the "spirit of Islamic brotherhood," encouraging them to willingly share their wealth. However, he acknowledged that this ideal isn't universally practiced. According to him, earned wealth can serve two potential purposes. The first is for the good of oneself, which includes maintaining one's own health and that of their family, as well as extending care to others and engaging in actions beneficial to the Islamic community. The other is what al-Ghazali would consider misuse, spending it selfishly on extravagant or unnecessary material items.[108]

In terms of trade, al-Ghazali discussed the necessity of exchanging goods across close cities as well as larger borders because it allows more goods, which may be necessary and not yet available, to be accessible to more people in various locations. He recognized the necessity of trade and its overall beneficial effect on the economy, but making money in that way might not be considered the most virtuous in his beliefs. He did not support people taking "excessive" profits from their trade sales.[108]

## Reception of work

[edit]

According to William Montgomery Watt, al-Ghazali was considered to be the mujaddid ("Reviver") of his age.[33][109] Many, perhaps most, later Muslims concurred and, according to Watt, some have even considered him to be the greatest Muslim after Muhammad.[33]

As an example, the Islamic scholar al-Safadi stated:

> Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad, the Proof of Islam, Ornament of the Faith, Abu Hamid al-Tusi (al-Ghazali) the Shafi'ite jurist, was in his later years without rival.[110]

and the jurist, al-Yafi'i stated:

> He was called The Proof of Islam and undoubtedly was worthy of the name, absolutely trustworthy (in respect of the Faith) How many an epitome (has he given) us setting forth the basic principles of religion: how much that was repetitive has he summarised, and epitomised what was lengthy. How many a simple explanation has he given us of what was hard to fathom, with brief elucidation and clear solution of knotty problems. He used moderation, being quiet but decisive in silencing an adversary, though his words were like a sharp sword-thrust in refuting a slanderer and protecting the high-road of guidance.[111]

The Shafi'i jurist al-Subki stated:

> "If there had been a prophet after Muhammad, al-Ghazali would have been the man".[112][113]

Also a widely considered Sunni scholar, al-Dhahabi, in his praise of al-Ghazali wrote: "Al-Ghazzaali, the imaam and shaykh, the prominent scholar, Hujjat al-Islam, the wonder of his time, Zayn al-Deen Abu Haamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Ahmad al-Toosi al-Shaafa'i al-Ghazzaali, the author of many books and one possessed of utter intelligence. He studied fiqh in his own town, then he moved to Nisapur in the company of a group of students. He stayed with the Imaam al-Haramayn and gained a deep knowledge of fiqh within a short period. He became well-versed in 'ilm al-kalaam and debate, until he became the best of debater."[114]

Ibn Rushd (Averroes), a rationalist, famously responded that "to say that philosophers are incoherent is itself to make an incoherent statement."[citation needed] Rushd's book, The Incoherence of the Incoherence, attempted to refute al-Ghazali's views, but the work was not well received in the Muslim community.[115]

According to historian Firas Alkhateeb, "When one reads Imam al-Ghazali's works at a very superficial level, one can easily misunderstand what he is saying as anti-scientific in general. The truth, however, is that al-Ghazali's only warning to students is to not fully accept all the beliefs and ideas of a scholar simply because of his achievements in mathematics and science. By issuing such a warning, al-Ghazali is in fact protecting the scientific enterprise for future generations by insulating it from being mixed with theoretical philosophy that could eventually dilute science itself to a field based on conjecture and reasoning alone."[116]

Al-Ghazali has been seen by Orientalist scholars as causing a decline in scientific advancement in Islam, because of his refutation of the new philosophies of his time. He purportedly saw danger in the statements made by philosophers that suggested that God was not all-knowing or even non-existent, which strongly contradicted his conservative Islamic belief.[116] This position has been challenged, however.[117][118] The following statement made by al-Ghazali has been described as evidence that he was not against scientific advancement: "Great indeed is the crime against religion committed by anyone who supposes that Islam is to be championed by the denial of mathematical sciences."[62] This sentence, the source of which is not indicated in the cited book, is taken from Deliverance from Error.[119] Ghazali does not mean that neglecting the study of mathematics would be a crime against science or against reason, but that rejecting them is a crime against religion. Its aim is not to promote the study of mathematics: it is to condemn the attitude which consists in considering them as rivals of religion. For him, religion has nothing to fear from them, because they do not deal with the same subjects. To condemn the study of mathematics for fear that it endangers religion is to mistake the place of each of them. This is clarified by the sentence which immediately follows: "For the revealed Law nowhere undertakes to deny or affirm these sciences, and the latter nowhere address themselves to religious matters.[119]" A few pages later,[120] he writes that the books of the philosophers must be banned - he defines philosophy as composed of six branches: mathematical, logical, physical, metaphysical, political, and morale.[121] Al-Ghazali notably influenced Ibn Rushd,[10] Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani,[11] al-Nawawi,[13] Ibn Tumart,[14] Fakhruddin Razi,[16] Suyuti,[17] Tan Malaka,[18] Thomas Aquinas,[122][19] David Hume,[21] Sayf al-Din al-Amidi,[22] Asad Mayhani,[23] Ali al-Qari,[24] Muhammad Ibn Yahya al-Janzi.[25]

## See also

[edit]

* Biography portal
* Islam portal

* List of Ash'aris and Maturidis
* List of Muslim theologians
* List of Sufis
* Mujaddid
* Nasîhatnâme

## References

[edit]

### Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Persian: ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد غزالی توسی, romanized: Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Tūsi al-Ghazāli (Persian: غزالی; UK: /ælˈɡɑːzɑːli/,[26] US: /ˌælɡəˈzɑːli, -zæl-/;[27][28]
2. ^ Also spelled Algazel

