Arctic

Polar region of the Earth's northern hemisphere

For other uses, see Arctic (disambiguation).

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The Arctic Circle, currently at roughly 66° north of the Equator, defines the boundary of the Arctic seas and lands

A political map showing land ownership within the Arctic region

Artificially coloured topographical map of the Arctic region

MODIS image of the Arctic

Aerial photo of the Greenlandic Ice Sheet

The Arctic (/ˈɑːr(k)tɪk/;[1][Note 1] from Ancient Greek ἄρκτος (árktos) 'bear') is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying within the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway (Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen), northernmost Sweden (Västerbotten, Norrbotten and Lappland), northern Finland (North Ostrobothnia, Kainuu and Lappi), Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), the United States (Alaska), Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland (Grímsey and Kolbeinsey), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas.

Land within the Arctic region has seasonally varying snow and ice cover, with predominantly treeless permafrost under the tundra. Arctic seas contain seasonal sea ice in many places.

The Arctic region is a unique area among Earth's ecosystems. The cultures in the region and the Arctic indigenous peoples have adapted to its cold and extreme conditions. Life in the Arctic includes zooplankton and phytoplankton, fish and marine mammals, birds, land animals, plants, and human societies.[3] Arctic land is bordered by the subarctic.

## Definition and etymology

[edit]

The word Arctic comes from the Greek word ἀρκτικός arktikos "near the Bear, northern"[4] and from the word ἄρκτος arktos meaning "bear" for either to the constellation known as Ursa Major, the "Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern portion of the celestial sphere,[5][6] or the constellation Ursa Minor, the "Little Bear", which contains the celestial north pole (currently very near Polaris, the current north Pole Star, or North Star).[7]

There are several definitions of what area is contained within the Arctic. The area can be defined as north of the Arctic Circle (about 66° 34'N), the approximate southern limit of the midnight sun and the polar night. Another definition of the Arctic, which is popular with ecologists, is the region in the Northern Hemisphere where the average temperature for the warmest month (July) is below 10 °C (50 °F); the northernmost tree line roughly follows the isotherm at the boundary of this region.[8][9]

## Climate

[edit]

Main articles: Climate of the Arctic and Climate change in the Arctic

A snowy landscape of Inari located in Lapland (Finland)

The climate of the Arctic region is characterized by cold winters and cool summers. Its precipitation mostly comes in the form of snow and is low, with most of the area receiving less than 50 cm (20 in). High winds often stir up snow, creating the illusion of continuous snowfall. Average winter temperatures can go as low as −40 °C (−40 °F), and the coldest recorded temperature is approximately −68 °C (−90 °F). Coastal Arctic climates are moderated by oceanic influences, having generally warmer temperatures and heavier snowfalls than the colder and drier interior areas. The Arctic is affected by current global warming, leading to climate change in the Arctic, including Arctic sea ice decline, diminished ice in the Greenland ice sheet, and Arctic methane emissions as the permafrost thaws.[10][11] The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.[12]

Due to the poleward migration of the planet's isotherms (about 56 km (35 mi) per decade during the past 30 years as a consequence of global warming), the Arctic region (as defined by tree line and temperature) is currently shrinking.[13] Perhaps the most alarming result of this is Arctic sea ice shrinkage. There is a large variance in predictions of Arctic sea ice loss, with models showing near-complete to complete loss in September from 2035 to sometime around 2067.[14][15]

## Flora and fauna

[edit]

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Arctic vegetation in autumn displays some of the most intense and vivid colors seen on Earth (Lake Seydozero, Murmansk Oblast, Russia)

Arctic life is characterized by adaptation to short growing seasons with long periods of sunlight, and cold, dark, snow-covered winter conditions.

### Plants

[edit]

Arctic poppy in bloom within the Qausuittuq National Park on Bathurst Island

Arctic vegetation is composed of plants such as dwarf shrubs, graminoids, herbs, lichens, and mosses, which all grow relatively close to the ground, forming tundra. An example of a dwarf shrub is the bearberry. As one moves northward, the amount of warmth available for plant growth decreases considerably. In the northernmost areas, plants are at their metabolic limits, and small differences in the total amount of summer warmth make large differences in the amount of energy available for maintenance, growth, and reproduction. Colder summer temperatures cause the size, abundance, productivity, and variety of plants to decrease. Trees cannot grow in the Arctic, but in its warmest parts, shrubs are common and can reach 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height; sedges, mosses and lichens can form thick layers. In the coldest parts of the Arctic, much of the ground is bare; non-vascular plants such as lichens and mosses predominate, along with a few scattered grasses and forbs (like the Arctic poppy).

### Animals

[edit]

See also: List of Arctic cetaceans

See also the categories Fauna of the Arctic and Mammals of the Arctic

Muskox A snowy owl

Herbivores on the tundra include the Arctic hare, lemming, muskox, and reindeer (caribou). They are preyed on by the snowy owl, Arctic fox, grizzly bear, and Arctic wolf. The polar bear is also a predator, though it prefers to hunt for marine life from the ice. There are also many birds and marine species endemic to the colder regions. Other terrestrial animals include wolverines, moose, Dall sheep, ermines, and Arctic ground squirrels. Marine mammals include seals, walruses, and several species of cetacean—baleen whales and also narwhals, orcas, and belugas.

## Natural resources

[edit]

See also: Natural resources of the Arctic and Petroleum exploration in the Arctic

There are copious natural resources in the Arctic (oil, gas, minerals, freshwater, fish, and, if the subarctic is included, forest) to which modern technology and the economic opening up of Russia have given significant new opportunities. The interest in the tourism industry is also on the increase.

