Anti-authoritarianism

Opposition to authoritarianism

Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing authority or hierarchical organization in the conduct of human relations, including the state system.[1]

## Philosophy

[edit]

### Analytic philosophy

[edit]

Analytic philosophy positions the reader in a position where they can reject any philosophical argument made by the author, in contrast with other forms of philosophy that require the deference of the reader to the author.[2] When the analytic reader feels they have a good reason to disagree with an author, they are entitled to regard the author as mistaken, rather than assuming themselves to be mistaken.[3] Analytic philosophy applies this form of anti-authoritarianism to every reader and every author, regardless of their own philosophies or levels of education.[4] Rather than allowing the reader to disagree without reason, analytic philosophy also applies the principle of charity, in which the reader reconstructs a philosophical argument to be in its strongest form before engaging in criticism of it. This principle requires that the author is not treated as an authority, as if they were treated as such, their words would not require a charitable interpretation.[5]

### Anarchism

[edit]

Part of a series on

Anarchism

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Etymologically, anarchism is defined as a belief that society should not be ruled.[6] The political philosophy of anarchism rejects forms of authority and hierarchy, including government and the state.[7] According to the American academic John C. Clark, anarchism sees liberty as inherent to human nature and maintains an anti-authoritarian critique of existing institutions, seeking to establish a non-coercive or non-authoritarian society in their place.[8] Anarchists seek to abolish the state and establish a stateless society, although they see the state as only one form of unjustifiable authority.[9] Anarchism goes further to view authority as lacking in moral legitimacy, and something that should be overthrown if necessary.[10] Anarchists see anti-authoritarianism as bound together with moral responsibility and personal development and believe that the overthrow of authorities can give way to a spontaneous order.[11]

The French anarchist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon summed up the revolutionary goal of anarchism to be "no more authority",[12] while Sébastien Faure claimed everyone who fights against authority to be an anarchist.[13] Fundamentalist definitions of anarchism assert that it is synonymous with anti-authoritarianism,[14] with the Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta defining anarchy as a "society organised without authority".[15] Drawing from the ideas of Post-Marxism and the post-structuralism of Michel Foucault, post-anarchists such as Saul Newman have extended the rejection of authority to the rejection of repressive forms of power and hierarchy.[16]

Although all anarchists are highly sceptical of authority, many do not outright reject all forms of authority and see some forms as legitimate, albeit still subject to questioning.[17] The Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin acknowledged that he rejected specific kinds of authority, but insisted that his idea of anarchism was not opposed to all authority.[15] Bakunin and his successor Peter Kropotkin were suspicious of all political authority over society, but accepted the methodological authority of science.[18] Bakunin considered science to be the "sole legitimate authority", due to its basis in rationality and its concordance with human freedom.[19] However, he also rejected the authority of individual scientific experts over aspects of social life.[20] According to philosopher Richard T. De George, parental authority is also necessary in cases where parents must make choices that their child is not capable of making, although these choices should ideally not be imposed on the child without their consent.[21] Through the anarchist lens, the legitimacy of parental authority is subject to the parents' conduct, the child's incapacity and whether it is necessary to exercise such authority.[22]

Marxist and liberal critiques of anarchism have defined it synonymously with a strict anti-authoritarianism, which calls for the abolition of all forms of authority, and have thus dismissed it as "utopian". In the 1872 essay On Authority, Friedrich Engels condemned anarchist anti-authoritarianism and presented a justification for the authority of a technocracy.[23] The American Marxist Hal Draper also criticised the anti-authoritarianism of individualist anarchism for basing its idea of freedom on a solipsistic idea of a sovereign individual, over whom individualist anarchists seek to abolish any higher authority.[24]

### Pragmatism

[edit]

Pragmatist anti-authoritarians are motivated to construct a better future for humanity through fraternal cooperation, rather than relying on regulation by an external authority figure.[25] According to pragmatism, anti-authoritarian ethics are developed through cultural inheritance, rather than the morality of a non-human higher power; and an anti-authoritarian epistemology prioritises intersubjectivity (the development of collective consensus through free inquiry) over the supposed objectivity of a higher power.[26]