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Janin, Hunt (2005). The pursuit of learning in the Islamic world : 610-2003. Internet Archive. Jefferson, NC : McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-1954-8.
2. ^ a b c Griffel, Frank (2006). Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic civilization: an encyclopedia. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415966900.
3. ^ Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K. Taylor & Francis. p. 293\. ISBN 978-0415966917.
4. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 191\. ISBN 978-0691134840. "Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the "Proof of Islam") is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194)."
5. ^ a b A.C. Brown, Jonathan (2009). Hadith: Muhammad's Legacy in the Medieval and Modern World (Foundations of Islam). Oneworld Publications. p. 179\. ISBN 978-1851686636.
6. ^ Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 84. ISBN 978-0415326391.
7. ^ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 68 (1): 65–78\. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00076358. JSTOR 25182038. S2CID 163151146.
8. ^ a b "Imam Ghazali's Teachers: al-Ghazali's Website". www.ghazali.org.
9. ^ "The Influence of Ibn Sina's Philosophical Believes on Al-Ghazali's Notion of Incorporeity". Philosophical Meditations. 4 (13). 22 November 2014.
10. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 62.
11. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 81.
12. ^ Norman Calder (22 March 2010). Islamic Jurisprudence in the Classical Era. Cambridge University Press. p. 88\. ISBN 9781139485715.
13. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 76.
14. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 77.
15. ^ Marenbon, John (2007). Medieval Philosophy: an historical and philosophical introduction. Routledge. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-415-28113-3.
16. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 75.
17. ^ a b Andrew Rippin, The Blackwell Companion to the Qur'an, p 410. ISBN 1405178442
18. ^ a b "The Influence of Islamic Thought on Maimonides". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. June 30, 2005.
19. ^ a b Heinrichs, Karin; Oser, Fritz (12 June 2013). Terence Lovat, Handbook of Moral Motivation: Theories, Models, Applications. Springer. p. 257\. ISBN 978-9462092754.
20. ^ "Muslim Philosophy". Islamic Contributions to Science & Math, netmuslims.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29.
21. ^ a b James Robert Brown, Philosophy of Science: The Key Thinkers, p. 159. ISBN 1441142002
22. ^ a b Sayf Din al-Amidi Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, September 18, 2019
23. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 71.
24. ^ a b Ayn al-`Ilm wa Zayn al-Hilm, Muqadimmah, Page 1
25. ^ a b Griffel 2009, p. 74.
26. ^ "Ghazali". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
27. ^ "Al-Ghazali". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
28. ^ "Ghazālī, al-". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
29. ^ Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (March 1994). The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse University Press. p. 108\. ISBN 9780815626091.
30. ^ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
31. ^ a b Adamec, Ludwig W. (2009). Historical Dictionary of Islam. Scarecrow Press. p. 109\. ISBN 978-0810861619.
32. ^ a b c d e f Griffel, Frank (2016). "Al-Ghazali". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Winter 2016 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.
33. ^ a b c William Montgomery Watt, Al-Ghazali: The Muslim Intellectual, p. 180. Edinburgh University Press, 1963.
34. ^ Rosmizi, Mohd; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of his age: Al-Ghazali and his inner spiritual journey". UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. 3 (2): 1–12\. doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56. ISSN 2289-8204.
35. ^ a b Smith, Jane I. (19 November 2009). Islam in America. Columbia University Press. p. 36\. ISBN 978-0231519991.
36. ^ a b Dhahabi, Siyar, 4.566
37. ^ a b Oxtoby, Willard Gurdon (1996). Oxford University Press. p. 421. `{{cite book}}`: Missing or empty `|title=` (help)
38. ^ a b Janin, Hunt (2005). The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World. McFarland. p. 83\. ISBN 0786419547.
39. ^ Al Beirawi, Abu Ismael (12 April 2016). Essays on Ijtihad in the 21st Century. CreateSpace. p. 35\. ISBN 9781539995036.
40. ^ Joseph E. B. Lumbard, Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars p90. ISBN 0941532607
41. ^ George Makdisi, The Rise of Colleges, p27
42. ^ a b Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2014). "Happiness and the Attainment of Happiness: An Islamic Perspective". Journal of Law and Religion. 29 (1): 76–91 [80]. doi:10.1017/jlr.2013.18. JSTOR 24739088.
43. ^ "Al-Ghazali's Turning Point: On the Writings on his Personal Crisis". www.ghazali.org. Retrieved 2023-07-30.
44. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 191\. ISBN 978-0691134840 - via Google Books.
45. ^ Sonn, Tamara (1996-10-10). Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi's Islamic Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 30. ISBN 9780195356564. "Ghazali Revival ihya."
46. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Griffel, Frank (2009). Al-Ghazālī's Philosophical Theology. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195331622.
47. ^ Foundation, Encyclopaedia Iranica. "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica". iranicaonline.org. Retrieved 2024-03-07. "A man of Persian descent, Ḡazālī (variant name Ḡazzālī; Med. Latin form, Algazel; honorific title, Ḥojjat-al-Eslām"The Proof of Islam"), was born at Ṭūs in Khorasan in 450/1058 and grew up as an orphan together with his younger brother Aḥmad Ḡazālī (d. 520/1126; q.v.)."
48. ^ Rahman, Yucel (2016). The Mujaddid of His Age.
49. ^ Bosworth, C. E. (1968). "The Political and Dynastic History of the Iranian World". In Boyle, J. A. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 5\. Cambridge University Press. p. 48.
50. ^ Bosworth, C. E. (1970). "Dailamīs in Central Iran: The Kākūyids of Jibāl and Yazd". Iran. 8 (1): 73–95 [p. 86]. doi:10.2307/4299634. JSTOR 4299634.
51. ^ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 68 (1): 65–78\. doi:10.1017/S0035869X00076358. JSTOR 25182038. S2CID 163151146.
52. ^ Abū Ḥāmid b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad b. Muḥammad al-Ghazzālī, "al-Munqidh min al-Ḍalāl" in Majmūʿa Rasāʾil al-Imām al-Ghazzālī. Ed. by Aḥmad Shams al-Dīn (Beirut: Dār al-Kutub al-ʿIlmiyya, 1988), 29, 60
53. ^ Jacques Lacan, "Some Reflections on the Ego" in The International Journal of Psychoanalysis, 1953, No. 34, 13. (presentation, the British Psycho-Analytical Society, London, May 2nd, 1951)
54. ^ Ovidio Salazar, Al-Ghazali: The Alchemist of Happiness (2004; London: Matmedia Productions, 2006), DVD.
55. ^ Nicholson, Reynold Alleyne. (1966). "A literary history of the Arabs." London: Cambridge University Press. p. 382.
56. ^ Meri, Josef W.; Bacharach, Jere L. (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization: A-K. Taylor and Francis. p. 293\. ISBN 978-0415966917.
57. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 191\. ISBN 978-0691134840. "Ghazali (ca. 1058–1111) Abu Hamid Muhammad b. Muhammad al-Ghazali al-Tusi (the "Proof of Islam") is the most renowned Sunni theologian of the Seljuq period (1038–1194)."
58. ^ a b R.M. Frank, Al-Ghazali and the Ashʿarite School, Duke University Press, London 1994
59. ^ Leaman, Oliver (2006). The Qur'an: An Encyclopedia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 84. ISBN 978-0415326391.
60. ^ a b "about five dozen authentic works, in addition to which some 300 other titles of works of uncertain, doubtful, or spurious authorship, many of them duplicates owing to varying titles, are cited in Muslim bibliographical literature. [...] Already Ebn Ṭofayl (d. 581/1185, q.v.) observed that Ḡazālī wrote for different audiences, ordinary men and the elite (pp. 69-72), and Ḡazālī himself completed the rather moderate theological treatise, Eljām al-ʿawāmmʿan ʿelm al-kalām "The restraining of ordinary men from theology," in the last month before his death" Encyclopedia Iranica.
61. ^ Böwering, Gerhard; Crone, Patricia; Mirza, Mahan; Kadi, Wadad; Zaman, Muhammad Qasim; Stewart, Devin J. (2013). The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought. Princeton University Press. p. 191\. ISBN 978-0691134840 - via Google Books.
62. ^ a b Alkhateeb, Firas (2017-11-15). Lost Islamic History: Reclaiming Muslim Civilisation from the Past. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-1-84904-977-1 - via Google Books.
63. ^ Craig, William Lane (2001). The cosmological argument from Plato to Leibniz. Eugene, OR.: Wipf and Stock. p. 89\. ISBN 978-1579107871.
64. ^ Kadri, Sadakat (2012). Heaven on Earth: A Journey Through Shari'a Law from the Deserts of Ancient Arabia . Macmillan. pp. 118–9\. ISBN 9780099523277 - via Google Books.
65. ^ For al-Ghazali's argument see The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Translated by Michael E. Marmura. 2nd ed, Provo Utah, 2000, pp.116-7.
66. ^ For Ibn Rushd's response, see Khalid, Muhammad A., ed. (2005). Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings. Cambridge UK. p. 162.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
67. ^ "Many orientalists argue that Ghazali's Tahafut is responsible for the age of decline in science in the Muslim World. This is their key thesis as they attempt to explain the scientific and intellectual history of the Islamic world. It seems to be the most widely accepted view on the matter not only in the Western world but in the Muslim world as well. George Saliba, a Professor of Arabic and Islamic Science at Columbia University who specializes in the development of astronomy within Islamic civilization, calls this view the "classical narrative" (Saliba, 2007)".
68. ^ Aydin, Nuh. "Did al-Ghazali kill the science in Islam?". Archived from the original on 2015-04-30. Retrieved 23 February 2014.
69. ^ Hasan, Hasan (9 February 2012). "How the decline of Muslim scientific thought still haunts". The National.
70. ^ Sonn, Tamara (1996-10-10). Interpreting Islam: Bandali Jawzi's Islamic Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 30. ISBN 9780195356564. "Ghazali Revival ihya."
71. ^ Hunt Janin, The Pursuit of Learning in the Islamic World 610-2003, p 83. ISBN 0786429046
72. ^ Lumbard, Joseph E. B. (2004). Islam, Fundamentalism, and the Betrayal of Tradition: Essays by Western Muslim Scholars. World Wisdom. p. 291\. ISBN 0941532607.
73. ^ Clancy-Smith, Julia (5 November 2013). North Africa, Islam and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War. Routledge. p. 67\. ISBN 978-1-135-31213-8. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
74. ^ Bennison, Amira K. (5 July 2016). Almoravid and Almohad Empires. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 243–244\. ISBN 978-0-7486-4682-1. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
75. ^ Fromherz, Allen J. (30 July 2010). The Almohads: The Rise of an Islamic Empire. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 30–31\. ISBN 978-0-85771-207-3. Retrieved 26 February 2025.
76. ^ a b Translated into English by Mohammed Asim Bilal and available at archive.org
77. ^ a b c d Winter, T.J (2016). Al-Ghazali on Disciplining the Soul and on Breaking the Two Desires. The Islamic Text Society.
78. ^ a b Böwering, Gerhard. "ḠAZĀLĪ". Encyclopædia Iranica. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
79. ^ McCarthy, Richard Joseph (1980). Freedom and fulfillment: "al-Munqidh min al-Dalal" and other relevant works. Boston: Twayne. ISBN 978-0805781670.
80. ^ James, William (2012). Bradley, Matthew (ed.). The Varieties of Religious Experience. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199691647.
81. ^ "SANJAR, Aḥmad b. Malekšāh". 11 August 2020.
82. ^ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Ḥujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 11-12
83. ^ Makatib-i farsi-yi Ghazali ba nam-i Faza’il al-anam min rasa’il Hujjat al-Islam, ed. ʿAbbas Iqbal Ashtiyani, Tehran, 1954, pp. 13-23, 83-85
84. ^ Majmuʿa-yi athar-i farsi-yi Ahmad-e Ghazali, ed. A. Mujahid, Tehran, 1979, 2nd ed., Tehran, 1991, pp. 191-238
85. ^ Namaha-yi ʿAyn al-Quzat Hamadani, ed. ʿAli Naqi Monzawi and ʿAfif ʿUsayran, 2 vols., Tehran, 1983, II, p.103, no 73
86. ^ George Henry Scherer, Al-Ghazali’s Ayyuha’l-walad, Ph.D. diss., Chicago University, 1930; Beirut, 1933, p. 27
87. ^ Hilmi Ziya Ülken, Gazali’nin bazi eserlerinin Türkçe tercümeleri. Les traductions en Turc de certains livres d’al-Ghazali, Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 9/1, 1961, p. 61
88. ^ Günaydin, Gazâlî tercümeleri: Osmanli devri ve 1928 sonrasi için bir bibliyografya denemesi, Dîvân: Disiplinlerarası Çalışmalar Dergisi 16, 2011, pp. 70-73
89. ^ "Kimiā-Ye Saʿādat". 29 June 2021.
90. ^ Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of Al-Ghazali". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society: 65–78.
91. ^ Banuazizi, Ali; Weiner, Myron (March 1994). The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan. Syracuse University Press. p. 108\. ISBN 9780815626091.
92. ^ "Ghazali, al-". The Columbia Encyclopedia. Retrieved 17 December 2012.
93. ^ The Spirit of Creativity: Basic Mechanisms of Creative Achievements "Persian polymath Al-Ghazali published several treatises...."
94. ^ http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/ghazalie.pdf « Al-Ghazali was born in A.D. 1058 (A.H. 450) in or near the city of Tus in Khurasan to a Persian family of modest means... »
95. ^ The Ethics of Suicide: Historical Sources "A native of Khorassan, of Persian origin, the Muslim theologian, sufi mystic, and philosopher Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali is one of the great figures of Islamic religious thought...."
96. ^ Bloch, Ernst (2019). Avicenna and the Aristotelian Left. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 77\. ISBN 9780231175357. "Abu Hamid Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Ghazali (ca.1058-1111) was a Persian antirationalist philosopher and theologian."
97. ^ Adang, Camilla; Ansari, Hassan; Fierro, Maribel (2015). Accusations of Unbelief in Islam: A Diachronic Perspective on Takfīr. Brill. p. 19\. ISBN 9789004307834. Retrieved 25 December 2020 - via Google Books.
98. ^ a b Sells, Michael Anthony (1996). Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qurʼan, Miraj, Poetic and Theological Writings. New York: Paulist. ISBN 9780809136193 - via Google Books.
99. ^ "AL-Ghazali" (PDF). Quarterly Review of Comparative Education. 23: 3–4\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 March 2023.
100. ^ Louchakova-Schwartz, Olga (2011). "The Self and the World: Vedanta, Sufism, and the Presocratics in a Phenomenological View". Phenomenology/Ontopoiesis Retrieving Geo-cosmic Horizons of Antiquity. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. pp. 423–438\. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-1691-9_33. ISBN 9789400716902.
101. ^ "Ghazâlî had successfully introduced logic into the madrasa (though it was studied in other venues as well (Endress 2006)). What happened to it after this time was the result of the activities of logicians much more gifted than Ghazâlî. This period has tentatively been called the Golden Age of Arabic philosophy (Gutas 2002). It is in this period, and especially in the thirteenth century, that the major changes in the coverage and structure of Avicennan logic were introduced; these changes were mainly introduced in free-standing treatises on logic. It has been observed that the thirteenth century was the time that "doing logic in Arabic was thoroughly disconnected from textual exegesis, perhaps more so than at any time before or since" (El-Rouayheb 2010b: 48–49). Many of the major textbooks for teaching logic in later centuries come from this period. [...] For all his historical importance in the process of introducing logic into the madrasa, the logic that Ghazâlî defended was too dilute to be recognizably Farabian or Avicennan." Street, Tony (July 23, 2008). "Arabic and Islamic Philosophy of Language and Logic". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
102. ^ Fuss, Abraham M. (1994). "The Study of Science and Philosophy Justified by Jewish Tradition". The Torah U-Madda Journal. 5: 101–114\. ISSN 1050-4745. JSTOR 40914819.
103. ^ A. Badawi, Mu'allafat al-Ghazali, 2 vols. (Cairo, 1961).
104. ^ Hesova, Zora (2012). "The Notion of illumination in the perspective of Ghazali's Mishkat Al-Anwar". Journal of Islamic Thought and Civilization. 2 (2): 65–85\. doi:10.32350/jitc.22.04. S2CID 188876050.
105. ^ At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, al-Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam Khalidi, Walid (1984). Before their diaspora : a photographic history of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0887281433. Archived from the original on 2018-03-02. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
106. ^ "The Mishkat al-Anwar of al-Ghazzali Index". www.ghazali.org.
107. ^ At the insistence of his students in Jerusalem, al-Ghazali wrote a concise exposition of Islam. Khalidi, Walid (1984). Before their diaspora: a photographic history of the Palestinians, 1876–1948. Washington, D.C.: Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0887281433. Archived from the original on 2018-03-02. Retrieved 2012-12-17.
108. ^ a b c d e Ghazanfar, Shaikh Mohammad; Islahi, Abdul Azim (1997). Economic Thought of Al-Ghazali (PDF). Islamic Economics Research Series, King Abdulaziz University. Jeddah, Saudi Arabia: Scientific Publishing Centre, King Abdulaziz University. p. 13\. ISBN 978-9960-06-574-8.
109. ^ Rosmizi, Mohd; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of his age: Al-Ghazali and his inner spiritual journey". UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. 3 (2): 1–12\. doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56. ISSN 2289-8204.
110. ^ al-Wafa bi'l wafayat, p. 274 - 277. Also see Tabaqat al-Shafiyya, subki, 4, 101.
111. ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 47
112. ^ Tabaqat al-Shafi’iyyah al-Kubra, Cairo, 1324/1906, Vol. IV, p. 101
113. ^ Margaret Smith, Al-Ghazali, The Mystic, p. 48
114. ^ al-Dhahabi. Siyar A'laam al-Nubala'. Vol. 9\. Lebanon: Dar al-Hadith. p. 323.
115. ^ Menocal, Maria Rosa (29 November 2009). The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews, and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain. Little, Brown. ISBN 9780316092791 - via Google Books.
116. ^ a b "Al-Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship". 22 May 2013. Archived from the original on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 27 May 2013.
117. ^ Jamil Ragep (February 2008). "When did Islamic science die (and who cares)?" (PDF). Viewpoint. No. 85. Retrieved 2023-03-23.
118. ^ Saliba, George (2007). Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262195577 - via Google Books.
119. ^ a b Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, p. 9, §41.
120. ^ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, § 59, p. 13.
121. ^ Al-Ghazali. Deliverance from error, § 36, p. 8.
122. ^ Muslim Philosophy Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine, Islamic Contributions to Science & Math, netmuslims.com