The Arctic contains some of the last and most extensive continuous wilderness areas in the world, and its significance in preserving biodiversity and genotypes is considerable. The increasing presence of humans fragments vital habitats. The Arctic is particularly susceptible to the abrasion of groundcover and to the disturbance of the rare breeding grounds of the animals that are characteristic of the region. The Arctic also holds 1/5 of the Earth's water supply.[16]

## Paleontology

[edit]

During the Cretaceous period, the Arctic still had seasonal snows, though only a light dusting and not enough to permanently hinder plant growth. Animals such as the Chasmosaurus, Hypacrosaurus, Troodon, and Edmontosaurus may have all migrated north to take advantage of the summer growing season, and migrated south to warmer climes when winter came. A similar situation may also have been found amongst dinosaurs that lived in Antarctic regions, such as the Muttaburrasaurus of Australia.

However, others claim that dinosaurs lived year-round at very high latitudes, such as near the Colville River, which is now at about 70° N but at the time (70 million years ago) was 10° further north.[17]

## Indigenous population

[edit]

Main article: Circumpolar peoples

Further information: Indigenous peoples of Siberia and Inuit Circumpolar Council

Maps showing the decline of the Dorset culture and expansion of the Thule from c. 900 to 1500 Circumpolar coastal human population distribution c. 2009 (includes indigenous and non-indigenous).

The earliest inhabitants of North America's central and eastern Arctic are referred to as the Arctic small tool tradition (AST) and existed c. 2500 BCE. AST consisted of several Paleo-Eskimo cultures, including the Independence cultures and Pre-Dorset cultures.[18][19] The Dorset culture (Inuktitut: Tuniit or Tunit) refers to the next inhabitants of central and eastern Arctic. The Dorset culture evolved because of technological and economic changes during 1050–550 BCE. With the exception of the Quebec / Labrador peninsula, the Dorset culture vanished around 1500 CE.[20] Supported by genetic testing, evidence shows that descendants of the Dorset culture, known as the Sadlermiut, survived in Aivilik, Southampton and Coats Islands, until the beginning of the 20th century.[21]

The Dorset / Thule culture transition dates around the ninth–10th centuries CE. Scientists theorize that there may have been cross-contact between the two cultures with the sharing of technology, such as fashioning harpoon heads, or the Thule may have found Dorset remnants and adapted their ways with the predecessor culture.[22] The evidence suggested that Inuit descend from the Birnirk of Siberia, through the Thule culture expanded into northern Canada and Greenland, where they genetically and culturally completely replaced the Indigenous Dorset people sometime after 1300 CE.[23] The question of why the Dorset disappeared so completely has led some to suggest that Thule invaders wiped out the Dorset people in "an example of prehistoric genocide."[24]

By 1300 CE, the Inuit, present-day Arctic inhabitants and descendants of Thule culture, had settled in west Greenland and moved into east Greenland over the following century (Inughuit, Kalaallit and Tunumiit are modern Greenlandic Inuit groups descended from Thule). Over time, the Inuit have migrated throughout the Arctic regions of Eastern Russia, the United States, Canada, and Greenland.[25]

Other Circumpolar North indigenous peoples include the Chukchi, Evenks, Iñupiat, Khanty, Koryaks, Nenets, Sámi, Yukaghir, Gwichʼin, and Yupik.

## International cooperation and politics

[edit]

Main article: Arctic cooperation and politics

Polar bears on the sea ice of the Arctic Ocean, near the North Pole. USS Honolulu pictured.

The eight Arctic nations (Canada, Kingdom of Denmark [Greenland & The Faroe Islands], Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and US) are all members of the Arctic Council, as are organizations representing six indigenous populations (The Aleut International Association, Arctic Athabaskan Council, Gwich'in Council International, Inuit Circumpolar Council, Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, and Saami Council). The council operates on a consensus basis, mostly dealing with environmental treaties and not addressing boundary or resource disputes.

Though Arctic policy priorities differ, every Arctic nation is concerned about sovereignty/defense, resource development, shipping routes, and environmental protection.[26] Much work remains on regulatory agreements regarding shipping, tourism, and resource development in Arctic waters.[27] Arctic shipping is subject to some regulatory control through the International Code for Ships Operating in Polar Waters, adopted by the International Maritime Organization on 1 January 2017 and applies to all ships in Arctic waters over 500 tonnes.[28][29]

Research in the Arctic has long been a collaborative international effort, evidenced by the International Polar Year. The International Arctic Science Committee, hundreds of scientists and specialists of the Arctic Council, and the Barents Euro-Arctic Council are more examples of collaborative international Arctic research.[30]

### Territorial claims

[edit]

Main article: Territorial claims in the Arctic

While there are several ongoing territorial claims in the Arctic, no country owns the geographic North Pole or the region of the Arctic Ocean surrounding it. The surrounding six Arctic states that border the Arctic Ocean—Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (with Greenland), Iceland, Norway, Russia, and the United States—are limited to a 200 nautical miles (370 km; 230 mi) exclusive economic zone (EEZ) off their coasts. Two Arctic states (Finland and Sweden) do not have direct access to the Arctic Ocean.

Upon ratification of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, a country has ten years to make claims to an extended continental shelf beyond its 200 nautical mile zone.[26][31] Due to this, Norway (which ratified the convention in 1996),[32] Russia (ratified in 1997),[32] Canada (ratified in 2003)[32] and the Kingdom of Denmark (ratified in 2004)[32] launched projects to establish claims that certain sectors of the Arctic seabed should belong to their territories.

On 2 August 2007, two Russian bathyscaphes, MIR-1 and MIR-2, for the first time in history descended to the Arctic seabed beneath the North Pole and placed there a Russian flag made of rust-proof titanium alloy. The flag-placing, during Arktika 2007, generated commentary on and concern for a race for control of the Arctic's vast hydrocarbon resources.[33]

Map of the Arctic region showing the Northeast Passage, the Northern Sea Route within it, and the Northwest Passage.

