Amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Amendments to U.S. legislation

President George W. Bush signs amendments to the Act in July 2006

The U.S. Congress enacted major amendments to the Voting Rights Act of 1965 in 1970, 1975, 1982, 1992, and 2006. Each of these amendments coincided with an impending expiration of some of the Act's special provisions, which originally were set to expire by 1970. However, in recognition of the voting discrimination that continued despite the Act, Congress repeatedly amended the Act to reauthorize the special provisions.[1]: 6–8 [2]: 209–210

In each of these amendments except for the 1992 amendments, Congress extended the special provisions that were tied to the coverage formula, such as the preclearance requirement. These provisions were extended for five years in 1970, seven years in 1975, and 25 years in both 1982 and 2006. In 1970 and 1975, Congress also expanded the coverage formula, supplementing it with new 1968 and 1972 trigger dates. Coverage was further enlarged in 1975 when Congress expanded the meaning of "tests or devices" to encompass any jurisdiction that provided English-only election information, such as ballots, if the jurisdiction had a single language minority group that constituted more than five percent of the jurisdiction's voting-age citizens. These expansions brought numerous jurisdictions into coverage, including many located outside of the South.[3] To ease the burdens of the reauthorized special provisions, Congress liberalized the bailout procedure in 1982, allowing covered jurisdictions to escape coverage by upholding the voting rights of protected minorities and affirmatively acting to expand minority political participation.[4]: 523

In addition to reauthorizing the special provisions and expanding coverage, Congress amended and added several other provisions to the Act. For instance, Congress expanded the original ban on "tests or devices" to apply nationwide in 1970, and in 1975, Congress made the ban permanent.[1]: 6–9  Separately, in 1975 Congress expanded the Act's scope to protect language minorities from voting discrimination. Congress defined "language minority" to include "persons who are American Indian, Asian American, Alaskan Natives or of Spanish heritage."[5] Congress amended various provisions, such as the Section 5 preclearance requirement and Section 2 general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws, to prohibit discrimination against language minorities.[6]: 199

Congress also enacted a bilingual election requirement in Section 203, which requires election officials in certain jurisdictions with large numbers of English-illiterate language minorities to provide ballots and voting information in the language of the language minority group. Originally set to expire after 10 years, Congress reauthorized Section 203 in 1982 for seven years, expanded and reauthorized it in 1992 for 15 years, and reauthorized it in 2006 for 25 years.[7]: 19–21, 25, 49  The bilingual election requirements have remained controversial, with proponents arguing that bilingual assistance is necessary to enable recently naturalized citizens to vote and opponents arguing that the bilingual election requirements constitute costly unfunded mandates.[7]: 26

Several of the amendments responded to judicial rulings that Congress disagreed with. In 1982, amended the Section 2 general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws to overturn the Supreme Court case Mobile v. Bolden (1980), which held that Section 2 prohibited only purposeful discrimination. Congress expanded Section 2 to explicitly ban any voting practice that had a discriminatory effect, irrespective of whether the practice was enacted or operated for a discriminatory purpose.[8] The creation of this "results test" shifted the majority of litigation brought under the Voting Rights Act from claims of Section 5 violations to claims of Section 2 violations.[4]: 644–645  In 2006, Congress amended the Act to overturn two Supreme Court cases: Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board (2000),[9] which interpreted Section 5 to prohibit voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" discriminatory purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003),[10] which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates.[11]: 207–208

In response to the Supreme Court case Shelby County v. Holder (2013), which struck down the current coverage formula as unconstitutional,[12] several amendment acts were proposed, all of which failed to make progress.[13][14][15][16][17][18]

## 1970

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See also: Oregon v. Mitchell and Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

Voting Rights Act, amendments of 1970

Long title| An Act To extend the Voting Rights Act of 1965 with respect to the discriminatory use of tests, and for other purposes
Enacted by| the 91st United States Congress
Effective| June 22, 1970
Citations
Public law| 91-285
Statutes at Large| 84 Stat. 314
Codification
Acts amended| Voting Rights Act of 1965
Legislative history

* Introduced in the House as H.R. 4249 on January 23, 1969
* Passed the House on December 11, 1969 (234-179)
* Passed the Senate on March 13, 1970 (64-12) with amendment
* House agreed to Senate amendment on June 17, 1970 (224-183)
* Signed into law by President Richard M. Nixon on June 22, 1970

Anticipating the expiration of the Act's special provisions in 1970, Congress held extensive hearings on whether the Act should be amended and its special provisions reauthorized. Congress noted discrimination in voting continued in spite of the Act and that the Section 5 preclearance requirement had been minimally enforced since its enactment; between 1965 and 1970, covered jurisdictions had made merely 578 preclearance submissions. Ultimately, Congress determined that although significant progress had been made in reducing racial discrimination in voting since 1965, sufficient discrimination existed to justify extending the special provisions.[1]: 6−8

President Richard Nixon's administration, which hoped to politically capitalize on the alienation of Southern white voters from the Democratic Party that the Act was causing, sought to reauthorize but weaken the law. Attorney General John N. Mitchell proposed a 3-year extension with amendments to extend the ban on "tests or devices" nationwide and abolish both the coverage formula and the preclearance requirement. Opposed by liberals and supported by Southern Democrats and Midwestern Republicans, this proposal initially passed in the House of Representatives,[2]: 204–205  but it was rejected by the Senate, which crafted its own compromise bill. The Senate passed its version by a 64–12 vote, and the House then passed it by a bipartisan 237–132 vote.[19]: 686–687  The legislation was enacted on June 17, 1970, as the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970.[20] President Nixon signed it into law on June 22.[2]: 204–205, 207

Through this legislation, Congress extended the special provisions for five years.[1]: 8  Congress also expanded the coverage formula by supplementing it with 1968 trigger dates, bringing into coverage several new jurisdictions outside of the South[3] and appeasing several Southern legislators who felt the original coverage formula unfairly singled out Southern states. Simultaneously, Congress amended the bailout provision to require covered jurisdictions seeking bailout to prove that they had not used a test or device in a discriminatory manner in the ten-year period preceding their bailout request, an increase from the original five-year period requirement. Congress also expanded the ban on using tests or devices to the entire nation.[1]: 6–8

Congress also added new provisions to the Act. Two new provisions exclusively regulated presidential elections: one created uniform rules for voter registration and absentee voting, and the other prohibited states from applying their own durational residency requirements as voting qualifications.[1]: 7  Influenced by the draft of males at least 18 years of age to fight in the Vietnam War, Senator Ted Kennedy convinced Congress to add a provision guaranteeing citizens at least 18 years of age the right to vote in federal, state, and local elections.[2]: 205–206  In a statement explaining his decision to sign the amendments, Nixon expressed doubts that this provision was constitutional, and he instructed the Attorney General to expedite litigation to test its constitutionality.[21] Later that year, the Supreme Court, in Oregon v. Mitchell (1970),[22] struck down the part of the provision lowering the voting age in state elections as unconstitutional; the Court upheld only the part of the provision that lowered the voting age in federal elections. The decision precipitated the ratification of the Twenty-sixth Amendment the following year, which lowered the voting age in all elections to 18.[4]: 60