### Sources

[edit]

* Haque, Amber (2004). "Psychology from Islamic perspective: contributions of early Muslim scholars and challenges to contemporary Muslim psychologists". Journal of Religion & Health. 43 (4): 357–377\. doi:10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z. S2CID 38740431.
* Savage-Smith, Emilie (1995). "Attitudes toward dissection in medieval Islam". Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 50 (1): 67–110\. doi:10.1093/jhmas/50.1.67. PMID 7876530.
* Abd Rahman, Mohd Rosmizi Bin; Yucel, Salih (2016). "The Mujaddid of His Age: Al-Ghazali and His Inner Spiritual Journey". UMRAN - International Journal of Islamic and Civilizational Studies. 3 (2). doi:10.11113/umran2016.3n2.56.
* Saritoprak, Zeki (2018). "Al-Ghazali". Islamic Spirituality: Theology and Practice for the Modern World. doi:10.5040/9781474297820.0013. ISBN 978-1-4725-7204-2.
* Parrott, Justin (2017). "Al-Ghazali and the Golden Rule: Ethics of Reciprocity in the Works of a Muslim Sage". Journal of Religious & Theological Information. 16 (2): 68–78\. doi:10.1080/10477845.2017.1281067. S2CID 171854695.
* Smith, Margaret (1936). "The Forerunner of al-Ghazālī". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (1): 65–78\. JSTOR 25182038.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Macdonald, Duncan B. (1899). "The life of al-Ghazzali", in Journal of the American Oriental Society. 20, p. 122 sqq.
* Laoust, H: La politique de Gazali, Paris 1970
* Campanini, M.: Al-Ghazzali, in Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman, History of Islamic Philosophy 1996
* Campanini, Massimo, Ghazali, in Muhammad in History, Thought, and Culture: An Encyclopedia of the Prophet of God (2 vols.), Edited by C. Fitzpatrick and A. Walker, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO, 2014. ISBN 1610691776
* Watt, W. M.: Muslim Intellectual: A Study of al-Ghazali, Edinburgh 1963
* Zwemer, S. M. A Moslem Seeker after God, New York 1920
* Nakamura, K. "Al-Ghazali", Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* Dougan, A. The Glimpse: The Inner teaching of Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazzali's Mishkat al-Anwar (The Niche for Lights) by Abdullah Dougan ISBN 0-9597566-6-3
* A comparison between the philosophy of Ghazali and the Copenhagen Interpretation: Harding, Karen (1993). "Causality Then and Now: al-Ghazali and Quantum Theory" (PDF). American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 1 (2): 165–177\. doi:10.35632/ajis.v10i2.2505. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-07-04.
* Watt, W. Montgomery (1953). The Faith and Practice of Al-Ghazali. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd.

## External links

[edit]

English Wikisource has original works by or about:

Abu Hamid al-Ghazālī

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Al-Ghazali.

* Translation of the Ihya ulum al-din (The Revival of Religious Sciences), Vol 1, Vol. 2, Vol. 3, Vol.4
* Griffel, Frank. "Al-Ghazali". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Full French text of the Deliverance from error, Préservatif contre l'erreur[usurped]
* Al-Ghazali website
* Ghazali Series page at the Islamic Texts Society
* Ghazali Book Series from Fons Vitae non-profit publishers
* Works by Al-Ghazali at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
* A detailed biography on Imam Ghazzali (450-505H) الغزَّالِي Archived 2020-09-02 at the Wayback Machine
* Works by or about Al-Ghazali at the Internet Archive
* Ghazali and Islamic reform
* Ghazali and the Revival of Islamic Scholarship
* Full text of Incoherence of the Philosophers, from Al-Ghazali website
* Short commentary on The Alchemy of Happiness
* The Alchemy of Happiness, by Mohammed Al-Ghazzali, the Mohammedan Philosopher, trans. Henry A. Homes (Albany, N.Y.: Munsell, 1873). See original text in The Online Library of Liberty Archived 2013-05-18 at the Wayback Machine.
* "Al-Ghazali Contra Aristotle: An Unforeseen Overture to Science In Eleventh-Century Baghdad". Richard P. Aulie. PSCF 45. March 1994. pp. 26–46.
* Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali, in Intellectual Encounters
* (in French) Profession de Foi de l'Imam Al Ghazali

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Early Islamic scholars

| | | | | | | | | Muhammad, The final Messenger of God(570–632 the Constitution of Medina, taught the Quran, and advised his companions| | | | | | | | |

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Abdullah ibn Masud (died 653) taught| | Ali (607–661) fourth caliph taught| Aisha, Muhammad's wife and Abu Bakr's daughter taught| Abd Allah ibn Abbas (618–687) taught| Zayd ibn Thabit (610–660) taught| Umar (579–644) second caliph taught| Abu Hurairah (603–681) taught
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Alqama ibn Qays (died 681) taught| | Husayn ibn Ali (626–680) taught| Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr (657–725) taught and raised by Aisha| Urwah ibn Zubayr (died 713) taught by Aisha, he then taught| Said ibn al-Musayyib (637–715) taught| Abdullah ibn Umar (614–693) taught| Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr (624–692) taught by Aisha, he then taught|
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Ibrahim al-Nakha’i taught| | | Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (659–712) taught| | | | | Hisham ibn Urwah (667–772) taught| Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (died 741) taught| Salim ibn Abd-Allah ibn Umar taught| Umar ibn Abdul Aziz (682–720) raised and taught by Abdullah ibn Umar
| | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | |
Hammad ibn Abi Sulayman taught| | | Muhammad al-Baqir (676–733) taught| | Farwah bint al-Qasim Jafar's mother| |