Foreign ministers and other officials representing Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Norway, Russia, and the United States met in Ilulissat, Greenland on 28 May 2008 at the Arctic Ocean Conference and announced the Ilulissat Declaration,[34][35] blocking any "new comprehensive international legal regime to govern the Arctic Ocean," and pledging "the orderly settlement of any possible overlapping claims."[26][36]

As of 2012, the Kingdom of Denmark is claiming the continental shelf based on the Lomonosov Ridge between Greenland and over the North Pole to the northern limit of the exclusive economic zone of Russia.[37]

The Russian Federation is also claiming a large swath of seabed along the Lomonosov Ridge but, unlike Denmark, confined its claim to its side of the Arctic region. In August 2015, Russia made a supplementary submission for the expansion of the external borders of its continental shelf in the Arctic Ocean, asserting that the eastern part of the Lomonosov Ridge and the Mendeleyev Ridge is an extension of the Eurasian continent. In August 2016, the UN Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf began to consider Russia's submission.[38]

Canada claims the Northwest Passage as part of its internal waters belonging to Canada, while the United States and most maritime nations[39] regards it as an international strait, which means that foreign vessels have right of transit passage.[40]

### Exploration

[edit]

Main article: Arctic exploration

See also: Petroleum exploration in the Arctic

Since 1937, the larger portion of the Asian-side Arctic region has been extensively explored by Soviet and Russian crewed drifting ice stations. Between 1937 and 1991, 88 international polar crews established and occupied scientific settlements on the drift ice and were carried thousands of kilometers by the ice flow.[41] Modern day scientists now rely more heavily on unmanned buoys and ice-tethered observatories than crewed stations for Arctic research and exploration[42][43]

### Pollution

[edit]

Main articles: Pollution in the Arctic Ocean and Arctic haze

Long-range pollution pathways to the Arctic

The Arctic is comparatively clean, although there are certain ecologically difficult localized pollution problems that present a serious threat to people's health living around these pollution sources. Due to the prevailing worldwide sea and air currents, the Arctic area is the fallout region for long-range transport pollutants, and in some places, the concentrations exceed the levels of densely populated urban areas. An example of this is the phenomenon of Arctic haze, which is commonly blamed on long-range pollutants. Another example is with the bioaccumulation of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in Arctic wildlife and people.

### Preservation

[edit]

Main article: Save the Arctic

There have been many proposals to preserve the Arctic over the years. Most recently a group of states[clarification needed] at the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, on 21 June 2012, proposed protecting the Arctic, similar to the Antarctic Treaty System. The initial focus of the campaign will be a UN resolution creating a global sanctuary around the pole, and a ban on oil drilling and unsustainable fishing in the Arctic.[44]

The Arctic has climate change rates that are amongst the highest in the world. Due to the major impacts to the region from climate change the near climate future of the region will be extremely different under all scenarios of warming.[45]

## Climate change

[edit]

Main article: Climate change in the Arctic

Decade-by-decade progression of arctic sea ice melting shows continued ice loss, with the greatest percentage loss rate experienced in the late summer and early autumn.[46] Center of chart would be zero ice.

The area of Arctic sea ice reached a minimum in September 2012, but recent years have shown less area than 2012 in other months.[47] Late summer shows the greatest percentage loss.

Arctic sea ice coverage as of 2007 compared to 2005 and compared to 1979–2000 average

The effects of climate change in the Arctic include rising temperatures, loss of sea ice, and melting of the Greenland ice sheet. Potential methane release from the region, especially through the thawing of permafrost and methane clathrates, is also a concern.[48] Because of the amplified response of the Arctic to global warming, it is often seen as a leading indicator of global warming. The melting of Greenland's ice sheet is linked to polar amplification.[49][50]

The Arctic region is especially vulnerable to the effects of any climate change, as has become apparent with the reduction of sea ice in recent years. Climate models predict much greater climate change in the Arctic than the global average,[51] resulting in significant international attention to the region. In particular, there are concerns that Arctic shrinkage, a consequence of melting glaciers and other ice in Greenland, could soon contribute to a substantial rise in sea levels worldwide.[52]

The current Arctic warming is leading to ancient carbon being released from thawing permafrost, leading to methane and carbon dioxide production by micro-organisms.[53][54] Release of methane and carbon dioxide stored in permafrost could cause abrupt and severe global warming,[55] as they are potent greenhouse gases.[56]

The shrinking Arctic: Parts of Norway inside the Arctic Circle has a temperate climate with the 1991–2020 normals, such as Skrova near Svolvær with mean annual temperature of 6 °C (43 °F), four months above 10°C and no month below 0 °C (32 °F).[57]

Climate change is also predicted to have a large impact on tundra vegetation, causing an increase of shrubs,[58] and having a negative impact on bryophytes and lichens.[59]

Apart from concerns regarding the detrimental effects of warming in the Arctic, some potential opportunities have gained attention. The melting of the ice is making the Northwest Passage, shipping routes through the northernmost latitudes, more navigable, raising the possibility that the Arctic region will become a prime trade route.[60] One harbinger of the opening navigability of the Arctic took place in the summer of 2016 when the Crystal Serenity successfully navigated the Northwest Passage, a first for a large cruise ship.[61]

In addition, it is believed that the Arctic seabed may contain substantial oil fields which may become accessible if the ice covering them melts.[62] These factors have led to recent international debates as to which nations can claim sovereignty or ownership over the waters of the Arctic.[63][64][65][66]

## Arctic waters

[edit]

* Arctic Ocean
* Baffin Bay
* Beaufort Sea
* Barents Sea
* Bering Sea
* Bering Strait
* Chukchi Sea
* Davis Strait
* Denmark Strait
* East Siberian Sea
* Greenland Sea
* Hudson Bay
* Kara Sea
* Laptev Sea
* Nares Strait
* Norwegian Sea

## Arctic lands

[edit]