## 1975

[edit]

United States President Gerald Ford signs H.R. 6219, Extending the Voting Rights Act of 1965, August 1975. Voting Rights Act, amendments of 1975

Long title| An Act to amend the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to extend certain provisions for an additional seven years, to make permanent the ban against certain prerequisites to voting, and for other purposes
Enacted by| the 94th United States Congress
Effective| August 6, 1975
Citations
Public law| 94-73
Statutes at Large| 89 Stat. 400
Codification
Acts amended| Voting Rights Act of 1965
Legislative history

* Introduced in the House as H.R. 6219 by Don Edwards (D–CA) on April 22, 1975
* Passed the House on June 4, 1975 (341-70)
* Passed the Senate on July 24, 1975 (77-12) with amendment
* House agreed to Senate amendment on July 28, 1975 (345-56)
* Signed into law by President Gerald Ford on August 6, 1975

Congress revisited the Act in 1975, the year that the Act's special provisions were again set to expire. The debate was less acrimonious than previous debates concerning the Act, reflecting an expanded consensus in Congress that the law remained necessary to remedy continued racial discrimination in voting. Unlike Nixon, President Gerald Ford's administration, which worked to improve relations with African Americans after Nixon's presidency, supported extending the Act without weakening it.[2]: 209–210  After conducting several hearings, Congress passed legislation amending the Act; the Senate approved the amendments by a 77–12 vote, and the House of Representatives by a 346–56 vote.[19]: 706  President Ford signed the amendments into law on August 6, 1975.[2]: 214 [23]

The amendments extended the Act's special provisions for seven years. Congress chose seven years to avoid having to reconsider the special provisions during the 1980s reapportionment process.[4]: 624  Relatedly, Congress amended the bailout provision to require covered jurisdictions seeking bailout to prove that they had not used a test or device in a discriminatory manner in the 17-year period preceding their bailout request.[24]: 1349  Congress also expanded the coverage formula by adding new dates in 1972 as triggering dates, which brought more jurisdictions into coverage.[3] Furthermore, Congress made permanent the nationwide prohibition on tests or devices.[1]: 9

The 1975 amendments also expanded voting rights for minority groups that traditionally had fallen outside the Act's protections. Civil rights organizations representing Hispanic, Asian American, Native Alaskan, and Native American interests argued before Congress that such groups often were the victims of discriminatory voting practices, particularly in areas where English was not the dominant language.[24]: 1350  After Congress heard testimony of language discrimination in voting, Congresswoman Barbara Jordan (D-TX) successfully led an effort to amend the Act to protect language minorities.[2]: 211  Specifically, Congress amended the definition of "test or device" to prohibit laws requiring ballots and voting information be provided exclusively in English in jurisdictions where a single-language minority group comprised more than 5% of the voting-age population. This in turn expanded the coverage formula to reach states such as Texas that Congress wanted to cover. Congress also enacted bilingual election requirements, which require election officials in certain jurisdictions to provide ballots and voting information in the language of language minority groups.[4]: 57, 521

## 1982

[edit]

Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1982

Long title| An Act to amend the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to extend the effect of certain provisions, and for other purposes.
Enacted by| the 97th United States Congress
Citations
Public law| 97-205
Statutes at Large| 96 Stat. 131
United States President Ronald Reagan signs amendments to the Act in June 1982.

As the special provisions neared expiration again, Congress reconsidered the Act in 1982.[25] Organizations in The Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and the National Education Association (NEA), organized to pressure Congress both to extend the special provisions and to expand the Act's general prohibition on discriminatory voting laws.[24]: 1351–1353  Congressional opponents of the amendments had little support for their positions outside of Congress.[24]: 1387

The House of Representatives, which was the first chamber to consider amendments,[24]: 1380  conducted seven weeks of hearings on amendatory legislation at which over 100 witnesses testified, most of whom supported extending the Act's special provisions by at least 10 years.[1]: 17  President Ronald Reagan's administration largely stayed out of the debate as the legislation worked its way through the House. However, President Reagan did indicate he supported replacing the coverage formula with a nationwide preclearance requirement.[24]: 1384–1385  This caused a major controversy against the Reagan administration because it occurred at around the same time the administration was seeking to block the Internal Revenue Service from denying tax-exempt status to segregated private schools, which soon forced the Reagan administration to backtrack some of its opposition.[26] The House ultimately passed legislation maintaining the coverage formula and permanently extending the special provisions.[24]: 1383  Supporters of the House bill hoped to sustain the momentum from the House and expedite approval of the House bill in the Senate, but Senators opposing the legislation slowed its passage through extensive committee hearings.[24]: 1383–1384  Furthermore, the Reagan Administration announced its support for only a 10-year extension of the special provisions.[24]: 1386  The Senate eventually compromised on maintaining the coverage formula unchanged and extending the special provisions by 25 years,[24]: 1415  except for the Section 203(c) bilingual election requirement, which was extended for seven years.[7]: 23  The Senate also agreed to liberalize the bailout procedure to allow a covered state or local government to escape coverage by proving to the U.S. District Court for D.C. that it had complied with the Voting Rights Act and undertook constructive efforts to expand opportunities for political participation in the 10 years preceding its bailout request.[4]: 523  The bailout procedure was also amended to allow a local government to bail out of coverage even if its parent state was covered.[7]: 23 [27]

The provision Congress most intensely focused on amending was Section 2, which prescribes a general prohibition of discriminatory voting laws.[24]: 1352  Two years earlier, the Supreme Court, in Mobile v. Bolden (1980), held that racially discriminatory laws violated the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendments only if the laws were enacted or maintained for a discriminatory purpose; thus, showing that a law simply had a discriminatory effect was insufficient to state a constitutional claim of discrimination. The Court further held that Section 2 mirrored this constitutional standard.[28]: 60–61  The decision had a major effect on voting rights litigation; civil rights lawyers decided not to pursue many planned cases, and courts overturned several judgments that were previously entered in favor of plaintiffs. This prompted nationwide outrage that weighed heavily on Congress as it considered amending the Act in 1982.[29]: 149