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

Abu Hanifa (699–767) wrote Al Fiqh Al Akbar and Kitab Al-Athar, jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni Sufi, Barelvi, Deobandi, Zaidiyyah and originally by the Fatimid and taught| Zayd ibn Ali (695–740)| Ja'far bin Muhammad Al-Baqir (702–765) Muhammad and Ali's great great grand son, jurisprudence followed by Shia, he taught| | Malik ibn Anas (711–795) wrote Muwatta, jurisprudence from early Medina period now mostly followed by Sunni in Africa, Sunni Sufi and taught| | Al-Waqidi (748–822) wrote history books like Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi, student of Malik ibn Anas| | Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Abdul Hakam (died 829) wrote biographies and history books, student of Malik ibn Anas

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | |
Abu Yusuf (729–798) wrote Usul al-fiqh| Muhammad al-Shaybani (749–805)| | | al-Shafi‘i (767–820) wrote Al-Risala, jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni sufi and taught| | Ismail ibn Ibrahim| | Ali ibn al-Madini (778–849) wrote The Book of Knowledge of the Companions| | Ibn Hisham (died 833) wrote early history and As-Sirah an-Nabawiyyah, Muhammad's biography
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | |
Isma'il ibn Ja'far (719–775)| Musa al-Kadhim (745–799)| | Ahmad ibn Hanbal (780–855) wrote Musnad Ahmad ibn Hanbal jurisprudence followed by Sunni, Sunni sufi and hadith books| Muhammad al-Bukhari (810–870) wrote Sahih al-Bukhari hadith books| Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (815–875) wrote Sahih Muslim hadith books| Dawud al-Zahiri (815–883/4) founded the Zahiri school| Muhammad ibn Isa at-Tirmidhi (824–892) wrote Jami` at-Tirmidhi hadith books| Al-Baladhuri (died 892) wrote early history Futuh al-Buldan, Genealogies of the Nobles
| | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | Ibn Majah (824–887) wrote Sunan ibn Majah hadith book| | Abu Dawood (817–889) wrote Sunan Abu Dawood Hadith Book
| | | | |
Muhammad ibn Ya'qub al-Kulayni (864- 941) wrote Kitab al-Kafi hadith book followed by Twelver Shia| | | | | | | | | | | Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838–923) wrote History of the Prophets and Kings, Tafsir al-Tabari| | Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari (874–936) wrote Maqālāt al-islāmīyīn, Kitāb al-luma, Kitāb al-ibāna 'an usūl al-diyāna
| | | | |
Ibn Babawayh (923–991) wrote Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih jurisprudence followed by Twelver Shia| | Sharif Razi (930–977) wrote Nahj al-Balagha followed by Twelver Shia| | Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201–1274) wrote jurisprudence books followed by Ismaili and Twelver Shia| | | Al-Ghazali (1058–1111) wrote The Niche for Lights, The Incoherence of the Philosophers, The Alchemy of Happiness on Sufism| | Rumi (1207–1273) wrote Masnavi, Diwan-e Shams-e Tabrizi on Sufism|
| | | | |
Key: Some of Muhammad's Companions| Key: Taught in Medina| Key: Taught in Iraq| Key: Worked in Syria| Key: Travelled extensively collecting the sayings of Muhammad and compiled books of hadith| Key: Worked in Persia

* v
* t
* e

Ash'ari school of Sunni theology

* Islam portal
* Category

Ash'ari scholars
(Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari)|

| Malikis|

* Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani (d. 386 AH)
* Al-Baqillani (d. 403 AH)
* Abu Imran al-Fasi (d. 430 AH)
* Ibn Sidah (d. 458 AH)
* Abu al-Walid al-Baji (d. 474 AH)
* Abu Bakr al-Turtushi (d. 520 AH)
* Al-Maziri (d. 536 AH)
* Ibn Barrajan (d. 536 AH)
* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi (d. 543 AH)
* Al-Qadi 'Ayyad (d. 544 AH)
* Al-Suhayli (d. 581 AH)
* Ibn al-Qattan (d. 628 AH)
* Ibn Malik (d. 672 AH)
* Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi (d. 684 AH)
* Ibn Daqiq al-'Id (d. 702 AH)
* Ibn 'Ata' Allah al-Iskandari (d. 709 AH)
* Ibn Adjurrum (d. 723 AH)
* Ibn al-Hajj al-'Abdari (d. 737 AH)
* Ibn Juzayy (d. 741 AH)
* Khalil ibn Ishaq al-Jundi (d. 776 AH)
* Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi (d. 790 AH)
* Ibn 'Arafa (d. 803 AH)
* Ibn Khaldun (d. 808 AH)
* Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi (d. 876 AH)
* Ahmad Zarruq (d. 899 AH)
* Ahmad al-Wansharisi (d. 914 AH)
* Al-Akhdari (d. 953 AH)
* Al-Hattab (d. 954 AH)
* Ahmad Baba al-Timbukti (d. 1036 AH)
* Al-Maqqari al-Tilimsani (d. 1041 AH)
* Ibrahim al-Laqani (d. 1041 AH)
* Muhammad Mayyara (d. 1072 AH)
* Ibn 'Ashir (d. 1090 AH)
* Al-Hasan al-Yusi (d. 1102 AH)
* Muhammad al-Zurqani (d. 1122 AH)
* Ahmad al-Dardir (d. 1201 AH)
* M'Hamed al-Azhari (d. 1208 AH)
* Ahmad ibn 'Ajiba (d. 1224 AH)
* Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1230 AH)
* Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki (d. 1230 AH)
* Muhammad ibn 'Ali al-Sanusi (d. 1276 AH)
* Muhammad 'Ilish (d. 1299 AH)
* Ahmad al-Ghumari (d. 1380 AH)
* Muhammad al-Tahir ibn 'Ashur (d. 1393 AH)
* Abdel-Halim Mahmoud (d. 1397 AH)
* Muhammad Metwalli al-Sha'rawi (d. 1419 AH)
* Muhammad 'Alawi al-Maliki (d. 1425 AH)
* Ahmed el-Tayeb
* Hamza Yusuf

|

Shafi'is|

* Ibn Hibban (d. 354 AH)
* Ibn Khafif (d. 371 AH)
* Al-Hakim al-Nishapuri (d. 405 AH)
* Ibn Furak (d. 406 AH)
* Abu Ishaq al-Isfarayini (d. 418 AH)
* Al-Tha'labi (d. 427 AH)
* Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (d. 429 AH)
* Abu Nu'aym al-Isfahani (d. 430 AH)
* Al-Bayhaqi (d. 458 AH)
* Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (d. 463 AH)
* Al-Qushayri (d. 465 AH)
* Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (d. 476 AH)
* Abd al-Qahir al-Jurjani (d. 471 AH)
* Al-Juwayni (d. 478 AH)
* Al-Raghib al-Isfahani (d. 502 AH)
* Al-Ghazali (d. 505 AH)
* Al-Baghawi (d. 516 AH)
* Al-Shahrastani (d. 548 AH)
* Ibn 'Asakir (d. 571 AH)
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i (d. 578 AH)
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606 AH)
* Ibn al-Salah (d. 643 AH)
* Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam (d. 660 AH)
* Al-Nawawi (d. 676 AH)
* Al-Baydawi (d. 685 AH)
* Ibn Daqiq al-'Id (d. 702 AH)
* Nizam al-Din al-Nisapuri (d. 728 AH)
* Jamal al-Din al-Mizzi (d. 742 AH)
* Taqi al-Din al-Subki (d. 756 AH)
* Al-Safadi (d. 764 AH)
* Taj al-Din al-Subki (d. 771 AH)
* Shams al-Din al-Kirmani (d. 786 AH)
* Al-Zarkashi (d. 794 AH)
* Zain al-Din al-'Iraqi (d. 806 AH)
* Nur al-Din al-Haythami (d. 807 AH)
* Ibn al-Jazari (d. 833 AH)
* Al-Maqrizi (d. 845 AH)
* Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (d. 852 AH)
* Al-Sakhawi (d. 902 AH)
* Al-Suyuti (d. 911 AH)
* Nur al-Din al-Samhudi (d. 911 AH)
* Jalal al-Din al-Dawani (d. 918 AH)
* Al-Qastallani (d. 923 AH)
* Zakariyya al-Ansari (d. 926 AH)
* Al-Sha'rani (d. 973 AH)
* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami (d. 974 AH)
* Al-Khatib al-Shirbini (d. 977 AH)
* Al-Munawi (d. 1031 AH)
* 'Abdallah ibn 'Alawi al-Haddad (d. 1132 AH)
* Hasan al-Attar (d. 1230 AH)
* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (d. 1304 AH)
* Ahmad Khatib al-Minankabawi (d. 1334 AH)
* Hasyim Asy'ari (d. 1366 AH)
* Bediuzzaman Said Nursi (d. 1379 AH)
* Sulaiman ar-Rasuli (d. 1390 AH)
* Yasin al-Fadani (d. 1410 AH)
* Noah al-Qudah (d. 1432 AH)
* 'Abdallah al-Harari (d. 1432 AH)
* Al-Bouti (d. 1434 AH)
* Ali Gomaa
* Ali al-Jifri
* Gibril Haddad

Hanbalis|

* Ibn 'Aqil (d. 508 AH)
* Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 534 AH)

Zahiris|

* Ibn Tumart (d. 524 AH)
* Ibn Mada' (d. 592 AH)
* Abu Hayyan al-Andalusi (d. 745 AH)

Ash'ari leaders|

* Nizam al-Mulk (d. 485 AH)
* Yusuf ibn Tashfin (d. 500 AH)
* 'Abd al-Mu'min ibn 'Ali (d. 558 AH)
* Saladin (d. 589 AH)
* Abu Bakr ibn Ayyub (d. 615 AH)
* Al-Kamil (d. 635 AH)
* Al-Ashraf Musa (d. 635 AH)
* Qutuz (d. 658 AH)
* Al-Nasir ibn Qalawun (d. 741 AH)
* Emir Abdelkader al-Jazairi (d. 1300 AH)
* Omar al-Mukhtar (d. 1350 AH)
* 'Izz al-Din al-Qassam (d. 1354 AH)
* Ibn Abdelkarim al-Khattabi (d. 1382 AH)
* Al-Muwahhidun
* Ayyubid dynasty
* Mamluk