Baffin Island, Nunavut Uummannaq Island, Greenland Nenets reindeer herders in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug Kotzebue, Alaska Murmansk on Russia's Kola Peninsula is the largest city in the world north of the Arctic Circle. Geographic designation  | National affiliation  | Designation

|
|

Alaska | United States  | State
Aleutian Islands | United States  | American archipelago
Arkhangelsk Oblast | Russia  | Federal subject
Arctic Archipelago | Canada  | Canadian archipelago
Chukotka Autonomous Okrug | Russia  | Federal subject
Diomede Island (Big) | Russia  | Island
Diomede Island (Little) | United States  | Island
Finnmark | Norway  | Counties of Norway
Franz Josef Land | Russia  | Federal subject archipelago
Greenland | Kingdom of Denmark | Autonomous country
Grímsey | Iceland  | Island
Inuvik Region | Canada  | Administrative region of the Northwest Territories
Jan Mayen | Norway  | Island
Kainuu | Finland  | Regions of Finland
Kitikmeot Region | Canada  | Administrative region of Nunavut
Kivalliq Region | Canada  | Administrative region of Nunavut
Kolbeinsey | Iceland  | Island
Krasnoyarsk Krai | Russia  | Federal subjects of Russia
Lappi | Finland  | Regions of Finland
Lappland | Sweden  | Provinces of Sweden
Murmansk Oblast | Russia  | Federal subjects of Russia
Nenets Autonomous Okrug | Russia  | Federal subjects of Russia
New Siberian Islands | Russia  | Archipelago
Nordland | Norway  | Counties of Norway
Norrbotten | Sweden  | Provinces of Sweden
North Ostrobothnia | Finland  | Regions of Finland
Northwest Territories | Canada  | Territory of Canada
Novaya Zemlya | Russia  | Federal subject archipelago
Nunavik | Canada  | Northern part of Quebec
Nunatsiavut | Canada  | Autonomous region of Labrador (Newfoundland and Labrador)
Nunavut | Canada  | Territory of Canada
Qikiqtaaluk Region (Baffin)  | Canada  | Administrative region of Nunavut
Russian Arctic islands | Russia  | Islands
Sápmi | Norway, Sweden, Finland, Russia  | Fennoscandia region
Sakha Republic | Russia  | Federal subject
Severnaya Zemlya | Russia  | Federal subject archipelago
Siberia | Russia  | Region
Svalbard | Norway  | Governor of Svalbard archipelago
Troms | Norway  | Counties of Norway
Västerbotten | Sweden  | Provinces of Sweden
Wrangel Island | Russia  | Zapovednik (nature reserve)
Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug | Russia  | Federal subjects of Russia
Yukon | Canada  | Territory of Canada

## See also

[edit]

* Geography portal

* Arctic ecology
* Arctic Search and Rescue Agreement
* List of countries by northernmost point
* Arctic sanctuary
* Poverty in the Arctic
* Arctic Winter Games
* Winter City
* Global North

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ The word was originally pronounced without the /k/ sound, but the pronunciation with the /k/ sound is nowadays very common. The c was added to the spelling for etymological reasons[1][2] and then began to be pronounced.

## References

[edit]