The American pragmatist philosopher John Dewey developed an anti-authoritarian philosophy in reaction against his own religious education.[27] Dewey held that humans should regulate themselves through democratic cooperation with others, rather than through their desire to act in accordance with the will of some non-human higher power.[28] He saw history as a process of ever-increasing freedoms and cooperation, and believed that authority ought to be replaced with fraternity.[29] Through this lens, Dewey considered modern technology and liberal democracy to be two core aspects of movement towards an anti-authoritarian society, as they were both established through fraternal cooperation rather than paternalism. To Dewey, pragmatism rejects any authority other than that established by consensus.[30] Dewey saw anti-authoritarianism as the replacement of a morality formed through obligation with one formed through love.[31]

## Personality traits

[edit]

In the Weimar Republic during the 1920s, German sociologist Erich Fromm began investigating the characteristics of authoritarian and anti-authoritarian sentiments, conducting a survey of German industrial workers which developed his theory on authoritarian personalities. By the 1930s, Fromm's Frankfurt School developed an interest in resistance to authority; at the time, they considered this through the lens of revolutionary politics, but their terminology later began to refer to the subject as anti-authoritarianism.[32]

In the 1950 book The Authoritarian Personality, Theodor W. Adorno carried out a study of the characteristics of anti-authoritarians. Adorno and his colleagues found anti-authoritarian "low-scorers" to be opposed to hierarchy, injustice, autocracy and totalitarianism, and more likely than authoritarian "high-scorers" to resist social authorities who they perceived to uphold injustice. They categorised anti-authoritarians into five broad types: the "genuine liberal", who displayed a strong sense of autonomy, a capacity for critical thinking and a moral courage that led them to resist perceived injustice; the "rigid low-scorers", who had a dogmatic and superficial understanding of left-wing politics; the "protesting low-scorers", who rarely took action in accordance with their anti-authoritarian ideas due to their own psychological problems; the "impulsive low-scorers", who were unable to maintain a stable political ideology; and the "easygoing low-scorers", who rarely displayed a political ideology and preferred to focus on improving their individual situation rather than participating in social action.[32]

Following the publication of Adorno's book, the term "anti-authoritarianism" gained more widespread usage among psychologists and sociologists, with Benjamin Spock using it to describe a laissez-faire approach to parenting.[33] A 1972 study by Australian psychologists J. Martin and J. Ray found that agreement with anti-authoritarian statements was negatively correlated with the responders' socioeconomic status and positively correlated with indicators of neuroticism.[34] A 1991 study by South African psychologist Jose Meloen found: that anti-authoritarians to be nine times more likely than authoritarians to engage in activism; that the more anti-authoritarian a person or group was, the more likely they were to engage in resistance activities; and that higher levels of education correlated with higher degrees of anti-authoritarianism.[35] Meloen also found that, although authoritarians sometimes engaged in anti-authoritarian behaviour, such behaviour was not consistent and often isolated to individual situations.[36]

## Historical movements

[edit]

After World War II, there was a strong sense of anti-authoritarianism based on anti-fascism in Europe. This was attributed to the active resistance from occupation and to fears arising from the development of superpowers.[37] Anti-authoritarianism has also been associated with countercultural and bohemian movements. In the 1950s, the Beat Generation were politically radical and to some degree their anti-authoritarian attitudes were taken up by activists in the 1960s.[38] Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War was largely led by anti-authoritarians, who participated in anti-war protests and engaged in conscientious objection.[39]

Following the handover of Hong Kong in 1997, an anti-authoritarian movement grew in response to the increasing power of the government of China over the region. The movement culminated in the 2019–2020 Hong Kong protests against a proposed extradition bill, which eventually forced the bill to be withdrawn.[40]

## See also

[edit]

* Anarchist communism
* Anticonformism
* Autonomen
* Civil libertarianism
* Criticism of fascism
* Criticism of monarchy
* Fascist (insult)
* Freedom of speech
* Freedom
* Individualism
* Libertarian socialism
* Libertarianism
* Liberty
* List of freedom indices
* Punk ideologies
* Question authority
* Social anarchism
* Social liberalism