Theology books|

* Tabyin Kadhib al-Muftari
* Asas al-Taqdis
* Al-Baz al-Ashhab
* Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
* Al-Milal wa al-Nihal
* Al-Irshad
* Al-Iqtisad fi al-I'tiqad
* Al-Sayf al-Saqil fi al-Radd ala Ibn Zafil

See also|

* 2016 international conference on Sunni Islam in Grozny
* Ahl al-Hadith
* Ahl al-Ra'y
* Kalam
* Tawhid
* Sufism
* Al-Ahbash

Ash'ari-related templates

* Maturidi – Hanafi
* Maliki
* Shafi'i
* Islamic theology

* v
* t
* e

Islamic philosophy

| Fields|

* Alchemy
* Aqidah (theology)
* 'Aql (intellect)
* Cosmology
* astrology
* medieval astronomy
* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Kalam (dialectic)
* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Logic
* Metaphysics
* Natural philosophy (physics)
* Peace
* Madrasah (education)
* Medieval science
* Medieval psychology
* Sufism (mysticism)

|

Schools|

* Early
* Farabism
* Avicennism
* Averroism
* Illuminationism
* Sufi
* cosmology
* metaphysics
* psychology
* Transcendent theosophy
* Traditionalist
* Contemporary

Concepts|

* ʻAṣabīya
* Ḥāl
* Iʻjaz
* ʼIjtihād
* ʻIlm
* ʻIrfān
* Ijmāʿ
* Maslaha
* Nafs
* Qadar
* Qalb
* Qiyās
* Shūrā
* Tawḥīd
* Ummah

Philosophers by century (CE)

| 9th–10th|

* Al-Kindi
* Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari
* Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri
* Abu Bakr al-Razi
* Apharabius
* Abu Hatim al-Razi
* Al Amiri
* Ikhwan al-Safa
* Abu Sulayman Sijistani
* Ibn Masarrah
* Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani

|

11th|

* Al-Ghazali
* Ibn Miskawayh
* Avicenna
* Ibn Hazm
* Bahmanyār
* Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
* Nasir Khusraw
* Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani

12th|

* Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Ahi Evren
* Ahmad Yasavi
* Ayn-al-Quzat
* Averroes
* Ibn Tufail
* Omar Khayyám
* Suhrawardi
* Shams Tabrizi

13th|

* Hajji Bektash Wali
* Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi
* Ibn Sab’in
* Ibn Arabi
* al-Abharī
* Nasir al-Din Tusi
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
* Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi
* Ibn Taymiyya

14th–16th|

* Ibn Khaldun
* Yunus Emre
* Hajji Bayram
* Jalaladdin Davani
* Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki
* Aziz Mahmud Hudayi
* Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi
* Mahmud Shabistari
* Sayyid Haydar Amuli
* Dawūd al-Qayṣarī
* Jami

17th–19th|

* Mir Damad
* Mir Fendereski
* Mulla Sadra
* Mohsen Fayz Kashani
* Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji
* Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani
* Rajab Ali Tabrizi
* Qazi Sa’id Qumi
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
* Hādī Sabzavārī

20th–present|

* Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Gohar Shahi
* Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr
* René Guénon
* Frithjof Schuon
* Martin Lings
* Fazlur Rahman
* Ismail al-Faruqi
* Seyyed Hossein Nasr
* Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas
* Abdolkarim Soroush
* Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani
* Taha Abdurrahman
* Mohammed Abed al-Jabri
* Mohammed Arkoun
* Fouad Zakariyya
* Reza Davari Ardakani
* Ahmad Fardid
* Mostafa Malekian
* Hasanzadeh Amoli
* Javadi Amoli
* Partawi Shah

* v
* t
* e

Medieval philosophers

Christian|

| Early|

* "Church Fathers"
* Augustine of Hippo
* Boethius
* Cassiodorus
* Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite
* Isidore of Seville
* John Scotus Eriugena
* Alcuin

|

11–12th
century|

* "Scholasticism"
* Anselm of Canterbury
* Peter Abelard
* Anselm of Laon
* Hugh of Saint Victor
* Richard of Saint Victor
* Roscelin
* Peter Lombard
* Alexander of Hales
* Bernard of Chartres
* Dominicus Gundissalinus
* Gilbert de la Porrée
* Alain de Lille

13–14th
century|

* Robert Grosseteste
* Michael Scot
* Albertus Magnus
* Henry of Ghent
* Roger Bacon
* Bonaventure
* Thomas Aquinas
* Vitello
* John Peckham
* Ramon Llull
* Siger of Brabant
* Boetius of Dacia
* Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt
* Meister Eckhart
* Giles of Rome
* Godfrey of Fontaines
* Duns Scotus
* Durandus
* Petrus Aureolus
* William of Ockham

Late|

* Jean Buridan
* Marsilius of Inghen
* Nicole Oresme
* Albert of Saxony
* Francesc Eiximenis
* Nicholas of Cusa
* Vincent Ferrer
* Paul of Venice
* Lambertus de Monte
* John Hennon

Jewish|

| Medieval|

* Isaac Israeli ben Solomon
* Saadia Gaon
* Solomon ibn Gabirol
* Judah Halevi
* Abraham ibn Daud
* Maimonides
* Nachmanides
* Gersonides
* Hasdai Crescas
* Joseph Albo

|

Islamic|

| Early|

* Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber)
* al-Nazzam
* Al-Kindi (Alkindus)
* Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes)
* Ikhwan al-Safa' (Brethren of Purity)
* Matta ibn Yunus
* Al-Farabi (Alpharabius)
* Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani
* Ibn Masarra
* Abd al-Jabbar
* Al-Amiri
* Abu Sulayman al-Sijistani
* Miskawayh
* Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen)
* al-Biruni
* al-Kirmani

|

High|

* Ibn Sina (Avicenna)
* Ibn Hazm
* Al-Ghazali (Algazel)
* Abu l-Barakat al-Baghdadi
* Ibn Bajjah (Avempace)
* Ayn al-Quzat Hamadani
* Ibn Tufayl
* Ibn Rushd (Averroes)

Late|

* Ibn Sab'in
* Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Rashid al-Din
* Ibn Arabi
* al-Qazwini
* Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
* Athir al-Din al-Abhari
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Ibn al-Nafis
* Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
* Ibn Taymiyya
* Ibn Khaldun

See also Renaissance philosophy

* v
* t
* e

Political philosophy

Terms|

* Authority
* Citizenship‎
* Duty
* Elite
* Emancipation
* Freedom
* Government
* Hegemony
* Hierarchy
* Justice
* Law
* Legitimacy
* Liberty
* Monopoly
* Nation
* Obedience
* Peace
* People
* Pluralism
* Power
* Progress
* Propaganda
* Property
* Regime
* Revolution
* Rights
* Ruling class
* Society
* Sovereignty‎
* State
* Utopia
* War

Government|

* Aristocracy
* Oligarchy
* Autocracy
* Bureaucracy
* Dictatorship
* Democracy
* Ochlocracy
* Gerontocracy
* Meritocracy
* Monarchy
* Tyranny
* Plutocracy
* Technocracy
* Theocracy

Ideologies|

* Agrarianism
* Anarchism
* Capitalism
* Christian democracy
* Colonialism
* Communism
* Communitarianism
* Confucianism
* Conservatism
* Corporatism
* Distributism
* Environmentalism
* Fascism
* Feminism
* Feudalism
* Imperialism
* Islamism
* Liberalism
* Libertarianism
* Localism
* Marxism
* Monarchism
* Multiculturalism
* Nationalism
* Nazism
* Populism
* Republicanism
* Social Darwinism
* Social democracy
* Socialism
* Third Way

Concepts|

* Balance of power
* Bellum omnium contra omnes
* Body politic
* Clash of civilizations
* Common good
* Consent of the governed
* Divine right of kings
* Family as a model for the state
* Monopoly on violence
* Natural law
* Negative and positive rights
* Night-watchman state
* Noble lie
* Noblesse oblige
* Open society
* Ordered liberty
* Original position
* Overton window
* Separation of powers
* Social contract
* State of nature
* Statolatry
* Supermajority
* Tyranny of the majority

Philosophers|

| Antiquity|

* Aristotle
* Chanakya
* Cicero
* Confucius
* Han Fei
* Lactantius
* Mencius
* Mozi
* Plato
* political philosophy
* Polybius
* Shang
* Sun Tzu
* Thucydides
* Xenophon

|

Middle Ages|

* Al-Farabi
* Aquinas
* Averroes
* Bruni
* Dante
* Gelasius
* al-Ghazali
* Ibn Khaldun
* Marsilius
* Muhammad
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Ockham
* Plethon
* Wang

Early modern
period|

* Boétie
* Bodin
* Bossuet
* Calvin
* Campanella
* Filmer
* Grotius
* Guicciardini
* Hobbes
* political philosophy
* James
* Leibniz
* Locke
* Luther
* Machiavelli
* Milton
* More
* Müntzer
* Pufendorf
* Spinoza
* Suárez

18th and 19th
centuries|

* Bakunin
* Bastiat
* Beccaria
* Bentham
* Bolingbroke
* Bonald
* Burke
* Carlyle
* Comte
* Condorcet
* Constant
* Cortés
* Engels
* Fichte
* Fourier
* Franklin
* Godwin
* Haller
* Hegel
* Herder
* Hume
* Iqbal
* Jefferson
* Kant
* political philosophy
* Le Bon
* Le Play
* Madison
* Maistre
* Marx
* Mazzini
* Mill
* Montesquieu
* Nietzsche
* Owen
* Paine
* Renan
* Rousseau
* Sade
* Saint-Simon
* Smith
* Spencer
* de Staël
* Stirner
* Taine
* Thoreau
* Tocqueville
* Tucker
* Voltaire