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2. ^ Harper, Douglas. "arctic". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 16 November 2011. "Arctic - Etymology, Origin & Meaning". Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2015.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link).
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45. ^ IPCC. Cross-Chapter Paper 6: Polar Regions. IPCC WGII Sixth Assessment Report. 1 October 2021. https://report.ipcc.ch/ar6wg2/pdf/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CrossChapterPaper6.pdf Archived 28 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
46. ^ "PIOMAS Data / PIOMAS Ice Volume Data, 1979-present". Polar Science Center, University of Washington. April 2025. Archived from the original on 21 April 2025. "Click to Download Monthly Ice Volume Data (text file, CSV file for Spreadsheets)"
47. ^ "Charctic Interactive Sea Ice Graph / A Sea Ice Today Tool / Arctic Sea Ice Extent". nsidc.org. National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC), a part of CIRES at the University of Colorado Boulder. April 2025. Archived from the original on 26 April 2025. (Hover mouse over data traces to view individual data values.)
48. ^ Galera, L. A., Eckhardt, T., Beer, C., Pfeiffer, E.-M., & Knoblauch, C. (2023). "Ratio of in situ CO2 to CH4 production and its environmental controls in polygonal tundra soils of Samoylov Island, Northeastern Siberia". Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 128, e2022JG006956. https://doi.org/10.1029/2022JG006956 Archived 30 June 2023 at the Wayback Machine
49. ^ Study links 2015 melting Greenland ice to faster Arctic warming Archived 18 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine 9 June 2016 University of Georgia
50. ^ Tedesco, M.; Mote, T.; Fettweis, X.; Hanna, E.; Jeyaratnam, J.; Booth, J. F.; Datta, R.; Briggs, K. (2016). "Arctic cut-off high drives the poleward shift of a new Greenland melting record". Nature Communications. 7 11723\. Bibcode:2016NatCo...711723T. doi:10.1038/ncomms11723. PMC 4906163. PMID 27277547.
51. ^ Impacts of a warming Arctic: Arctic Climate Impact Assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. February 2005. ISBN 978-0-521-61778-9. Retrieved 20 November 2006.
52. ^ Grinberg, Emanuella (17 December 2008). "Ice melting across globe at accelerating rate, NASA says." Archived 30 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine CNN. Retrieved 30 March 2022
53. ^ Lenton, T. M.; Held, H.; Kriegler, E.; Hall, J. W.; Lucht, W.; Rahmstorf, S.; Schellnhuber, H. J. (2008). "Inaugural Article: Tipping elements in the Earth's climate system". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (6): 1786–93\. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.1786L. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705414105. PMC 2538841. PMID 18258748.
54. ^ Turetsky, Merritt R. (30 April 2019). "Permafrost collapse is accelerating carbon release". Nature. 569 (7754): 32–34\. Bibcode:2019Natur.569...32T. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-01313-4. PMID 31040419.
55. ^ "Abrupt Climate Change Focus Of U.S. National Laboratories". Science Daily. 23 September 2008. Archived from the original on 23 June 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2018.
56. ^ "Scientists shocked by Arctic permafrost thawing 70 years sooner than predicted". The Guardian. Reuters. 18 June 2019. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 6 October 2019. Retrieved 2 July 2019.
57. ^ Skrova climate statistics Archived 9 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine. yr.no. Retrieved 2021-11-09.
58. ^ Myers-Smith, Isla H.; Forbes, Bruce C.; Wilmking, Martin; Hallinger, Martin; Lantz, Trevor; Blok, Daan; Tape, Ken D.; Macias-Fauria, Marc; Sass-Klaassen, Ute (1 January 2011). "Shrub expansion in tundra ecosystems: dynamics, impacts and research priorities". Environmental Research Letters. 6 (4): 045509. Bibcode:2011ERL.....6d5509M. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/6/4/045509. hdl:10536/DRO/DU:30114246. ISSN 1748-9326.
59. ^ Alatalo, Juha M.; Jägerbrand, Annika K.; Molau, Ulf (1 November 2015). "Testing reliability of short-term responses to predict longer-term responses of bryophytes and lichens to environmental change". Ecological Indicators. 58: 77–85\. Bibcode:2015EcInd..58...77A. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.05.050.
60. ^ "Will ice melt open fabled Northwest Passage?" Archived 9 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine CNN. 29 August 2002.
61. ^ "Largest Cruise Ship Ever To Sail Northwest Passage Docks In NYC". 16 September 2016. Archived from the original on 27 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
62. ^ Demos, Telis. "The great Arctic Circle oil rush." Archived 18 September 2020 at the Wayback Machine CNN. 8 August 2007.
63. ^ Shaw, Rob. "New patrol ships will reassert northern sovereignty: PM". Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine Victoria Times Colonist. 9 July 2007.
64. ^ Halpin, Tony. "Russia stakes its claim the North Pole in the underwater search for oil". Archived 7 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine The Times. 28 July 2007.
65. ^ "Arctic melt stuns scientists". CBS News. 9 October 2007.[permanent dead link]
66. ^ "Conference could mark start of Arctic power struggle". Canada.com. 28 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 March 2009.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Gibbon, Guy E.; Kenneth M. Ames (1998). Archaeology of prehistoric native America: an encyclopedia. Vol. 1537 of Garland reference library of the humanities. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-8153-0725-9.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Brian W. Coad, James D. Reist. (2017). Marine Fishes of Arctic Canada. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-4710-7
* "Global Security, Climate Change, and the Arctic" Archived 29 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – 24-page special journal issue (Fall 2009), Swords and Ploughshares, Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois
* GLOBIO Human Impact maps Report on human impacts on the Arctic
* Krupnik, Igor, Michael A. Lang, and Scott E. Miller, eds. Smithsonian at the Poles: Contributions to International Polar Year Science. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press, 2009.
* Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: The Arctic at the Crossroads of Geopolitical Interests Russian Politics and Law, 2012, Vol.50, No.2, pp. 34–54
* Käpylä, Juha & Mikkola, Harri: The Global Arctic: The Growing Arctic Interests of Russia, China, the United States and the European Union Archived 15 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine FIIA Briefing Paper 133, August 2013, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs.
* Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. The Arctic at the crossroads of geopolitical interests // Russian Politics and Law, 2012. Vol. 50, No. 2. p. 34–54
* Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander: Is Russia a revisionist military power in the Arctic? Defense & Security Analysis, September 2014.
* Konyshev, Valery & Sergunin, Alexander. Russia in search of its Arctic strategy: between hard and soft power? Polar Journal, April 2014.
* McCannon, John. A History of the Arctic: Nature, Exploration and Exploitation. Reaktion Books and University of Chicago Press, 2012. ISBN 9781780230184
* O'Rourke, Ronald (14 October 2016). Changes in the Arctic: Background and Issues for Congress (PDF). Washington, DC: Congressional Research Service. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 20 October 2016.
* Sperry, Armstrong (1957). All About the Arctic and Antarctic. Random House. LCCN 57007518.

## External links

[edit]

Arctic at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Travel information from Wikivoyage
* Data from Wikidata

* Arctic Report Card
* Blossoming Arctic
* International Arctic Research Center

* v
* t
* e

Arctic topics

History|

* Arctic exploration
* Arctic research
* History of whaling

Government|

* Arctic Council
* Arctic cooperation and politics
* Arctic Ocean Conference
* Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route
* Ilulissat Declaration
* Inuit Circumpolar Council
* Saami Council
* Territorial claims in the Arctic
* United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea

Geography|

* Arctic Archipelago
* Arctic Circle
* Arctic Cordillera
* Arctic ecology
* Arctic Ocean
* Arctic Cyclone
* Greenland ice sheet
* Impact craters of the Arctic
* Innuitian Region
* Nordicity
* North Pole
* Populated places in the Arctic
* Subarctic
* Tundra

Geology|

* Canadian Arctic Rift System
* Eurekan orogeny
* Greenland Plate
* Innuitian orogeny
* Queen Elizabeth Islands Subplate
* Southeast Bathurst Fault Zone
* Ungava Fault Zone

Regions|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Iceland
* Inuvialuit
* Karelia
* Komi
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Nunatsiavut
* Russian Arctic
* North
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

Climate|

* Arctic Climate Impact Assessment
* Arctic dipole anomaly
* Arctic haze
* Arctic oscillation
* Arctic sea ice
* decline
* ecology and history
* Arctic methane emissions
* Climate change in the Arctic
* Climate of Alaska
* Effects of global warming on marine mammals
* Polar climate
* Polar amplification
* Polar vortex

Fauna|

* Arctic fox
* Beluga whale
* Bowhead whale
* Lemming
* Muskox
* Narwhal
* Polar bear
* Reindeer
* Seal
* bearded
* harp
* hooded
* ribbon
* ringed
* Snowy owl
* Walrus