During the nine days of Senate hearings concerning whether to amend the Act, Section 2 was the primary focus[24]: 1389 —in particular, whether to amend Section 2 to create a "results" test that prohibited any voting law that had a discriminatory effect, irrespective of whether the law was enacted or operated for a discriminatory purpose. President Reagan opposed creating a results test because its impact would be uncertain.[24]: 1388–1389  Furthermore, some members of Congress, such as Senator Orrin Hatch (R-UT), raised concerns that a results test would fundamentally alter American democracy by requiring courts to impose proportional representation for protected minority groups as a remedy.[24]: 1392  To assuage this concern, Senator Robert Dole (R-KS) proposed legislative language explicitly disclaiming that a results test would require proportional representation. This compromise won support from the Senate, the House, and the Reagan Administration.[24]: 1414–1415  The House passed this version of the bill by a 389–24 vote,[30] and the Senate passed it by an 85–8 vote.[19]: 707 [31] President Reagan signed the legislation into law on June 29, 1982.[2]: 231  The creation of the Section 2 results test shifted the majority of litigation brought under the Voting Rights Act from claims of Section 5 violations to claims of Section 2 violations.[4]: 645

## 1992

[edit]

Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992

Long title| An Act to amend the Voting Rights Act of 1965 with respect to bilingual election requirements
Enacted by| the 102nd United States Congress
Citations
Public law| 102-344
Statutes at Large| 106 Stat. 921

As the bilingual election requirement in Section 203(c) neared expiration in 1992, Congress considered legislation to extend and expand it. Representative José E. Serrano (D-NY) introduced legislation,[32] dubbed the Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992, to extend the provision for 15 years, making its term coterminous with the other special provisions scheduled to expire in 2007. The legislation also expanded the coverage formula and the Section 203(c) bilingual election requirement to cover jurisdictions containing at least 10,000 persons of any one of the covered language minorities.[33]: 50–51  This reached major cities such as Philadelphia, San Francisco, and Los Angeles.[34]: 1486–1487  Finally, in recognition of "the historical fact that reservation boundaries predate and therefore often do not correspond to State or county lines," the legislation created an alternative coverage formula for Native American language-minority voters living on Indian reservations.[6]: 225–226

This legislation received more Congressional opposition than the 1982 amendments did, most of it from Republicans.[34] Proponents argued that the lack of bilingual assistance hindered recently naturalized citizens from exercising their voting rights and that the country had a history of acceptance toward linguistic pluralism. Opponents argued that the Voting Rights Act was never meant to protect language minorities and that the bilingual assistance provision was a costly unfunded mandate.[7]: 26  Opponents proposed several amendments to weaken the legislation, including limiting the extension to 5 years, requiring the federal government to pay for the bilingual voting materials, and completely removing the bilingual provisions. These amendments failed, and Congress passed the legislation with mostly Democratic support;[34] the House passed it by a 237–125 vote, and the Senate passed it by a 75–20 vote. President George H. W. Bush signed the legislation on August 26, 1992.[32]

## 2006

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Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, and Coretta Scott King Voting Rights Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 2006

Long title| An Act to amend the Voting Rights Act of 1965.
Enacted by| the 109th United States Congress
Citations
Public law| 109-246
Statutes at Large| 120 Stat. 577

Congress reconsidered the Act in 2006 as the special provisions were due to expire in 2007. Civil rights organizations advocated for the renewal and strengthening of the special provisions.[35]: 206  As a matter of principle, Democrats generally supported renewing the special provisions. However, the Republican Party controlled both chambers of Congress and the presidency, and many Republicans considered the preclearance requirement an affront to states' rights and the principle of color-blindness.[11]: 180  Furthermore, conservatives believed that the primary beneficiaries of the special provisions were African Americans, who overwhelmingly and increasingly voted for Democratic Party candidates.[35]: 207  However, Republicans were receiving increasing support from some language minority groups, particularly Hispanics and Asian Americans, and they did not wish to risk losing that support by refusing to reauthorize the special provisions.[35]: 208  Republicans also recognized that the Act often helped Republican candidates win by requiring jurisdictions to pack Democratic-leaning racial minorities into few electoral districts. In addition, House Judiciary Committee Chair Jim Sensenbrenner (R-WI) had a strong desire to reauthorize the special provisions, and he led an early effort to pass a reauthorization bill before his chairmanship expired at the end of 2006. Thus, a consensus in favor of reauthorizing the special provisions emerged early in the legislative process.[11]: 180–181

In 2005, the House Judiciary Subcommittee on the Constitution began holding hearings on amending the Voting Rights Act. Few witnesses at the hearings testified against reauthorizing the special provisions, and the committee focused primarily on assembling evidence of discrimination in voting.[11]: 181–182  Congress's evidentiary record of voting discrimination was viewed as particularly important because Congress believed that according to the Supreme Court case Boerne v. Flores (1997) and its progeny, Congress needed to demonstrate that legislation passed to enforce the Reconstruction Amendments was "congruent and proportional" to remedying or preventing constitutional violations. To make this showing, the committee needed to assemble evidence to demonstrate that the special provisions were generally successful in combating racial discrimination in voting, but not so successful as to no longer be necessary. Given the uncertainty surrounding the congruence and proportionality standard, political constraints, and the Supreme Court previously having upheld the special provisions as constitutional, the committee decided to reauthorize the special provisions without amending the coverage formula.[11]: 192–194  The committee ultimately included in the record four types of evidence to support this reauthorization: statistics showing rates of minority voter registration, turnout, and elective officeholding in covered versus non-covered jurisdictions; statistics showing the behavior of covered jurisdictions and the Department of Justice in the preclearance process; instances of voting discrimination in covered jurisdictions; and data comparing successful Section 2 litigation in covered versus non-covered jurisdictions.[11]: 195

On May 2, 2006, Representative Sensenbrenner introduced the Fannie Lou Hamer, Rosa Parks, and Coretta Scott King Voting Rights Act Reauthorization and Amendments Act of 2006.[36][37] The bill proposed to extend the special provisions by 25 years and keep the coverage formula unchanged. The bill also proposed to amend the Act to overturn two recent Supreme Court cases: Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board (2000),[9] which interpreted Section 5 to prohibit voting changes that were enacted or maintained for a "retrogressive" purpose instead of any discriminatory purpose, and Georgia v. Ashcroft (2003),[10] which established a broader test for determining whether a redistricting plan had an impermissible effect under Section 5 than assessing only whether a minority group could elect its preferred candidates.[11]: 207–208  While passage of the bill was virtually certain, a few Republican lawmakers attempted to amend the bill on the House floor. One group of legislators, led by Congressman Lynn Westmoreland (R–GA), argued that the reauthorization unfairly targeted certain jurisdictions for long-past discrimination.[38][39] Another group of 80 legislators signed a letter originated by Congressman Steve King (R–IA) arguing that the Act's bilingual election requirements constituted costly unfunded mandates.[40] All proposed amendments to the bill failed, though three received the support of a majority of the Republican caucus. Following the defeat of these amendments, the House passed the bill on July 13, 2006, by a 390–33 vote.[37] Notably, this tally included many Republicans who had previously voted in favor of the failed amendments.[8]