20th and 21st
centuries|

* Agamben
* Ambedkar
* Arendt
* Aron
* Badiou
* Bauman
* Benoist
* Berlin
* Bernstein
* Burnham
* Chomsky
* Dmowski
* Du Bois
* Dugin
* Dworkin
* Evola
* Foucault
* Fromm
* Fukuyama
* Gandhi
* Gentile
* Gramsci
* Guénon
* Habermas
* Hayek
* Hoppe
* Huntington
* Kautsky
* Khomeini
* Kirk
* Kropotkin
* Laclau
* Lenin
* Luxemburg
* Mansfield
* Mao
* Marcuse
* Maurras
* Michels
* Mises
* Mosca
* Mouffe
* Negri
* Nozick
* Nussbaum
* Oakeshott
* Ortega
* Pareto
* Popper
* Qutb
* Rand
* Rawls
* Röpke
* Rothbard
* Russell
* Sartre
* Schmitt
* Scruton
* Shariati
* Sorel
* Spann
* Spengler
* Strauss
* Sun
* Taylor
* Voegelin
* Walzer
* Weber

Works|

* Republic (c. 375 BC)
* Politics (c. 350 BC)
* On the Republic (51 BC)
* Treatise on Law (c. 1274)
* Monarchy (1313)
* The Prince (1532)
* Leviathan (1651)
* Two Treatises of Government (1689)
* The Spirit of Law (1748)
* The Social Contract (1762)
* Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
* Rights of Man (1791)
* Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1820)
* Democracy in America (1835–1840)
* The Communist Manifesto (1848)
* On Liberty (1859)
* The Revolt of the Masses (1929)
* The Road to Serfdom (1944)
* The Open Society and Its Enemies (1945)
* The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951)
* A Theory of Justice (1971)
* The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

Related|

* Authoritarianism
* Collectivism and individualism
* Conflict theories
* Contractualism
* Critique of political economy
* Egalitarianism
* Elite theory
* Elitism
* History of political thought
* Institutional discrimination
* Jurisprudence
* Justification for the state
* Political ethics
* Political spectrum
* Left-wing politics
* Centrism
* Right-wing politics
* Political theology
* Political violence
* Separation of church and state
* Separatism
* Social justice
* Statism
* Totalitarianism

* Category:Political philosophy

* v
* t
* e

Islamic theology

* Fields
* Theologians
* Books

| Fields|

| Aqidah|

* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Kalam

|

Philosophy|

* ‘Aql
* Education
* Logic
* Peace

Science|

* Astronomy
* Cosmology
* Physics

Sufism|

* Cosmology
* Metaphysics
* Philosophy

Theologians|

| Ash'arism
(al-Ash'ari)|

* Al-Bayhaqi
* Al-Baqillani
* Al-Juwayni
* Al-Qushayri
* Al-Shahrastani
* Al-Ghazali
* Al-Taftazani
* Al-Maziri
* Ibn Furak
* Ibn Abi Zayd al-Qayrawani
* Zakariyya al-Ansari
* Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi
* Abu Ishaq al-Isfara'ini
* Ibn Aqil
* Ibn Tumart
* Abdul Qadir Gilani
* Abu al-Walid al-Baji
* Abu Bakr ibn al-Arabi
* Ibn al-Jawzi
* Qadi Ayyad
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi
* Izz al-Din ibn 'Abd al-Salam
* Taqi al-Din al-Subki
* Shihab al-Din al-Qarafi
* Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati
* Al-Baydawi
* Ibn Khaldun
* Ibn Arafa
* Abd al-Rahman al-Tha'alibi
* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami
* Al-Sha'rani
* Jalal al-Din al-Dawani
* Al-Maqqari al-Tilmisani
* Abd al-Rahman al-Fasi
* Ibn Ashir
* Al-Bahūtī
* Muhammad Mayyara
* Abu Ali al-Hassan al-Yusi
* 'Illish
* Ibrahim al-Bajuri
* Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad
* Ahmad al-Dardir
* Muhammad Arafa al-Desouki
* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan
* Said Nursî

|

Early Sunni|

* Abū Ḥanīfah al-Nu'mān ibn Thābit (Hanafiyah)
* Malik ibn Anas (Maliki)
* Al-Shafi'i (Shafi‘i)

Maturidism
(Al-Maturidi)|

* Al-Hakim al-Samarqandi
* Al-Sarakhsi
* Al-Bazdawi
* Abu al-Yusr al-Bazdawi
* Abu al-Mu'in al-Nasafi
* Abu Ishaq al-Saffar al-Bukhari
* Abu al-Layth al-Samarqandi
* 'Ala' al-Din al-Bukhari
* Al-Sharif al-Jurjani
* Akmal al-Din al-Babarti
* Jamal al-Din al-Ghaznawi
* Nur al-Din al-Sabuni
* Najm al-Din 'Umar al-Nasafi
* Siraj al-Din al-Ushi
* Shams al-Din al-Samarqandi
* Khidr Bey
* Ibn Kemal
* Ali Qushji
* Ali al-Qari
* Al-Maydani
* Ahmad Sirhindi
* Anwar Shah Kashmiri
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
* Shah Abdul Aziz
* Khalil Ahmad Saharanpuri
* Zakariyya Kandhlawi
* Rahmatullah Kairanawi
* Murtada al-Zabidi
* Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi
* Muhammad Abu Zahra
* Kanthapuram A. P. Aboobacker Musliyar
* Rumi

Mu'attila|

* Al-Ja'd ibn Dirham
* Mu'jbira
* Abū Muḥrīz Jahm ibn Ṣafwān ar-Rāsibī as-Samarqāndī at-Tirmidhī
* Jahmīyya
* Abū Abdirrahmān Bishr ibn Ghiyāth ibn Abī Karīma al-Marīsī al-Baghdādī

Mu'jassimā|

* Abu’l-Hassan Muqātil ibn Sulaymān ibn Bashīr al-Azdī al-|Balkhī (Muqātilīyya)
* Abū Muḥāmmad (Abū’l-Hākem) Heshām ibn Sālem al-Jawālikī al-Juzjanī al-Kūfī
* Jawālikīyya
* Rum Abdals
* Ibn Karram (Karramiyya)

Murji'ah|

* Abū Marwān Gaylān ibn Mūslīm ad-Dimashqī an-Nabati al-Qībtī (Murjī-Qadariyah)

Mu'tazila
(Wasil ibn 'Ata')|

* Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm ibn Sayyār ibn Hāni’ an-Nazzām (Nazzāmīyya)
* Abū Bakr Abdurrahmān ibn Kaysān al-Asāmm
* Abū Mūsā Isā ibn Subeyh (Sabīh) al-Murdār al-Bāsrī (Murdārīyya)
* Hīshām ibn Amr al-Fuwātī ash-Shaybānī (Hīshāmīyya)
* Abū Sahl Abbād ibn Sulaimān (Salmān) as-Sāymarī
* Abū Alī Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb ibn Sallām al-Jubbā'ī (Jubbāīyya)
* Abū’l-Hūsayn Abdūrrāhīm ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Uthmān al-Hayyāt (Hayyātīyya)
* Ja'far ibn Harb
* Ja'far ibn Mūbassīr
* Abū Uthmān Amr ibn Bhār ibn Māhbūb al-Jāhiz al-Kinānī (Jāhizīyya)
* Al-Qadi 'Abd al-Jabbar
* Abu al-Husayn al-Basri
* Al-Zamakhshari
* Amr ibn Ubayd
* Ibn Abi'l-Hadid
* Sahib ibn Abbad
* Abū Amr Ḍirār ibn Amr al-Gatafānī al-Kūfī (Ḍirārīyya)

Najjārīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh al-Husayn ibn Muḥāmmad ibn ʿAbdillāh an-Najjār ar-Rāzī
* Abū Amr (Abū Yahyā) Hāfs al-Fard
* Muḥāmmad ibn ʿĪsā (Burgūsīyya)
* Abū ʿAbdallāh Ibnū’z-Zā‘farānī (Zā‘farānīyya)
* Mustadrakīyya

Salafi Theologians|

* Ibn Taymiyyah
* Ibnul Qayyim
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Wahhabism
* Al-Shawkani
* Rashid Rida
* Ibn Baz
* Al-Uthaymin
* Muqbil bin Hadi al-Wadi'i
* Al-Albani
* Saleh Al-Fawzan
* Rabee al-Madkhali
* Madkhalism
* Syed Nazeer Husain
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Zubair Ali Zai
* Safar Al-Hawali
* Sahwa movement
* Salman al-Ouda
* Osama bin Laden
* Salafi Jihadism
* Ahmad ibn Umar al-Hazimi
* Hazimism
* Yasir Qadhi
* Post-Salafism

Twelver Shi'ism|

* Twelve Imams
* Ali
* Hasan ibn Ali
* Husayn ibn Ali
* Ali al-Sajjad
* Muhammad al-Baqir
* Ja'far al-Sadiq
* Musa al-Kazim
* Ali al-Rida
* Muhammad al-Jawad
* Ali al-Hadi
* Hasan al-Askari
* Muhammad al-Mahdi
* Al-Shaykh Al-Mufid
* Sharif al-Murtaza
* Shaykh Tusi
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Allamah Al-Hilli
* Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi
* Zurarah ibn A'yan
* Hisham ibn Hakam
* Agha Zia ol Din Araghi
* Ja'far Sobhani
* Ruhollah Khomeini
* Wilayat al-faqih

Isma'ili Shi'ism|

* Al-Qadi al-Nu'man
* Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani
* Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani
* Al-Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
* Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Naysaburi
* Abu'l-Fawaris Ahmad ibn Ya'qub
* Tayyibi Ismā'īlī doctrine
* Dhu'ayb ibn Musa
* Hassan Ala Dhikrihi's Salam
* Idris Imad al-Din
* Ali ibn Muhammad ibn al-Walid

Zaydi Shi'ism|

* Abu'l-Jarud al-Hamdani
* Ahmad ibn Isa ibn Zayd
* Al-Qasim al-Rassi
* Al-Hadi ila'l-Haqq Yahya
* Al-Mansur al-Qasim