Flora|

* Arctic ecology
* Arctic vegetation
* Tundra

Culture|

* Arctic peoples
* Subarctic peoples
* Chukchi
* Chukotka
* Evenks
* Karelians
* Komi
* Icelandic
* Inuit
* Gwich'in
* Khanty
* Koryaks
* Nenets
* Northern indigenous Russian peoples
* Sami
* Selkup
* Yakuts
* Yukaghir
* Arctic Winter Games
* First sunrise
* Quviasukvik (New Year's Day)

Economy|

* Natural resources
* Petroleum exploration
* Arctic Refuge drilling controversy
* Pollution in the Arctic Ocean
* Protected areas
* Transportation

Transport|

* Arctic Bridge
* Arctic shipping routes
* Northeast Passage
* Northwest Passage
* Northern Sea Route
* Polar air route
* Transpolar Sea Route
* Search and rescue

* Category
* WikiProject

* v
* t
* e

World deserts

* Desert
* Desertification
* Polar desert
* List of deserts
* List of deserts by area
* Desert exploration

Africa|

* Algerian
* Bayuda
* Black Desert
* Blue
* Chalbi
* Danakil
* Djurab
* Eastern
* Ferlo
* Farafra (White)
* Kalahari
* Libyan
* Moçâmedes
* Namib
* Nubian
* Nyiri
* Plaine des Sables
* Richtersveld
* Sahara
* Tanezrouft
* Ténéré
* Western

Asia|

| Arabian Peninsula|

* Ad-Dahna
* Nefud
* Arabian
* Judaean
* Negev
* Ramlat al-Sab'atayn
* Rub' al Khali
* Syrian
* Wahiba Sands

|

Central Asia|

* Aral Karakum
* Aralkum
* Barsuki
* Betpak-Dala
* Dasht-e Naomid
* Karakum
* Kyzylkum
* Moiynkum
* Ryn
* Saryesik-Atyrau
* Sarykum
* Taukum
* Ustyurt

East Asia|

* Badain Jaran
* Gobi
* Gurbantünggüt
* Hami
* Lop
* Kumtag
* Ordos
* Kubuqi
* Mu Us
* Qaidam
* Taklamakan
* Tengger

South Asia|

* Cholistan
* Indus Valley
* Katpana
* Kharan
* Thal
* Thar

Iranian plateau|

* Kavir
* Khash
* Leili
* Lut
* Margo
* Naomid
* Polond
* Registan

Southeast Asia|

* La Paz

Europe|

* Bardenas Reales
* Cabo de Gata
* Monegros
* Oleshky
* Tabernas
* Deliblato

North America|

* Alvord
* Amargosa
* Baja California
* Black Rock
* Carcross
* Carson
* Channeled scablands
* Chihuahuan
* Colorado
* Escalante
* Forty Mile
* Gran Desierto de Altar
* Great Basin
* Great Salt Lake
* Great Sandy
* Jornada del Muerto
* Kaʻū
* Lechuguilla
* Mojave
* North American Arctic
* Owyhee
* Painted Desert
* Red Desert
* Sevier
* Smoke Creek
* Sonoran
* Tonopah Desert
* Tule (Arizona)
* Tule (Nevada)
* Yuha
* Yuma

Oceania|

| Australia|

* Gibson
* Great Sandy
* Great Victoria
* Little Sandy
* Nullarbor Plain
* Painted
* Pedirka
* Simpson
* Strzelecki
* Sturt Stony
* Tanami
* Tirari

|

New Zealand|

* Rangipo

South America|

* Atacama
* La Guajira
* Los Médanos de Coro
* Monte
* Patagonian
* Sechura
* Tatacoa

Polar regions|

| Antarctic|

* Antarctica
* Meyer Desert

|

Arctic|

* North American Arctic
* Greenland
* Russian Arctic

* Project
* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Polar exploration

Arctic

* Ocean
* History
* Expeditions
* Research stations

Farthest North
North Pole|

* Barentsz
* Heemskerck
* Hudson
* Marmaduke
* Carolus
* Parry
* North magnetic pole
* J. Ross
* J. C. Ross
* Abernethy
* Kane
* Hayes
* Polaris expedition
* Polaris
* C. F. Hall
* Bessels
* British Arctic Expedition
* HMS Alert
* Nares
* HMS Discovery
* Stephenson
* Markham
* Lady Franklin Bay Expedition
* Greely
* Lockwood
* Brainard
* Nansen's Fram expedition
* Fram
* Nansen
* Johansen
* Sverdrup
* Jason
* Amedeo
* Andrée's balloon expedition
* S. A. Andrée
* F. Cook
* SS Roosevelt
* Peary
* Henson
* Sedov
* Byrd
* Norge
* Amundsen
* Nobile
* Wisting
* Riiser-Larsen
* Ellsworth
* Italia
* Nautilus
* Wilkins
* ANT-25
* Chkalov
* Baydukov
* Belyakov
* Drifting ice stations
* NP-1
* Papanin
* Shirshov
* E. Fyodorov
* Krenkel
* NP-36
* NP-37
* Georgiy Sedov
* Badygin
* Wiese
* USS Nautilus
* USS Skate
* Plaisted
* Herbert
* NS Arktika
* Barneo
* Arktika 2007
* Mir submersibles
* Sagalevich
* Chilingarov

Iceland
Greenland|

* Pytheas
* Brendan
* Papar
* Vikings
* Naddodd
* Garðar
* Ingólfr
* Norse colonization of North America
* Gunnbjörn
* Snæbjörn galti
* Erik the Red
* Christian IV's expeditions
* J. Hall
* Cunningham
* Lindenov
* C. Richardson
* Danish colonization
* Egede
* Scoresby
* Jason
* Nansen
* Sverdrup
* Peary
* Rasmussen