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Brown, L. Susan (2002). "Anarchism as a Political Philosophy of Existential Individualism: Implications for Feminism". The Politics of Individualism: Liberalism, Liberal Feminism and Anarchism. Black Rose Books Ltd. Publishing. p. 106.
2. ^ Futter 2016, pp. 1333–1334.
3. ^ Futter 2016, pp. 1334–1335.
4. ^ Futter 2016, p. 1335.
5. ^ Futter 2016, pp. 1335–1336.
6. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 27.
7. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 25.
8. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 25–26.
9. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 27–28.
10. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 28–29.
11. ^ Orenstein & Luken 1978, p. 57.
12. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 28.
13. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 28n11.
14. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 2n2.
15. ^ a b McLaughlin 2007, p. 12.
16. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 12–13.
17. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 33.
18. ^ Orenstein & Luken 1978, p. 55.
19. ^ Orenstein & Luken 1978, pp. 55–56.
20. ^ Orenstein & Luken 1978, pp. 56–57.
21. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 33–34.
22. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 34.
23. ^ McLaughlin 2007, p. 11.
24. ^ McLaughlin 2007, pp. 11–12.
25. ^ Rorty 2021, pp. 10–11.
26. ^ Rorty 2021, p. 16.
27. ^ Rorty 2021, p. 9.
28. ^ Rorty 2021, pp. 9–10.
29. ^ Rorty 2021, p. 10.
30. ^ Rorty 2021, p. 15.
31. ^ Rorty 2021, p. 16n.
32. ^ a b Meloen 1991, p. 252.
33. ^ Meloen 1991, p. 262.
34. ^ Martin & Ray 1972, p. 16-17.
35. ^ Meloen 1991, pp. 263–265.
36. ^ Meloen 1991, p. 265.
37. ^ Cox, David (2005). Sign Wars: The Culture Jammers Strike Back!. LedaTape Organisation. p. 108\. ISBN 978-0-9807701-5-5. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
38. ^ Matterson, Stephen. "Mid-1950s-1960s Beat Generation". The American Novel. PBS. Archived from the original on 7 July 2007.
39. ^ Meloen 1991, p. 261.
40. ^ Cantoni et al. 2022, pp. 2–3.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Cantoni, Davide; Heizlsperger, Louis-Jonas; Yang, David Y.; Yuchtman, Noam; Zhang, Y. Jane (2022). "The fundamental determinants of protest participation: Evidence from Hong Kong's antiauthoritarian movement". Journal of Public Economics. 211: 1–10\. doi:10.1016/j.jpubeco.2022.104667. ISSN 0047-2727.
* Futter, Dylan B. (2016). "Philosophical Anti-authoritarianism". Philosophia. 44 (4): 1333–1349\. doi:10.1007/s11406-016-9781-0.
* Gutherz, David (2019). "On Not Getting What You Want: Elvio Fachinelli's Anti-Authoritarianism". Psychoanalysis and History. 21 (3): 267–291\. doi:10.3366/pah.2019.0307.
* Martin, J.; Ray, J. (1972). "Anti-authoritarianism: An indicator of pathology". Australian Journal of Psychology. 24 (1): 13–18\. doi:10.1080/00049537208255780.
* McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6196-2. LCCN 2007007973.
* Meloen, Jos (1991). "Anti-authoritarianism and political activism". South African Journal of Psychology. 21 (4): 261–266\. doi:10.1177/008124639102100410.
* Newman, Saul (2001). From Bakunin to Lacan: Anti-authoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power. Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-0240-0.
* Orenstein, David M.; Luken, Paul C. (1978). "Anarchistic Methodology: Methodological Anti-Authoritarianism as a Resolution to Paradigmatic Disputes in the Social Sciences". Sociological Focus. 11 (1): 53–68\. doi:10.1080/00380237.1978.10570308.
* Rorty, Richard (2021). Pragmatism as Anti-authoritarianism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674270060.
* Witoszek, Nina (2019). The Origins of Anti-Authoritarianism. Taylor & Francis. doi:10.4324/9781315164540. hdl:20.500.12657/76411. ISBN 9781315164540.