Shortly thereafter, the Senate unanimously passed the bill without amendment on July 20, 2006, by a 98–0 vote.[41] However, in an unprecedented event for a bill that passed unanimously out of committee, Senators of only one political party, Republicans, signed onto the bill's Senate committee report,[11]: 178  and the report was not filed until six days after the bill's passage. The Senate report differed in significant ways from the House report, and in their own statement, Senate Democrats objected to parts of the Senate report that they believed highlighted evidence that could jeopardize the bill's constitutionality.[11]: 186–189  The day after the committee report was filed, President George W. Bush signed the bill in a morning ceremony on the South Lawn of the White House on July 27, 2006, one year in advance of the 2007 expiration date.[41] The audience at the signing ceremony included family members of Martin Luther King Jr. and Rosa Parks, the reverends Al Sharpton and Jesse Jackson, NAACP Chairman Julian Bond, and other civil rights leaders.[41]

## Proposed

[edit]

Many proposals to amend the Voting Rights Act of 1965 have been unsuccessful or remain pending in Congress. In 2013 the Supreme Court, in Shelby County v. Holder, invalidated the Voting Rights Act's coverage formula; several bills have been proposed to create a new coverage formula. In 2014, the Voting Rights Amendments Act was introduced in Congress to create a new coverage formula and amend various other provisions.[42] It was referred to the Constitution and Civil Justice congressional subcommittee on February 11, 2015, but no action was taken on it, and it expired[43] in 2017.[44] Again in 2019, Reps. Jim Sensenbrenner (R-Wisconsin) and John Conyers Jr. (D-Michigan) introduced bipartisan legislation to update the Voting Rights Act. The bill's proposed coverage formula would cover 13 states with a history of voter discrimination: Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi, Texas, Louisiana, Florida, South Carolina, North Carolina, Arkansas, Arizona, California, New York, and Virginia.[45] On December 6, 2019, the House of Representatives voted 228–187 in favor of the bill. Pennsylvania Congressman Brian Fitzpatrick was the lone Republican to support it.[45] Should it have been passed by the Senate, President Donald Trump threatened to veto it.[46]

The For the People Act was reintroduced, again as H.R. 1 in the 117th Congress, and was passed by the House of Representatives on March 3, 2021, by a narrow, near-party line vote of 220–210, with all Republicans voting against and all but one Democrat voting for. The For the People Act currently awaits a vote in the Senate, which is divided 50-50 between Democrats and Republicans, with Vice President Kamala Harris holding the tie-breaking vote, though Republican use of the Senate filibuster has threatened to prevent the legislation from coming to a vote.

The John Lewis Voting Rights Act, which would create a new coverage formula for Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to replace the formula struck down by the Shelby County decision, currently awaits a vote in the House of Representatives, where it is similarly expected to pass with Democrats largely in support and Republicans largely opposed.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f g h Williamson, Richard A. (1984). "The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Statutory Analysis of the Revised Bailout Provisions". Washington University Law Review. 62 (1). Archived from the original on September 21, 2013. Retrieved August 29, 2013.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h May, Gary (April 9, 2013). Bending Toward Justice: The Voting Rights Act and the Transformation of American Democracy (Kindle ed.). Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-01846-8.
3. ^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "Section 4 of the Voting Rights Act". U.S. Department of Justice. Retrieved June 25, 2013.
4. ^ a b c d e f g Issacharoff, Samuel; Karlan, Pamela S.; Pildes, Richard H. (2012). The Law of Democracy: Legal Structure of the Political Process (4th ed.). Foundation Press. ISBN 978-1-59941-935-0.
5. ^ 42 U.S.C. § 1973l(c)(3)
6. ^ a b Tucker, James Thomas (2006). "Enfranchising Language Minority Citizens: The Bilingual Election Provisions of the Voting Rights Act" (PDF). New York University Journal of Legislation and Public Policy. 10. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 20, 2013. Retrieved January 3, 2014.
7. ^ a b c d e  This article incorporates public domain material from Garrine, Laney (June 12, 2008). The Voting Rights Act of 1965, As Amended: Its History and Current Issues (PDF). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved October 6, 2013.`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
8. ^ a b Rhodes, Jesse (2017). Ballot Blocked: The Political Erosion of the Voting Rights Act. Stanford University Press. ISBN 9780804797597.
9. ^ a b Reno v. Bossier Parish School Board, 528 U.S. 320 (2000)
10. ^ a b Georgia v. Ashcroft, 539 U.S. 461 (2003)
11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Persily, Nathaniel (2007). "The Promise and Pitfalls of the New Voting Rights Act". Yale Law Journal. 117 (2): 174–254\. doi:10.2307/20455790. JSTOR 20455790. Archived from the original on September 26, 2013. Retrieved September 21, 2013.
12. ^ "Moving Forward on the VRAA". NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. Retrieved April 19, 2014.
13. ^ Fuller, Jaime (June 26, 2014). "Republicans used to unanimously back the Voting Rights Act. Not any more". The Washington Post. Retrieved July 2, 2015.
14. ^ "H.R. 3899 (113th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014". GovTrack. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
15. ^ "S. 1945 (113th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2014". GovTrack. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
16. ^ "All Bill Information (Except Text) for H.R. 885 - Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015". Library of Congress. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
17. ^ "H.R. 885 (114th): Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015". GovTrack. Retrieved October 6, 2015.
18. ^ "H.R. 2867 (114th): Voting Rights Advancement Act of 2015". GovTrack. Retrieved January 21, 2017.
19. ^ a b c Kousser, J. Morgan (2008). "The Strange, Ironic Career of Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–2007". Texas Law Review. 86. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved November 16, 2013.
20. ^ Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1970, Pub. L. No. 91-285, 84 Stat. 315 (1970) (codified as amended in scattered sections of 42 U.S.C. §§ 1973–1973bb-l)
21. ^ Richard Nixon, Public Papers of the Presidents, June 22, 1970, p. 512.
22. ^ Oregon v. Mitchell, 400 U.S. 112 (1970)
23. ^ "Pub. L. No. 94-73, 89 Stat. 400 (1975)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 11, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2014.
24. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Boyd, Thomas M.; Markman, Stephen J. (1983). "The 1982 Amendments to the Voting Rights Act: A Legislative History". Washington and Lee Law Review. 40 (4). Retrieved August 31, 2013.
25. ^ Johnson, Richard (2021). "The 1982 Voting Rights Act Extension as a "Critical Juncture": Ronald Reagan, Bob Dole, and Republican Party-Building". Studies in American Political Development. 35 (2): 223–238\. doi:10.1017/S0898588X21000079. ISSN 0898-588X. S2CID 238647643.
26. ^ Troy, Gil (2005). Morning in America: How Ronald Reagan Invented the 1980s. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. pp. 94–96\. ISBN 978-1-4008-4930-7. OCLC 868971097.
27. ^ Voting Rights Act of 1965 § 4(a) (codified at 42 U.S.C. § 1973(a)(1)(F))
28. ^ Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980)
29. ^ Derfner, Armand (October 1989). Chandler Davidson (ed.). Minority Vote Dilution. Vote Dilution and the Voting Rights Act Amendments of 1982: Howard University Press. ISBN 0-88258-176-7.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
30. ^ "TO PASS H.R. 3112, A BILL TO EXTEND KEY ENFORCEMENT … -- House Vote #228 -- Oct 5, 1981". GovTrack.us.
31. ^ "TO PASS H.R. 3112. (MOTION PASSED) SEE NOTE(S) 33. -- Senate Vote #687 -- Jun 18, 1982". GovTrack.us.
32. ^ a b "H.R. 4312 (102nd): Voting Rights Language Assistance Act of 1992". govtrack.us. Civic Impulse, LLC. Retrieved October 24, 2013.
33. ^ Laney, Garrine P. (March 13, 2013). The Voting Rights Act of 1965: Historical Background and Current Issues. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. ISBN 978-1-59033-671-7.
34. ^ a b c DeSipio, Louis; O. de la Garza, Rodolfo (1993). "Save the Baby, Change the Bathwater, and Scrub the Tub: Latino Electoral Participation After Seventeen Years of Voting Rights Act Coverage". Texas Law Review. 71. Retrieved October 19, 2013.
35. ^ a b c Tucker, James Thomas (2007). "The Politics of Persuasion: Passage of the Voting Rights Act Reauthorization Act of 2006" (PDF). Journal of Legislation. 33. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
36. ^ Pub. L. No. 109-246, 2006 U.S.C.C.A.N. (120 Stat.) 577 (codified at 42 U.S.C. §§ 1971–1973aa-1a)
37. ^ a b "H.R. 9 (109th)". GovTrack.us. Retrieved September 22, 2013.
38. ^ Lyman, Rick (March 29, 2006). "Extension of Voting Act Is Likely Despite Criticism". The New York Times. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
39. ^ "House delays renewal of Voting Rights Act". USA Today. June 21, 2006. Retrieved February 25, 2014.
40. ^ Babington, Charles (June 22, 2006). "GOP Rebellion Stops Voting Rights Act". The Washington Post. Retrieved August 29, 2008.
41. ^ a b c "Bush signs Voting Rights Act extension: Historic 1965 law renewed for 25 years". NBC News. Associated Press. July 27, 2006. Retrieved August 29, 2008.
42. ^ "Moving Forward on the VRAA". NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund, Inc. Retrieved April 19, 2014.
43. ^ "H.R. 885: Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2015". govtrack.us. Retrieved December 27, 2015.
44. ^ "Reps. Sensenbrenner and Conyers Reintroduce Bipartisan Voting Rights Amendment Act of 2017". Congressman Jim Sensenbrenner. Archived from the original on November 15, 2019. Retrieved November 15, 2019.
45. ^ a b The House has passed a bill to restore key parts of the Voting Rights Act Ella Nilsenella, Vox, Dec 6, 2019 House Passes Bill to Restore Key Parts of Voting Rights Act MATTHEW DALY, AP/Time, DECEMBER 6, 2019
46. ^ "Trump WH threatens to veto restored Voting Rights Act". MSNBC. December 7, 2019. Archived from the original on November 4, 2023. Retrieved November 4, 2023.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Garrett, R. Sam (April 25, 2023). The Voting Rights Act: Historical Development and Policy Background (Report). Congressional Research Service. Retrieved January 19, 2024.