Northwest Passage
Northern Canada|

* Cabot
* G. Corte-Real
* M. Corte-Real
* Frobisher
* Gilbert
* Davis
* Hudson
* Discovery
* Bylot
* Baffin
* Munk
* I. Fyodorov
* HMS Resolution
* J. Cook
* HMS Discovery
* Clerke
* Mackenzie
* Kotzebue
* J. Ross
* HMS Griper
* Parry
* HMS Hecla
* Lyon
* HMS Fury
* Hoppner
* Crozier
* J. C. Ross
* Coppermine expedition
* Franklin
* Back
* Dease
* Simpson
* HMS Blossom
* Beechey
* Franklin's lost expedition
* HMS Erebus
* HMS Terror
* Collinson
* Rae–Richardson expedition
* Rae
* J. Richardson
* Austin
* McClure expedition
* HMS Investigator
* McClure
* HMS Resolute
* Kellett
* Belcher
* Kennedy
* Bellot
* Isabel
* Inglefield
* 2nd Grinnell expedition
* USS Advance
* Kane
* Fox
* McClintock
* HMS Pandora
* Young
* Fram
* Sverdrup
* Gjøa
* Amundsen
* Rasmussen
* Karluk
* Stefansson
* Bartlett
* St. Roch
* H. Larsen
* Cowper

North East Passage
Russian Arctic|

* Pomors
* Koch boats
* Willoughby
* Chancellor
* Barentsz
* Heemskerck
* Mangazeya
* Hudson
* Poole
* Siberian Cossacks
* Perfilyev
* Stadukhin
* Dezhnev
* Popov
* Ivanov
* Vagin
* Permyakov
* Great Northern Expedition
* Bering
* Chirikov
* Malygin
* Ovtsyn
* Minin
* V. Pronchishchev
* M. Pronchishcheva
* Chelyuskin
* Kh. Laptev
* D. Laptev
* Chichagov
* Lyakhov
* Billings
* Sannikov
* Gedenshtrom
* Wrangel
* Matyushkin
* Anjou
* Litke
* Lavrov
* Pakhtusov
* Tsivolko
* Middendorff
* Austro-Hungarian Expedition
* Weyprecht
* Payer
* Vega Expedition
* A. E. Nordenskiöld
* Palander
* Jeannette expedition
* USS Jeannette
* De Long
* Melville
* Yermak
* Makarov
* Zarya
* Toll
* Kolomeitsev
* Matisen
* Kolchak
* Sedov
* Rusanov expedition
* Rusanov
* Kuchin
* Brusilov expedition
* Sv. Anna
* Brusilov
* Albanov
* Konrad
* Wiese
* Nagórski
* Taymyr / Vaygach
* Vilkitsky
* Maud
* Amundsen
* AARI
* Samoylovich
* Begichev
* Urvantsev
* Sadko
* Ushakov
* Glavsevmorput
* Schmidt
* Aviaarktika
* Shevelev
* A. Sibiryakov
* Voronin
* Chelyuskin
* Krassin
* Gakkel
* Nuclear-powered icebreakers
* Lenin
* Arktika-class icebreaker

Antarctic

* Continent
* History
* Expeditions

Antarctic/Southern Ocean|

* Roché
* Bouvet
* Kerguelen
* HMS Resolution
* J. Cook
* HMS Adventure
* Furneaux
* Smith
* San Telmo
* Vostok
* Bellingshausen
* Mirny
* Lazarev
* Bransfield
* Palmer
* Davis
* Weddell
* Morrell
* Astrolabe
* Dumont d'Urville
* United States Exploring Expedition
* USS Vincennes
* Wilkes
* USS Porpoise
* Ringgold
* Ross expedition
* HMS Erebus (J. C. Ross
* Abernethy)
* HMS Terror (Crozier)
* Cooper
* Challenger expedition
* HMS Challenger
* Nares
* Murray
* Jason
* C. A. Larsen

"Heroic Age"|

* Belgian Antarctic Expedition
* Belgica
* de Gerlache
* Lecointe
* Amundsen
* Cook
* Arctowski
* Racoviță
* Dobrowolski
* Southern Cross
* Southern Cross
* Borchgrevink
* Discovery
* Discovery
* Discovery Hut
* Gauss
* Gauss
* Drygalski
* Swedish Antarctic Expedition
* Antarctic
* O. Nordenskjöld
* C. A. Larsen
* Scottish Antarctic Expedition
* Bruce
* Scotia
* Orcadas Base
* Nimrod Expedition
* Nimrod
* French Antarctic Expeditions
* Pourquoi-Pas
* Charcot
* Japanese Antarctic Expedition
* Shirase
* Amundsen's South Pole expedition
* Fram
* Amundsen
* Framheim
* Polheim
* Terra Nova
* Terra Nova
* Scott
* Wilson
* E. R. Evans
* Crean
* Lashly
* Filchner
* Australasian Antarctic Expedition
* SY Aurora
* Mawson
* Far Eastern Party
* Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition
* Endurance
* Shackleton
* Wild
* James Caird
* Ross Sea party
* Mackintosh
* Shackleton–Rowett Expedition
* Quest

IPY * IGY
Modern research|

* Christensen
* Byrd
* BANZARE
* BGLE
* Rymill
* New Swabia
* Ritscher
* Operation Tabarin
* Marr
* Operation Highjump
* Captain Arturo Prat Base
* British Antarctic Survey
* Operation Windmill
* Ketchum
* Ronne Expedition
* F. Ronne
* E. Ronne
* Schlossbach
* Operation Deep Freeze
* McMurdo Station
* Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition
* Hillary
* V. Fuchs
* Soviet Antarctic Expeditions
* 1st
* Somov
* Klenova
* Mirny
* 2nd
* Tryoshnikov
* 3rd
* Tolstikov
* Antarctic Treaty System
* Transglobe Expedition
* Fiennes
* Burton
* Lake Vostok
* Kapitsa