Key books|

| Sunni books|

* Asas al-Taqdis
* Al-Baz al-Ashhab
* Al-Farq bayn al-Firaq
* Al-Milal wa al-Nihal
* Al-Irshad
* Al-Aqidah al-Tahawiyyah
* Al-Sawad al-A'zam
* Kitab al-Tawhid
* Tabsirat al-Adilla
* Masnavi
* Fihi Ma Fihi
* Divan-i Shams-i Tabrizi
* The Moderation in Belief

|

Shia books|

* Eʿteqādātal-Emāmīya
* Al-Amali
* Al-Khisal
* Awail Al Maqalat
* Tashih al-I'tiqad
* Tajrid al-I'tiqad

Independent|

* Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity
* Kitab al-Majmu of Alawis
* Malfūzāt of Ahmadiyya
* Umm al-kitab of Musta'li Isma'ilism

* Early Muslim scholars
* List of contemporary Muslim scholars of Islam

Islamic schools and branches

| Sunni Islam|

| Ahl al-Hadith
(Atharism)|

* Kullabiyya
* Ibn Kullab
* Hanbalis
* Ahmad ibn Hanbal
* Al-Qadi Abu Ya'la
* Khwaja Abdullah Ansari
* Zahiris
* Dawud al-Zahiri
* Salafism
* Ahl-i Hadith
* Syed Nazeer Husain / Siddiq Hasan Khan
* Wahhabism
* Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab
* Ibn Baz
* Al-Uthaymin
* Al-Albani
* Other Salafi trends
* Jihadism
* Madkhalism
* Sahwa
* Salafi Modernism
* Muhammad bin Dawud
* Maqrizi

|

Ahl ar-Ra'y
(Ilm al-Kalam)|

* Ash'arism
* Malikis
* Shafi'is
* Abdullah al-Harari – Al-Ahbash
* Maturidism
* Hanafis
* Fazl-e-Haq Khairabadi / Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi
* Muhammad Qasim Nanautavi / Rashid Ahmad Gangohi – Deobandi

Shia Islam|

| Zaydism|

* Zayd ibn Ali
* Jarudiyya
* Batriyya
* Imamate
* Alid dynasties of northern Iran
* Hasan al-Utrush
* Yahya ibn Umar
* Imams of Yemen
* Extinct Zaydi Shi'a sects
* Dukayniyya
* Khalafiyya

|

Imami
Mahdiist
Shi'ite
Sects in
Islam|

| Imami
Twelver|

* Theology of Twelvers
* Ja'fari
* Akhbari
* Usuli
* Shaykhism
* Qizilbash
* Sheikh Haydar / Shah Ismail / Pir Sultan / Kul Nesîmî – Safavid Islam
* Ghulat
* al-Khaṣībī / ibn Nusayr – Alawites
* Astarabadi (Naimi) / Imadaddin Nasimi – Hurufism / Bektashism
* Baktāshism
* Demir Bābā – Alians
* Bābā Rexheb – Hārābātīs

|

Imami
Isma'ilism|

* Fathite
* Abdallah al-Aftah
* Batiniyyah
* Hamdan Qarmat – Sevener Qarmatians
* Hamza / Baha al-Din al-Muqtana / ad-Darazi – Druzes
* Fatimids
* Musta'li
* Tayyibi
* Alavi
* Dawoodi
* Sulaymani
* Hafizi
* Nasir Khusraw al-Qubadiani – Badakhshan Alevism
* Nizari
* Hassan-i Sabbah – Assassins
* Aga Khans – Nizaris / Khojas
* Pir Sadardin – Satpanth

Kaysanites
Shia|

* Mukhtār
* Abū ʿAmra Kaysān
* Abd Allah ibn Muhammad ibn al-Hanafiyyah – Hashimiyya
* Hārbīyya
* ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Hārb ibn al-Kindi
* Janāhiyya
* Abdallah ibn Mu'awiya
* Hārithīyya
* Riyāhīyya
* Sam‘ānīyya
* Bayān ibn Sam‘ān
* Rezāmīyya
* Abu Muslim
* Sunpadh
* Muḥammirah
* Khurramites
* Babak
* Mazyar
* al-Muqanna
* Ishaq al-Turk
* Khashabiyya Shia

Other Mahdists|

* An-Nafs Az-Zakiyyah
* Hurufiyya
* Maḥmūd Pasīkhānī – Nuktawiyya
* Shayki
* Nuqta-yi Ula – Bábīyya
* Tawussite Shia
* ʿAjlan ibn Nawus
* Waqifite Shia

Muhakkima
(Arbitration)|

| Kharijites|

* Ajardi
* Abd al-Karīm ibn Adjrād
* Maymunīyyah
* Sa'labīyyah
* Azariqa
* Nafi ibn al-Azraq al-Hānafī al-Handhalī
* Bayhasīyyah
* Abu Bayhas al-Hāytham ibn Jābir
* Najdat
* Najdah ibn 'Amir al-Hānafī
* Sufri
* Abu Qurra
* Abū Yazīd Mukhallad ibn Kayrād al-Nukkari

|

Ibadism|

* 'Abdullāh ibn Ibāḍ al-Tamimi
* Jābir ibn Zayd
* Abu Qudama Yazid ibn Fandin al-Ifrani
* Abd Allah ibn Wahb al-Rasibi
* Wahbiyyah
* Azzabas

Murji'ah
(Hasan ibn
Muḥāmmad
ibn al-
Hanafiyyah)|

| Karrāmīyya|

* Abū ʿAbdillāh Muḥāmmad ibn Karrām ibn Arrāk ibn Huzāba ibn al-Barā’ as-Sijjī
* ʿĀbidīyya (ʿUthmān al-ʿĀbid)
* Dhīmmīyya
* Hakāiqīyya
* Haisamīyya (Abū ʿAbdallāh Muhammad ibn al-Haisam)
* Hīdīyya (Hīd ibn Saif)
* Ishāqīyya (Abū Yaʿqūb Ishāq ibn Mahmashādh)
* Maʿīyya
* Muhājirīyya (Ibrāhīm ibn Muhājir)
* Nūnīyya
* Razīnīyya
* Sauwāqīyya
* Sūramīyya
* Tarā'ifīyya (Ahmad ibn ʿAbdūs at-Tarā'ifī)
* Tūnīyya (Abū Bakr ibn ʿAbdallāh)
* Wāhidīyya
* Zarībīyya

|

Other sects|

* Gaylānīyya
* Gaylān ibn Marwān
* Yūnusīyya
* Yūnus ibn Awn an-Namīrī
* Gassānīyya
* Gassān al-Kūfī
* Tūmanīyya
* Abū Muāz at-Tūmanī
* Sawbānīyya
* Abū Sawbān al-Murjī
* Sālehīyya
* Sāleh ibn Umar
* Shamrīyya
* Abū Shamr
* Ubaydīyya
* Ubayd al-Mūktaib
* Ziyādīyya
* Muhammad ibn Ziyād al-Kūfī

Other Murjīs|

* Al-Harith ibn Surayj
* Sa'id ibn Jubayr
* Hammād ibn Abū Sūlaimān
* Muhārīb ibn Dithār
* Sābit Kutna
* Awn ibn Abdullāh
* Mūsā ibn Abū Kasīr
* Umar ibn Zar
* Salm ibn Sālem
* Hālaf ibn Ayyūb
* Ibrāhim ibn Yousūf
* Nusayr ibn Yahyā
* Ahmad ibn Hārb
* Amr ibn Murrah

Mu'shabbiha|

| Tamsīl|

* Jawārībīyya
* Dāwūd al-Jawāribî
* Hāshwīyya
* Hulmānīyya
* Abū Hulmān al-Fārisī ad-Dimashqī
* Qalandariyya
* Barak Baba

|

Tajsīm|

* Khaṭṭābiyya
* Abu al-Khattab
* Bāzīghiyya
* Bāzīgh ibn Mūsā
* Muʿāmmarīyya
* Muʿāmmar ibn Ahmar
* ʿIjlīyya/Umayrīyya
* Umayr ibn Bayān al-ʿIjlī
* Mufaḍḍaliyya
* al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi
* Ghurābīyya
* Mānsūrīyya
* Abū Mānsūr al-ʿIjlī
* Mughīrīyya
* Abū Abdillāh Mugīre ibn Sāīd al-ʿIjlī el-Bajalī
* Mukhāmmīsa
* Namiriya
* ‘Ulyanīyya/'Alyaīyya
* Saba'īyya
* Abdullah ibn Saba'

Qadariyah
(Ma'bad
al-Juhani)|

| Alevism|

* Qutb ad-Dīn Haydar – Malamatiyya / Qalandariyya
* Baba Ishak – Babai revolt
* Balım Sultan – Bektashi Order
* Galip Hassan Kuscuoglu – Galibi Order

|

Muʿtazila
(Rationalism)|

* Mā’marīyya
* Abū Amr (Abū Mu‘tamīr) Muāmmar ibn Abbād as-Sūlamī
* Bishriyya
* Abū Sahl Bīshr ibn al-Mu‘tamīr al-Hilālī al-Baghdādī
* Abū Abdi’l-Lāh Ahmad ibn Abī Du'ad Faraj ibn Carīr ibn Mâlik al-Iyādī
* Bahshamiyya
* Abū Hāshīm Abdu’s-Salām ibn Muḥāmmad ibn Abdi’l-Wahhāb al-Jubbā'ī
* Huzaylīyya
* Abū’l-Huzayl Muḥāmmad ibn al-Huzayl ibn Abdillāh al-Allāf al-Abdī al-Bāsrī
* Abū Ma‘n Sūmāma ibn Ashras an-Nūmayrī al-Bāsrī al-Baghdādī
* Ikhshīdiyya
* Nazzāmīyya
* Ali al-Aswarī
* Abū Bakr Muḥāmmad ibn Abdillāh ibn Shabīb al-Basrī
* Hābītīyya
* Ahmad ibn Hābīt
* Sumamīyya
* Sumāma ibn Ashras
* Kā‘bīyya
* Abū’l-Kāsīm Abdullāh ibn Ahmad ibn Māhmūd al-Balhī al-Kā‘bī