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Anarchism

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Issues|

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Schools of thought|

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Culture|

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* Architecture
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* Popular education
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* Radical cheerleading
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* Self-managed social center
* Symbolism

History|

* French Revolution
* Revolutions of 1848
* Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA
* Paris Commune
* Hague Congress
* Cantonal rebellion
* Haymarket affair
* Trial of the Thirty
* International Conference of Rome
* Ferrer movement
* Strandzha Commune
* Congress of Amsterdam
* Tragic Week
* High Treason Incident
* Manifesto of the Sixteen
* German Revolution of 1918–1919
* Bavarian Soviet Republic
* 1919 United States bombings
* Biennio Rosso
* Kronstadt rebellion
* Makhnovshchina
* Amakasu Incident
* Alt Llobregat insurrection
* Anarchist insurrection of January 1933
* Anarchist insurrection of December 1933
* Spanish Revolution of 1936
* Barcelona May Days
* Red inverted triangle
* Labadie Collection
* Provo
* May 1968
* Kate Sharpley Library
* Carnival Against Capital
* 1999 Seattle WTO protests
* Really Really Free Market
* Occupy movement

People|

* Alston
* Armand
* Ba
* Bakunin
* Berkman
* Bonanno
* Bookchin
* Bourdin
* Chomsky
* Cleyre
* Day
* Durruti
* Ellul
* Ervin
* Faure
* Ferrer
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* Giovanni
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* Goldman
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* Graeber
* Guillaume
* He-Yin
* Kanno
* Kōtoku
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* Landauer
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Concepts|

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* Proudhon
* Warren
* Tucker

|

Right-wing|

* Bastiat
* Block
* Brennan
* Emerson
* D. Friedman
* M. Friedman
* R. Friedman
* Goldwater
* Hayek
* Herbert
* Hoppe
* Jillette
* Kinsella
* Korwin-Mikke
* Lane
* Locke
* von Mises
* de Molinari
* Nock
* Nozick
* Paterson
* Rand
* Read
* Rothbard
* Simon
* Spencer
* Stossel

Other|

* George
* Hess
* Konkin
* de La Boétie
* McElroy
* Paine
* Spooner
* Stirner
* Szasz
* Thoreau

Politicians|

* Cleveland
* Coolidge
* Farage
* Gandhi
* Johnson
* Jorgensen
* Korwin-Mikke
* Milei
* Paul
* Sarwark

Issues|

* Abortion
* Affirmative action
* Anarcho-capitalism and minarchism
* Capital punishment
* Foreign intervention
* Immigration
* Intellectual property
* Internal debates
* LGBT rights
* Objectivism
* Political alliances
* Political parties
* Theories of law
* War on Drugs

Works|

* Atlas Shrugged (1957)
* The Market for Liberty (1970)
* For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto (1973)
* Law, Legislation and Liberty (1973–1979)
* Anarchy, State, and Utopia (1974)
* Free to Choose (1980)

Related|

* Abolitionism
* Anti-collectivism
* Anti-communism
* Anti-fascism
* Anti-socialism
* Austro-libertarianism
* Center for Libertarian Studies
* Civil libertarianism
* Classical liberalism
* Conscientious objector
* Constitutionalism
* Cultural liberalism
* Economic liberalism
* Freeman on the land movement
* Fusionism
* Geolibertarianism
* Georgism
* Green libertarianism
* Libertarian conservatism
* Libertarian Democrats
* Libertarian socialism
* Libertarian Republicans
* Libertarian science fiction
* Libertarianism in the United Kingdom
* Libertarianism in the United States
* Objectivism
* Public choice theory
* Small government
* Sovereign citizen movement
* Technolibertarianism

* Libertarianism portal
* Outline of libertarianism

* v
* t
* e

Libertarian socialism

Schools
of thought|

* Anarchism
* Collectivist anarchism
* Anarchist communism
* Anarcho-syndicalism
* Guild socialism
* Marxism
* Autonomism
* Chalieu–Montal Tendency
* Council communism
* Frankfurt School
* Freudo-Marxism
* Situationism
* Utopian socialism

Concepts

* Anti-authoritarianism
* Anti-capitalism
* Class conflict
* Common ownership
* Decentralization
* Economic democracy
* Egalitarian community
* Free association
* Mutual aid
* Worker cooperative
* Workers' control
* Workers' self-management