* v
* t
* e

Voting rights in the United States

Constitutional
provisions|

* Article I
* House Electors Qualifications Clause
* Congressional Elections Clause
* 1st Amendment
* 14th Amendment
* Equal Protection Clause
* Privileges or Immunities Clause
* 15th Amendment
* 17th Amendment
* 19th Amendment
* 23rd Amendment
* 24th Amendment
* 26th Amendment

Federal laws
and agencies|

* U.S. Department of Justice
* Enforcement Acts
* Enforcement Act of 1870
* Second Enforcement Act
* Ku Klux Klan Act
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
* U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* amendments
* covered jurisdictions
* Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
* Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
* Federal Voting Assistance Program
* Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
* National Voter Registration Act of 1993
* Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
* Help America Vote Act of 2002
* Election Assistance Commission

State laws|

| Voter access|

* Absentee ballot
* Early voting
* Initiatives and referendums
* Postal voting
* Provisional ballot
* Recall election
* Voter registration in the U.S.
* Voting in space

|

Vote denial|

* Electoral fraud
* Grandfather clause
* Literacy test
* Poll tax
* Voter caging
* Voter ID laws
* Voter suppression

Vote dilution|

* First-past-the-post voting
* Gerrymandering
* Multiple non-transferable vote
* One man, one vote

By group|

* Men
* Women
* Felons
* Foreigners
* Transgender people
* Young adults
* African Americans
* Native Americans

| Residents of non-states|

* American Samoa
* District of Columbia
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Puerto Rico
* United States Virgin Islands

|

History|

* Timeline
* Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
* Timeline of women's suffrage
* Suffrage Hikes
* Woman Suffrage Procession
* Silent Sentinels
* U.S. suffragists
* Publications
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Women's poll tax repeal movement
* History of direct democracy

Related|

* Ballot access
* Campaign finance
* Citizenship
* Native Americans
* Democratic backsliding in the United States
* Disfranchisement
* Election
* Election law
* Elections in the U.S.
* Electoral College
* Electoral reform
* Electoral system
* Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
* National Voting Rights Museum
* Redistricting
* Secret ballot
* Suffrage
* Voter registration
* Voting

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Sweatt v. Painter
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

* v
* t
* e

Suffrage

Basic topics|

* Universal suffrage
* Right to run for office
* Age of candidacy
* banned
* Women
* Suffragette
* Women's liberation movement
* Men
* Black
* Youth
* Demeny voting
* Non-citizen
* Non-resident citizen
* Voting age
* Free and fair election
* One man, one vote
* Secret ballot
* Compulsory voting
* Disfranchisement
* Voter turnout

By country|

* Austria
* Australia
* 1902 Commonwealth Franchise Act
* aboriginal
* women
* Canada
* Chile
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* Hong Kong
* India
* Japan
* Kuwait
* Liechtenstein
* Mexico
* New Zealand
* Spain (Civil War, Francoist)
* Sri Lanka
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* women
* Cayman Islands
* Scotland
* Wales
* laws
* 1832
* 1918
* 1928
* United States
* women
* African Americans
* Native Americans
* felons
* foreigners
* District of Columbia
* Puerto Rico
* states
* Constitutional amendments: 15th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, 26th
* Indian Citizenship Act
* 1965 Voting Rights Act