Quranism|

* Ahle Qur'an
* Kala Kato
* Tolu-e-Islam
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Ghulam Ahmed Pervez
* United Submitters International
* Rashad Khalifa
* Edip Yüksel

Independent
Muslim
beliefs|

| Messianism|

* Ahmadiyya
* Mirza Ghulam
* Qadiani
* Lahori
* Kabbalist Dönmes
* Sabbatai Zevi – Sabbatean
* Mahdavīyya
* Muhammad Jaunpuri / Bandagi Mian Syed Khundmir – Zikris
* Nation of Islam
* Wallace Fard Muhammad's doctrine

|

Modernism|

* Modernist Salafism
* Muhammad Abduh
* Muhammad Asad
* Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani
* Rashid Rida
* Other Islamic modernists

Taṣawwuf|

* Tariqah
* Ahmed Raza Khan – Barelvi
* Hilmi Tunahan – Süleymancı
* Ahmad al-Rifa'i – Rifa`i
* Other orders
* Tawassul

Other beliefs|

* Sadaqah
* Sunnah
* Taqwa
* Tawakkul
* Tewafuq
* Thawab

* Other scholars of Sunni schools of jurisprudence:
* Hanafi
* Hanbali
* Maliki
* Shafi'i
* Zahiri

* v
* t
* e

Shafi'i school

* by century (AH / AD)

2nd/8th|

* Al-Shafi'i (founder of the school; 767–820)
* Al-Muzani (791/92–878)

3rd/9th|

* Al-Humaydi (d. 834)
* Harith al-Muhasibi (781–857)
* Bukhari (810–870)
* Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj (d. 875)
* Ibn Majah (824–887)
* Al-Nasai (d. 915)
* Ibn Khuzaymah (837–923)
* Ibn al-Mundhir (855–930)
* Abu Hasan al-Ash'ari (874–936)
* Fakr ad-Din

4th/10th|

* Al-Daraqutni (918–995)
* Abu Talib al-Makki (d. 996)
* Al-Hakim Nishapuri (933–1014)
* Ibn Furak (d. 1015)
* Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad (935–1025)
* Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi (d. 1037)
* Abu Nuaym (d. 1038)
* Abu Ishaq al-Shirazi (1003–1083)
* Al-Lalaka'i

5th/11th|

* Al-Tha'labi (d. 1035)
* Al-Mawardi (972–1058)
* Al-Bayhaqi (994–1066)
* Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi (1002–1071)
* Al-Qushayri (986–1072)
* Al-Juwayni (1028–1085)
* Al-Baghawi (d. 1122)
* Ahmad Ghazali (d. 1123/26)

6th/12th|

* Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
* Al-Shahrastani (1086–1153)
* Ibn `Asakir (1105–c. 1176)
* Abu Tahir al-Silafi (1079–1180)
* Ahmed al-Rifa`i (1119–1183)
* Shahab al-Din Yahya ibn Habash Suhrawardi (1154–1191)
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1150–1209)
* Sayf al-Din al-Amidi (1156–1233)
* Ibn Abi'l-Dam (1187–1244)
* Ibn al-Salah (1181–1245)

7th/13th|

* Ibn Abil-Hadid (d. 1258)
* Izz al-Din ibn Abd al-Salam (d. 1262)
* Ahmad al-Badawi (1200–1276)
* Al-Nawawi (1230–1277)
* Ibn Khallikan (1211–1282)
* Ibn Daqiq al-Id (1228–1302)
* Al-Baydawi (d. 1319)
* Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252/53–1334)
* Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Mizzi (1256–1341)
* Yusuf bin Ahmad al-Kawneyn

8th/14th|

* Safi al-Din al-Hindi (d. 1315/16)
* Al-Dhahabi (1274–1348)
* Taqi al-Din al-Subki (1284–1355)
* Ahmad ibn Naqib al-Misri (1302–1367)
* Taj al-Din al-Subki (1327–1370)
* Ibn Kathir (d. 1373)
* Taftazani (1322–1390)
* Badr Ad-Din az-Zarkashi (1344–1392)
* Zain al-Din al-Iraqi (1325–1403)
* Ali ibn Abu Bakr al-Haythami (1335–1404)
* Ibn Nuhaas (d. 1411)
* Ibn al-Jazari (1350–1429)

9th/15th|

* Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani (1372–1449)
* Al-Mahalli (d. 1460)
* Al-Sakhawi (1428–1497)
* Al-Suyuti (1445–1505)
* Al-Qastallani (1448–1517)
* Zakariyya al-Ansari (1420–1520)
* Ali ibn Ahmad al-Samhudi (1466–1533)

10th/16th|

* Al-Sha`rani (1492/93–1565)
* Ibn Hajar al-Haytami (1503–1566)
* Al-Khaṭib ash-Shirbiniy (d. 1570)

11th/17th|

* Abdullah ibn Alawi al-Haddad (1634–1720)

13th/19th|

* Ibrahim al-Bajuri (1784–1860)
* Abd Al-Rahman bin Ahmad al-Zayla`i (1820–1882)
* Ahmad Zayni Dahlan (1816–1886)
* Shaykh Sufi (1828–1904)
* Uways al-Barawi (1847–1909)
* Ahmad Khatib al-Minangkabawi (1860–1916)

14th/20th|

* Yusuf al-Nabhani (1849–1932)
* Hasyim Asy'ari (1875-1947)
* Abdallah al-Qutbi (1879–1952)
* Said Nursî (1877–1960)
* Sulaiman ar-Rasuli (1871-1970)
* Abd al-Malik Karim Amrullah (1908–1981)
* Yasin al-Fadani (1916-1990)
* Muhammad Hamidullah (1908–2002)
* Ahmed Kuftaro (1915–2004)
* Abdullah al-Harari (1906–2008)

15th/21st|

* Wahbah al-Zuhayli (1932–2015)
* Taha Jabir Alalwani (1935–2016)
* Cherussery Zainuddeen Musliyar (1937–2016)
* Hasyim Muzadi (1944–2017)
* Ahmad Syafi'i Maarif (1935–2022)
* Abdul Azeez Madani (1950–2022)
* Kanthapuram A. P. Abu Bakr Musliyar (b. 1931)
* Naqib al-Attas (b. 1931)
* Mohammad Salim Al-Awa (b. 1942)
* K. Ali Kutty Musliyar (b. 1945)
* Ali Gomaa (b. 1952)
* Nuh Ha Mim Keller (b. 1954)
* Zaid Shakir (b. 1956)
* Muhammad Jifri Muthukkoya Thangal (b. 1957)
* Gibril Haddad (b. 1960)
* Umar bin Hafiz (b. 1963)
* Ibrahim Khalil al-Bukhari (b. 1964)
* Muhammad bin Yahya al-Ninowy (b. 1970)
* Ali al-Jifri (b. 1971)
* Afifi al-Akiti (b. 1976)
* Awn Al-Qaddoumi (b. 1982)

Scholars of other Sunni Islamic schools of jurisprudence

* Hanafi
* Hanbali
* Maliki
* Zahiri

* v
* t
* e

People of Khorasan

Scientists|

* Abu Hatam Isfizari
* Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
* Abu Wafa
* Abu Ubayd Juzjani
* Abu Zayd Balkhi
* Alfraganus
* Ali Qushji
* Avicenna
* Birjandi
* Biruni
* Hasib Marwazi
* Ibn Hayyan
* Abu Ja'far al-Khazin
* Khazini
* Khojandi
* Khwarizmi
* Nasawi
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Omar Khayyam
* Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
* Sijzi

Philosophers|

* Algazel
* Amiri
* Avicenna
* Farabi
* Haji Bektash Veli
* Nasir Khusraw
* Sijistani
* Shahrastani

Islamic scholars|

* Abu Dawud al-Sijistani
* Abu Barakat Nasafi
* Abu Hanifa
* Abu Hafs Nasafi
* Abu Layth Samarqandi
* Abu Mu'in Nasafi
* Abu Qasim Samarqandi
* Ansari
* Baghavi
* Bayhaqi
* Bazdawi
* Bukhari
* Dabusi
* Fatima Samarqandi
* Ghazali
* Ghaznawi
* Hakim Tirmidhi
* Hakim Nishapuri
* Ibn Hibban
* Ibn Mubarak
* Ishaq ibn Rahwayh
* Ibn Tayfour Sajawandi
* Juwayni
* Kasani
* Kashifi
* Lamishi
* Marghinani
* Maturidi
* Mulla al-Qari
* Muqatil
* Muslim
* Nasa'i
* Qushayri
* Razi
* Sabuni
* Sajawandi
* Sarakhsi
* Shaykh Tusi
* Taftazani
* Tha'labi Nishapuri
* Tirmidhi
* Yahya ibn Adam
* Zamakhshari

Poets and artists|

* Abu Sa'id Abu'l-Khayr
* Anvari
* Aruzi Samarqandi
* Asadi Tusi
* Attar Nishapuri
* Behzad
* Daqiqi
* Farrukhi Sistani
* Ferdowsi
* Jami
* Kashifi
* Nasir Khusraw
* Rabia Balkhi
* Rudaki
* Rumi
* Sanā'ī

Historians and
political figures|

* Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi
* Abu'l-Hasan Isfarayini
* Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah
* Abu Muslim Khorasani
* Gardizi
* Ali-Shir Nava'i
* Ata-Malik Juvayni
* Aufi
* Abu Ali Bal'ami
* Gawhar Shad
* Ibn Khordadbeh
* Khalid ibn Barmak
* Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Tahir ibn Husayn
* Yahya Barmaki
* Ahmad ibn Nizam al-Mulk
* Shihab al-Nasawi

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Italy
* Australia
* 2
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* 2
* Portugal
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Latvia
* Croatia
* Chile
* Greece
* Sweden
* Poland
* Vatican
* Israel
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Academics|

* CiNii
* zbMATH

Artists|

* MusicBrainz

People|

* Trove
* 2
* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template