Models

* Communalism
* Decentralized planning
* Economic democracy
* Guild socialism
* Inclusive Democracy
* Market abolitionism
* Participatory economics
* Socialization

People

| 19th c.|

* Charles Fourier
* Stephen Pearl Andrews
* Mikhail Bakunin
* Joseph Déjacque
* Thomas Hodgskin
* Peter Kropotkin
* Gustav Landauer
* Herbert Marcuse
* William Morris
* Antonie Pannekoek
* Francesc Pi i Margall
* Pierre-Joseph Proudhon
* Wilhelm Reich
* Rudolf Rocker
* Otto Rühle

|

20th c.|

* Michael Albert
* Murray Bookchin
* Cornelius Castoriadis
* Noam Chomsky
* G. D. H. Cole
* Takis Fotopoulos
* Paul Goodman
* Robin Hahnel
* Daniel Guérin
* Chris Pallis

Significant
events|

* International Workingmen's Association
* Revolutions of 1917–1923
* Spanish Revolution of 1936
* New Left
* New social movements

Related

* Communism
* Democratic socialism
* Left-libertarianism
* Libertarianism
* Socialism
* Syndicalism
* Critique of political economy

* v
* t
* e

Hippies

History of the
hippie movement|

* Etymology
* Beat Generation/Beatniks
* Central Park be-ins
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Red Dog Experience
* San Francisco sound
* Drop City
* Sunset Strip curfew riots
* Love Pageant Rally
* Haight-Ashbury
* Human Be-In
* Mantra-Rock Dance
* Summer of Love
* Fantasy Fair
* Monterey Pop Festival
* Newport Pop Festival
* Sky River Rock Festival
* People's Park
* Woodstock
* Glastonbury Festival
* The Farm
* Piedra Roja
* Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro
* Nambassa

People and groups|

* Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
* Acid Tests
* Furthur bus
* Electrohippies
* Diggers
* San Francisco Oracle
* Haight Ashbury Free Clinic
* Haight-Ashbury Switchboard
* Yippies
* Wavy Gravy
* Hog Farm
* The Brotherhood of Eternal Love
* Rainbow Family

Politics and ethics|

* Back-to-the-land movement
* Free love
* Anti-authoritarianism
* Simple living
* Environmentalism
* Pacifism
* Communalism
* Counterculture
* Bohemianism
* Make love, not war
* Turn on, tune in, drop out
* Vegetarianism
* Veganism

Culture and fashion|

* Psychedelia
* Flower power
* Hippie trail
* Hippie exploitation films
* Happening
* Peace symbols
* Bell-bottoms
* Love beads
* Long hair
* Tie-dye
* Intentional community
* communal living
* Free festival
* Music festival
* Flower child

Music|

* Folk music
* Folk rock
* Protest song
* Psychedelic music
* Psychedelic folk
* Psychedelic rock
* Psychedelic soul
* Psychedelic pop
* Psychedelic trance
* Acid rock
* Space rock
* Progressive rock
* Raga rock
* World music
* New-age music
* Jam bands
* List of jam band music festivals
* List of historic rock festivals

Psychedelics
and other drugs|

* Cannabis
* DMT
* LSD
* Psilocybin mushroom
* Mescaline
* Peyote

Hippie related
subcultures|

* Deadhead
* Feral
* Flower child
* Freak scene
* Housetrucker
* Jesus freak
* Jipitecas
* La Onda
* Lebensreform
* Mánička
* New Age
* New Age travellers
* Radical Faeries
* Rave
* UK underground
* Woodstock Nation
* Zippie

Related|

* List of films
* List of books and other publications
* Subculture
* Cannabis culture
* Cyberdelic
* Head shop
* Underground press
* press syndicate
* list
* Legend of the Rainbow Warriors
* Free Speech Movement
* Anti-war movement
* Civil rights movement
* Protests of 1968
* Chicago Seven
* New Left
* New social movements
* Postmaterialism
* Neotribalism
* Hungry generation
* Sexual revolution
* Second Summer of Love
* Neo-psychedelia
* Baby boomers

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