Events|

| International|

* International Woman Suffrage Alliance conferences
* 1st
* 2nd
* 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th

|

Hong Kong|

* Hong Kong 1 July marches
* 2014 Hong Kong protests
* 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests

United Kingdom|

* WSPU march (1906)
* Mud March (1907)
* Women's Sunday (1908)
* Black Friday (1910)
* Battle of Downing Street (1910)
* Women's Coronation Procession (1911)
* Great Pilgrimage (1913)
* Open Christmas Letter (1914)
* Suffragette bombing and arson campaign

United States|

* Seneca Falls Convention (1848)
* Declaration of Sentiments (1848)
* Rochester Convention (1848)
* Ohio Women's Convention (1850)
* Ohio Women's Convention (1851)
* National Women's Rights Convention (1850–1869)
* Trial of Susan B. Anthony (1872–1873)
* Suffrage Hikes (1912–1914)
* Woman Suffrage Procession (1913)
* Suffrage Torch
* Suffrage Special (1916)
* Silent Sentinels (1917–1919)
* Night of Terror
* Prison Special
* 1920 United States presidential election
* "Give Us the Ballot" (1957)
* Freedom Summer (1964)
* Selma to Montgomery marches (1965)

Women
(memorials)|

* List of suffragists and suffragettes
* Timeline of women's suffrage
* US
* in majority-Muslim countries
* Historiography of the Suffragettes
* Women's suffrage organizations and publications
* Women's rights activists
* Leser v. Garnett
* Belmont–Paul Monument
* Rise up, Women (Emmeline Pankhurst statue)
* Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst Memorial
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton statue
* Suffragette Memorial
* Portrait Monument
* Women's Rights Pioneers Monument
* Forward statue
* Kate Sheppard National Memorial
* Millicent Fawcett statue
* Great Petition (2008 sculpture)
* Centenary of Women's Suffrage Commemorative Fountain
* Resilience
* Turning Point Suffragist Memorial
* Eagle House
* Pankhurst Centre
* Paulsdale
* Suffragette Handkerchief
* Holloway banner
* Holloway brooch
* Holloway Jingles
* Hunger Strike Medal
* Justice Bell
* Suffrage jewellery
* Suffragette penny
* Suffrage Oak
* Women's Rights National Historical Park
* Women's Suffrage National Monument
* International Women's Day
* Susan B. Anthony Day
* Women's Equality Day

Popular
culture|

* "The Women's Marseillaise"
* "The March of the Women" (1910 song)
* The Mother of Us All (1947 opera)
* "Sister Suffragette" (1964 song)
* Suffrage plays
* Women's suffrage in film
* Votes for Women (1912 film)
* Shoulder to Shoulder (1974 series)
* Not for Ourselves Alone (1999 documentary)
* Iron Jawed Angels (2004 film)
* Up the Women (2013 sitcom)
* Selma (2014 film)
* Suffragette (2015 film)
* Sylvia (2018 musical)
* Suffs (2022 musical)
* Lioness (upcoming film)
* Susan B. Anthony dollar
* National Voting Rights Museum (US)
* New Zealand ten-dollar note
* Women's Suffrage Centennial silver dollar (2020 U.S. commemorative)
* 2020 US ten-dollar bill
* Art in the women's suffrage movement in the United States
* Music and women's suffrage in the United States

* v
* t
* e

Richard Nixon

* 37th President of the United States (1969–1974)
* 36th Vice President of the United States (1953–1961)
* U.S. Senator from California (1950–1953)
* U.S. Representative for CA–12 (1947–1950)

Presidency|

* Transition
* First inauguration
* Second inauguration
* Nixon Doctrine
* "Bring Us Together"
* Economic policies
* Nixon shock
* Tar Baby Option
* Environmental Protection Agency
* creation
* National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
* Space exploration
* 1971 National Cancer Act
* Vietnam War
* Cambodian bombing
* Paris Peace Accords
* "Peace with Honor"
* Vietnamization
* Silent majority
* Cold War period
* Linkage policy
* Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act
* 1970 Lincoln Memorial visit
* 1972 visit to China
* Shanghai Communiqué
* Détente
* 1972 Moscow Summit
* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
* SALT I Treaty
* Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement
* Threshold Test Ban Treaty
* Endangered Species Act
* National Commission on Marihuana and Drug Abuse
* War on drugs
* Drug Enforcement Administration
* Cannabis policy
* Enemies List
* list of opponents
* Operation CHAOS
* Watergate
* timeline
* White House tapes
* United States v. Nixon
* Senate Watergate Committee
* impeachment process
* "I am not a crook"
* Resignation
* speech
* Pardon
* State of the Union Address
* 1970
* 1971
* 1972
* 1973
* 1974
* Wilson desk
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* controversies
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Life and
politics|

* Richard Nixon Foundation
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Birthplace and boyhood home
* Checkers speech
* 1958 motorcade attack
* Kitchen Debate
* Operation 40
* "Last press conference"
* Florida White House
* "La Casa Pacifica"
* Nixon Center
* Nixon v. General Services Administration
* Death and state funeral

Books|

* Six Crises (1962)
* Bibliography

Elections|

* U.S. House of Representatives: 1946
* 1948
* U.S. Senate: 1950
* California gubernatorial election: 1962
* GOP presidential primaries: 1960
* 1964
* 1968
* 1972
* GOP national conventions: 1952
* 1956
* 1960
* campaign
* 1968
* campaign
* 1972
* campaign
* Presidential elections: 1952
* transition
* 1956
* 1960
* debates
* Kennedy transition
* 1968
* 1972

Popular
culture|

* "Nixon goes to China"
* Millhouse (1971 film)
* An Evening with Richard Nixon (1972 play)
* Richard (1972 film)
* Another Nice Mess (1972 film)
* Four More Years (1972 film)
* Impeach the President (1973 song)
* The Werewolf of Washington (1973 film)
* White House Madness (1975 film)
* All the President's Men (1976 film)
* The Public Burning (1977 novel)
* Washington: Behind Closed Doors (1977 miniseries)
* Secret Honor (1984 film)
* Nixon in China (1987 opera)
* The Final Days (1989 film)
* Nixon (1995 film)
* Elvis Meets Nixon (1997 film)
* Futurama (1999 TV series)
* Dick (1999 film)
* Nixon's China Game (2000 film)
* Dark Side of the Moon (2002 film)
* The Assassination of Richard Nixon (2004 film)
* Frost–Nixon interviews (2006 play, 2008 film)
* Black Dynamite (2009 film)
* "The Impossible Astronaut" (2011 TV episode)
* Our Nixon (2013 film)
* X-Men: Days of Future Past (2014 film)
* Crooked (2015 novel)
* Elvis & Nixon (2016 film)
* The Post (2017 film)
* Watergate (2019 board game)
* U.S. postage stamp