Farthest South
South Pole|

* HMS Resolution
* J. Cook
* HMS Adventure
* Furneaux
* Weddell
* HMS Erebus
* J. C. Ross
* HMS Terror
* Crozier
* Southern Cross
* Borchgrevink
* Discovery
* Barne
* Nimrod
* Shackleton
* Wild
* Marshall
* Adams
* South magnetic pole
* Mawson
* David
* Mackay
* Amundsen's South Pole expedition
* Fram
* Amundsen
* Bjaaland
* Helmer
* Hassel
* Wisting
* Polheim
* Terra Nova
* Scott
* E. Evans
* Oates
* Wilson
* Bowers
* Cherry-Garrard
* Byrd
* Balchen
* McKinley
* Dufek
* Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station
* Hillary
* V. Fuchs
* Pole of Cold
* Vostok Station
* Pole of inaccessibility
* Pole of Inaccessibility research station
* Tolstikov
* Crary
* A. Fuchs
* Messner

* v
* t
* e

Earth's primary regions and subregions

Worlds|

* Down Under
* New World
* Old World
* Three/Four Worlds
* First World
* Second World
* Third World
* Fourth World

Hemispheres|

* Eastern
* Land Hemisphere
* Northern
* Southern
* Water Hemisphere
* Western

Landmasses|

* Africa-Eurasia
* Eurasia
* Americas
* Antarctica
* Australia
* Zealandia
* submerged
* Tectonic plates

Continents|

| Africa|

| North|

* Maghreb

|

Sub-Saharan|

* Central
* East
* Horn
* Great Lakes
* Southern
* West

Antarctica|

* East Antarctica
* Antarctic Plateau
* Transantarctic Mountains
* West Antarctica
* Antarctic Peninsula

Asia|

| East|

* Northeast

|

Southeast|

* Mainland
* Maritime

Central|

* Aral Sea
* Aralkum Desert
* Caspian Sea

North|

* Siberia
* Ural
* Russian Far East
* Northeast

South|

* Indian subcontinent
* Subregions

West|

* Arabian Peninsula
* Caucasus
* South Caucasus
* Levant
* Dead Sea
* Levantine corridor
* Levantine Sea
* Near East

Other
regions|

| Himalayan|

* Himalayan states
* Indian region

|

Inner Asia|

* Greater Central Asia

Europe|

| Eastern|

* Balkans
* Caucasus
* North Caucasus
* South Caucasus
* Southern Russia
* European Russia
* Southeastern

|

Northern|

* Baltic
* British Isles
* Nordic
* Northwestern
* Scandinavia
* Scandinavian Peninsula

Southern|

* Mediterranean
* Middle East
* Italy
* Italian peninsula
* South-eastern
* Balkan Peninsula
* South-western
* Iberian Peninsula

Western|

* Atlantic
* Low Countries
* Northwestern

Other
regions|

* Central Europe
* By language
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Romance
* Slavic
* Macaronesia

North
America|

| Northern
America|

* Greenland
* Great Lakes
* Pacific Northwest

| United States|

* Appalachia
* Bible Belt
* Eastern
* East Coast
* Northern
* Southeast
* Southwest

|

U.S. Census
regions|

* Northeastern
* New England
* Mid-Atlantic
* Midwest
* South
* Western
* Mountain
* Pacific

Canada|

* Atlantic
* Canadian Prairies
* Central
* Eastern
* Northern
* Western

Middle
America|

* Aridoamerica
* Greater Caribbean
* Caribbean
* West Indies
* Central Am.
* Mesoamerica
* Northern Mexico

Oceania|

| Australasia|

* Australia
* Mainland Australia
* New Guinea
* Tasmania
* Zealandia

|

* Melanesia
* Island Melanesia
* Micronesia
* Near Oceania
* Polynesia
* Remote Oceania

South
America|

* Amazon Plain

* Amazon Basin
* Amazon Rainforest

* Andean States
* Brazilian Highlands
* Caribbean South America
* The Guianas
* Southern Cone

* Patagonia

Geopolitical
regions|

| Global|

* East
* Heartland
* North
* Northeast
* Northwest
* South
* Southeast
* Southwest
* West

|

Asia–Pacific|

* Far East
* Pacific Asia
* Sinosphere
* Greater China
* Indosphere
* Greater India

Europe,
the Middle East
and Africa|

* Mediterranean

| Greater
Middle East|

* Middle East and North Africa
* Middle East
* Arab world
* Mashriq
* Maghreb
* Greater Iran
* Iranian plateau

|

Americas|

* Anglo
* Dutch
* French

| Latin America
and the Caribbean|

* Latin
* Ibero
* Hispanic
* Portuguese

|

Islands|

| By continent|

* Africa
* Americas
* North America
* Caribbean
* Central America
* South America
* Antarctica
* Asia
* Europe
* by area
* by population
* Oceania
* Australia
* New Zealand

|

By ocean|

* Arctic
* Atlantic
* Baltic Sea
* Black Sea
* Caribbean Sea
* Irish Sea
* Mediterranean Sea
* Adriatic Sea
* Aegean Sea
* Ionian Sea
* Indian
* Persian Gulf
* Pacific
* East China Sea
* South China Sea
* Southern

Oceans|

* Antarctic/Southern
* Antarctic Convergence
* Arctic
* Atlantic
* Indian
* Pacific
* Great Barrier Reef
* Mariana Trench
* Challenger Deep
* Ring of Fire
* World Ocean

Other
waterbodies|

* Lakes
* lists
* Rivers
* Seas

Rim|

* Arctic
* Atlantic
* Indo-Mediterranean
* Indian Ocean
* Mediterranean
* Pacific

Polar|

* Antarctic
* Arctic

* Continents of Earth / List of seas / Physical Earth

* v
* t
* e

Earth's polar regions

Antarctic|

* Antarctic Peninsula
* East Antarctica
* West Antarctica
* Eklund Islands
* Ecozone
* Extreme points
* Islands

Arctic|

* Arctic Alaska
* British Arctic Territories
* Canadian Arctic Archipelago
* Finnmark
* Greenland
* Northern Canada
* Northwest Territories
* Nunavik
* Nunavut
* Russian Arctic
* Sakha
* Sápmi
* Yukon
* North American Arctic

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* 2
* Israel

Other|

* NARA
* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* Yale LUX

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