Related|

* Presidential Recordings and Materials Preservation Act
* Presidential Townhouse
* Richard Nixon mask
* Nixon diamond

Staff|

* Jack Brennan (aide de camp)
* Murray Chotiner (early campaign manager)
* Manolo Sanchez (valet)
* Rose Mary Woods (secretary)

Family|

* Thelma "Pat" Ryan Nixon (wife)
* Tricia Nixon Cox (daughter)
* Julie Nixon Eisenhower (daughter)
* Christopher Nixon Cox (grandson)
* Jennie Eisenhower (granddaughter)
* Francis A. Nixon (father)
* Hannah Milhous Nixon (mother)
* Donald Nixon (brother)
* Edward Nixon (brother)

* ← Lyndon B. Johnson
* Gerald Ford →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Gerald Ford

* 38th President of the United States (1974–1977)
* 40th Vice President of the United States (1973–1974)
* U.S. Representative for MI–5 (1949–1973)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Inauguration
* Timeline
* Foreign policy
* Federal-Aid Highway Amendments of 1974
* Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
* Safe Drinking Water Act
* Toxic Substances Control Act of 1976
* Equal Credit Opportunity Act
* Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974
* Home Mortgage Disclosure Act
* Education for All Handicapped Children Act
* Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control
* Helsinki Accords
* National Security Study Memorandum 200
* Nixon pardon
* Whip inflation now
* Cannabis policy
* Wilson desk
* Assassination attempts
* Sacramento
* San Francisco
* State of the Union Addresses
* 1975
* 1976
* 1977
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court candidates
* controversies
* Betty Ford's August 1975 60 Minutes interview
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Life|

* Gerald R. Ford Birthsite and Gardens
* President Gerald R. Ford Jr. Boyhood Home
* Gerald R. Ford Jr. House
* Warren Commission
* Confirmation as Vice President
* AEI World Forum
* Death and state funeral
* Gerald R. Ford Presidential Museum
* Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library

Elections|

* United States House of Representatives elections
* 1948
* 1950
* 1952
* 1954
* 1956
* 1958
* 1960
* 1962
* 1964
* 1966
* 1968
* 1970
* 1972
* 1976 presidential election
* Carter transition
* Republican Party presidential primaries
* 1976
* 1980
* 1976 Republican National Convention
* 1976
* 1980

Cultural
depictions|

* The Pink Panther Strikes Again (1976)
* Superman vs. Muhammad Ali (1978)
* Dynasty (1981)
* The Betty Ford Story (1987)
* Assassins (1990)
* "Two Bad Neighbors" (1996)
* Saturday Night Live parodies
* The X-Presidents (1997)
* Presidential Reunion (2010)
* The Political Machine (2004)
* The Butler (2013)
* The First Lady (2022)

Legacy|

* Gerald R. Ford International Airport
* Gerald R. Ford Award
* Ford School of Public Policy
* Ford House Office Building
* USS Gerald R. Ford (CVN-78)
* Gerald R. Ford Freeway
* U.S. Postage stamps
* Statue

Family|

* Charles Henry King (grandfather)
* Leslie Lynch King Sr. (father)
* Dorothy Gardner Ford (mother)
* Gerald Rudolff Ford (stepfather)
* Thomas Gardner Ford (half-brother)
* Betty Ford (wife)
* Michael Gerald Ford (son)
* John Gardner Ford (son)
* Steven Meigs Ford (son)
* Susan Ford Bales (daughter)
* Liberty (family dog)

* ← Richard Nixon
* Jimmy Carter →

* ← Spiro Agnew
* Nelson Rockefeller →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Ronald Reagan

* 40th President of the United States (1981–1989)
* 33rd Governor of California (1967–1975)

Life and
politics|

* Birthplace
* Pitney Store
* Boyhood home
* General Electric Showcase House
* Rancho del Cielo
* 668 St. Cloud Road
* Filmography
* Political positions
* Governorship of California
* Presidential Library and Museum
* Reagan era
* Official White House portraits
* 1989 trip to Japan
* Death and state funeral
* Riderless horse

Presidency|

* Transition
* First inauguration
* Second inauguration
* Domestic policy
* Economic policy
* Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981
* Tax Reform Act of 1986
* Assassination attempt
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Foreign policy
* Reagan Doctrine
* Cold War
* 1st term
* 2nd term
* Soviet Union summits
* Geneva
* Reykjavík
* Washington
* INF Treaty
* Moscow
* Governors Island
* Constructive engagement
* Invasion of Grenada
* Iran–Contra affair
* Libya bombing
* Cannabis policy
* International trips
* The Grace Commission
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* controversies
* Administration scandals
* "We begin bombing in five minutes"
* Impeachment efforts
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations
* Bush transition

Speeches|

* Ronald Reagan Speaks Out Against Socialized Medicine (1961)
* "A Time for Choosing" (1964)
* Neshoba County Fair "states' rights" speech (1980)
* First inaugural address (1981)
* Joint session of Congress (1981)
* "Ash heap of history" (1982)
* "Evil empire" (1983)
* Second inaugural address (1985)
* "Tear down this wall!" (1987)
* State of the Union
* 1982
* 1983
* 1984
* 1985
* 1986
* 1987
* 1988

Books|

* An American Life
* The Reagan Diaries

Elections|

* 1966 California gubernatorial election
* 11th commandment
* 1970 California gubernatorial election
* Republican presidential primaries (1968
* 1976
* 1980
* 1984)
* Republican National Convention (1968
* 1976
* 1980
* 1984)
* 1976 presidential campaign
* 1980 presidential campaign
* "There you go again"
* "Let's make America great again"
* 1984 presidential campaign
* "Morning in America"
* "Bear in the woods"
* United States presidential election (1976
* 1980
* 1984)

Cultural
depictions|

* Bibliography
* In music
* Let Them Eat Jellybeans! (1981)
* U.S. Postage stamps
* Rap Master Ronnie
* Ed the Happy Clown (1983 comic series)
* Spitting Image (TV series) (1984)
* A Mind Forever Voyaging (1985 game)
* The Dark Knight Returns (1986)
* film adaptation
* Pizza Man (1991 film)
* The Day Reagan Was Shot (2001 film)
* Reagan's War (2002 book)
* The Reagans (2003 film)
* Reagan (2011 documentary)
* The Butler (2013 film)
* Killing Reagan (2015 book)
* Killing Reagan (2016 film)
* Call of Duty: Black Ops Cold War (2020 game)
* The Reagans (2020 miniseries)
* Reagan (2024 film)
* Reykjavik (TBA)

Memorials|

* U.S. Capitol statue
* Namesakes and memorials
* Ronald Reagan Day
* Reagan Day Dinner
* USS Ronald Reagan
* Ronald Reagan Building and International Trade Center
* Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport
* Virginia statue
* Budapest statue
* Ronald Reagan Monument, Warshaw

Family|

* Jane Wyman (first wife)
* Nancy Reagan (second wife)
* Maureen Reagan (daughter)
* Michael Reagan (adopted son)
* Patti Davis (daughter)
* Ron Reagan (son)
* Jack Reagan (father)
* Nelle Wilson Reagan (mother)
* Neil Reagan (brother)
* Rex (dog)

Related|

* "What would Reagan do?"

* ← Jimmy Carter
* George H. W. Bush →
* Category

* v
* t
* e

George H. W. Bush

* 41st President of the United States (1989–1993)
* 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–1989)
* Director of Central Intelligence (1976–1977)
* UN Ambassador (1971–1973)
* U.S. Representative for TX–7 (1967–1971)

Presidency|

* Transition
* Inauguration
* Timeline
* 1989
* 1990
* 1991
* 1992
* January 1993
* Environmental policy
* Soviet Union summits
* Malta
* Helsinki
* Invasion of Panama
* Chemical Weapons Accord
* Gulf War
* 1991 Madrid Conference
* National Space Council
* New world order
* Somali Civil War
* Unified Task Force
* Negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement
* Cannabis policy
* Vomiting incident
* Broccoli comments
* White House horseshoe pit
* Presidential pardons
* International trips
* Oval Office desk
* Cabinet
* Quayle vice presidency
* Judicial appointments
* Thomas
* Supreme Court candidates
* controversies
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations

Life|

* Presidential Library
* Bush School of Government and Public Service
* Walker's Point Estate
* Post-presidency
* Death and state funeral

Speeches|

* Joint session of Congress (1989)
* State of the Union addresses
* 1990
* 1991
* 1992
* Chicken Kiev

Elections|

| U.S. Senate|

* 1964
* 1970

|

U.S. House|

* 1966
* 1968

Vice Presidential|

* 1980 campaign
* selection
* convention
* election
* transition
* 1984 campaign
* convention
* election

Presidential|

* 1980 campaign
* primaries
* 1988 campaign
* primaries
* running mate selection
* convention
* "a thousand points of light"
* "Read my lips: no new taxes"
* debates
* election
* 1992 campaign
* primaries
* convention
* debates
* election
* Clinton transition

Public image|

* Saturday Night Live parodies
* The X-Presidents
* Presidential Reunion (2010 short film)
* The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991)
* What It Takes: The Way to the White House (1993)
* The Silence of the Hams (1994)
* George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (1997)
* The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty (2004)
* George H.W. Bush (2008)
* Bad for Democracy (2008)
* Family of Secrets (2009)
* 41: A Portrait of My Father (2014 book)
* Destiny and Power (2015 book)

Books|

* A World Transformed (1998)
* All the Best (1999)

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Presidential Library
* George H. W. Bush Monument
* Medal of Freedom
* Bush School of Government
* Reagan Award
* George Bush Intercontinental Airport
* USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77)

Family|

* Barbara Bush (wife)
* George W. Bush (son
* presidency)
* Pauline Robinson Bush (daughter)
* Jeb Bush (son)
* Neil Bush (son)
* Marvin Bush (son)
* Dorothy Bush Koch (daughter)
* Barbara Bush Coyne (granddaughter)
* Jenna Bush Hager (granddaughter)
* George P. Bush (grandson)
* Lauren Bush (granddaughter)
* Pierce Bush (grandson)
* Prescott Bush (father)
* Dorothy Walker Bush (mother)
* Nancy Walker Bush Ellis (sister)
* Jonathan Bush (brother)
* William H. T. Bush (brother)
* Samuel P. Bush (grandfather)
* George Herbert Walker (grandfather)
* James Smith Bush (great-grandfather)
* Obadiah Bush (great-great-grandfather)
* Millie (family dog)
* Sully (service dog)

* ← Ronald Reagan
* Bill Clinton →

* ← Walter Mondale
* Dan Quayle →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

George W. Bush

* 43rd President of the United States (2001–2009)
* 46th Governor of Texas (1995–2000)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inaugurations
* 2001
* 2005
* Timeline
* 2001
* 2002
* 2003
* 2004
* 2005
* 2006
* 2007
* 2008
* January 2009
* Domestic policy
* Legislation and programs
* Economic policy
* Foreign policy
* International trips
* Bush Doctrine
* Russia summits
* Slovenia
* Slovakia
* War in Afghanistan
* Patriot Act
* No Child Left Behind Act
* 2003 invasion of Iraq
* Status of Forces Agreement
* Relations with Iran
* Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act
* USA Freedom Corps
* Department of Homeland Security
* Space policy
* Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
* "War on Terror"
* President's Council on Service and Civic Participation
* award
* Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
* Email controversy
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court candidates
* John Roberts
* Harriet Miers
* Samuel Alito
* controversies
* Cabinet
* Cheney vice presidency
* Pardons
* Impeachment efforts
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations
* State funeral of Ronald Reagan
* State funeral of Gerald Ford
* Obama transition

Life and
legacy|

* Childhood home
* Early life and career
* Presidential library
* Official White House portrait
* Military service controversy
* Killian documents controversy
* authenticity issues
* Professional life
* Governorship of Texas
* Prairie Chapel Ranch
* Walker's Point Estate
* Clinton Bush Haiti Fund

Speeches|

* Joint session of Congress (Feb 2001)
* Remarks at the Islamic Center of Washington (2001)
* Joint session of Congress (September 11 attacks) (2001)
* Mission Accomplished (2003)
* State of the Union addresses
* 2002 ("Axis of evil")
* 2003
* 2004
* 2005
* 2006
* 2007
* 2008

Elections|

| U.S. House|

* 1978

|

Gubernatorial|

* 1994
* 1998

Presidential|

* 2000 campaign
* primaries
* running mate selection
* convention
* debates
* election
* Bush v. Gore
* 2004 campaign
* primaries
* convention
* debates
* election

Public image|

* Bushisms
* Nicknames
* As the subject of books and films
* Fictionalized portrayals
* Miss Me Yet?
* "Yo, Blair"

Books|

* A Charge to Keep (1999)
* Decision Points (2010)
* 41: A Portrait of My Father (2014)
* Portraits of Courage (2017)
* Out of Many, One (2021)

Popular
culture|

* Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004 documentary)
* W. (2008 film)

Family|

* Laura Bush (wife)
* Barbara Pierce Bush (daughter)
* Jenna Bush Hager (daughter)
* George H. W. Bush (father
* presidency)
* Barbara Bush (mother)
* Robin Bush (sister)
* Jeb Bush (brother)
* Neil Bush (brother)
* Marvin Bush (brother)
* Dorothy Bush Koch (sister)
* Barney (dog)
* Miss Beazley (dog)
* India (cat)
* Spot Fetcher (dog)

* ← Bill Clinton
* Barack Obama →

* Category

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