Argentina–Chile relations

Bilateral relations

Argentina-Chile relations

Argentina |
Chile
Then-Argentine President Alberto Fernández with Chilean President Gabriel Boric in 2022.

International relations between the Republic of Chile and the Argentine Republic have existed for decades. The border between the two countries is the world's third-longest international border, which is 5,300 km (3,300 mi) long and runs from north to south along the Andes mountains. Although both countries gained their independence during the South American wars of liberation, during much of the 19th and the 20th century, relations between the countries were tense as a result of disputes over the border in Patagonia. Despite this, Chile and Argentina have never been engaged in a war with each other. In recent years, relations have improved. Argentina and Chile have followed quite different economic policies. Chile has signed free trade agreements with countries such as Canada, China, South Korea, and the United States, as well as the European Union, and it's a member of the APEC. Argentina belongs to the Mercosur regional free trade area. In April 2018, both countries suspended their membership from the UNASUR.

## Historical relations (1550–1989)

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### Rule under Spain and Independence

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El abrazo de Maipú (English: The embrace of Maipú) between the independence heroes José de San Martín and Bernardo O'Higgins after the defeat of royalists in the Battle of Maipú

The relationship between the two countries can be traced back to an alliance during Spanish colonial times. Both colonies were offshoots of the Viceroyalty of Peru, with the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata (which Argentina was a part of) being broken off in 1776, and Chile not being broken off until independence. Argentina and Chile were colonized by different processes. Chile was conquered as a southward extension of the original conquest of Peru, while Argentina was colonized from Peru, Chile and from the Atlantic.

Argentina and Chile were close allies during the wars of independence from the Spanish Empire. Chile, like most of the revolting colonies, was defeated at a point by Spanish armies, while Argentina remained independent throughout its war of independence. After the Chilean defeat in the Disaster of Rancagua, the remnants of the Chilean Army led by Bernardo O'Higgins took refuge in Mendoza. Argentine General José de San Martín, by that time governor of the region, included the Chilean exiles in the Army of the Andes, and in 1817 led the crossing of the Andes, defeated the Spaniards, and confirmed the Chilean Independence. While he was in Santiago, Chile a cabildo abierto (open town hall meeting) offered San Martín the governorship of Chile, which he declined, in order to continue the liberating campaign in Peru.

In 1817 Chile began the buildup of its Navy in order to carry the war to the Viceroyalty of Perú. Chile and Argentina signed a treaty in order to finance the enterprise.[1] But Argentina, fallen in a civil war, was unable to contribute. The naval fleet, after being built, launched a sea campaign to fight the Spanish fleet in the Pacific to liberate Peru. After a successful land and sea campaign, San Martín proclaimed the Independence of Peru in 1821.

### War against the Peru–Bolivian Confederation

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Main article: War of the Confederation

From 1836 to 1839, Chile and Argentina united in a war against the confederation of Peru and Bolivia. The underlying cause was the apprehension of Chile and Argentina against the potential power of the Peru-Bolivia bloc. This resulted from concern over the large territory of Peru-Bolivia as well as the perceived threat that such a rich state would represent to their southern neighbors. Chile declared the war on 11 November 1836 and Argentina on 19 May 1837.[2]: 263ff

In 1837 Felipe Braun, one of Santa Cruz's most capable generals and highly decorated veteran of the war of independence, defeated an Argentine army sent to topple Santa Cruz. On 12 November 1838 Argentine representatives signed an agreement with the Bolivian troops.[2]: 271 However, on 20 January 1839 the Chilean force obtained a decisive victory against Peru-Bolivia at the Battle of Yungay and the short-lived Peru-Bolivian Confederation came to an end.

### Potreros of the Andes dispute

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This section is an excerpt from Potreros of the Andes dispute § History.[edit]

In the context of the tensions between the unitary and federal sides in River Plate politics,[3] the presence of exiles from this country in Chile, and the cutting of commercial traffic with Mendoza ordered on April 13, 1842, by the Chilean president Manuel Bulnes, and the anger of the Mendocino governor José Félix Aldao[4] (from the federal side of Juan Manuel de Rosas), a tense event occurs in March 1845, when the Chilean cattle rancher residing in Talca, Manuel Jirón, is approached by a gang of ten or twelve Argentine rustlers coming from Cuyo in his hacienda. They requested a payment of money in the name of the Governor's Office of Mendoza. They asked for payment for the cattle grazing that Jirón was doing in the potreros of El Yeso, Los Ángeles, Valenzuela and Montañés.

Jiron paid the amount when they threatened to take away his animals, which he later confirmed to the Chilean authorities, expecting compensation for the money. The incident was known as the "mountain potreros issue".[5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14]

The territory where this occurred is located south of the Diamante River in the mountainous area of Talca, so the territory was understood by Jiron[15] as part of Chilean jurisdiction.[16]

The Municipality of Talca was in charge of protecting the cattle ranchers in the area, and the investigation of the case showed that the aggressors came from San Rafael de Mendoza Fortress.[17]

The Government of Chile sent a note of protest to the Government of Argentina saying:

> From the inquiry which by order of this Government has been made, it appears that the pastures are situated in Chilean territory, without any doubt having arisen on this point up to the present, both from the situation of the places, and from the immemorial possession of Chilean citizens, from the recognition of the bordering Indians, from history, tradition, and from whatever titles may be alleged in favor of the rights of sovereignty and property. Not only, therefore, has an illegal act of force and depredation been committed against Chilean citizens, but also an attack against the sovereignty of this Republic and an outrageous violation of its territory.

To which Argentina did not protest.[16]

On December 4, 1846, a technical commission was created in Buenos Aires, composed of Carmen José Domínguez and Lieutenant Nicolás Villanueva, which published on April 27, 1847, in which they argued the territories where the incident occurred as Argentine, although not specifying whether or not they belonged to the province of Cuyo, as they were south of the Diamante River:[16]

> The Llaretas and Planchón mountain ranges, which are designated by the attached plan, are an extension of the previous ones, and the Valenzuela, Montañés, Yeso and Los Ángeles valleys, which are in the same situation as that of Tunuyán, cannot by any means be considered an integral part of Chilean territory[16]

— 27 April 1847, Technical Commission, Buenos Aires

Argentine president, Juan Manuel de Rosas

The Argentine president, Juan Manuel de Rosas, sent officials to tax Talca ranchers in the area in question in 1847 and 1848.[16] By then he had already resolved to incorporate into his country the territory south of the Diamante River to the Río Negro, most of which he knew after his 1833 expeditions.[18][19]

After the 1881 treaty the boundary divided the disputed area with the areas of Valle Hermoso, Las Leñas and the eastern sector of Paso Potrerillos for Argentina, and the lands near Curicó of Potrero Grande, Potrero Chico, El Planchón, Teno lagoons, those of the Maule river basin, such as the Maule river basin, such as the lagoon and river of La Invernada, and the sector of El Colorado for Chile.[16]

### Chincha's war

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Main article: Chincha Islands War

A series of coastal and high-seas naval battles between Spain and its former colonies of Peru and Chile occurred between 1864 and 1866. These actions began with Spain's seizure of the guano-rich Chincha Islands, part of a strategy by Isabel II of Spain to reassert her country's lost influence in Spain's former South American empire. These actions prompted an alliance between Ecuador, Bolivia, Peru and Chile against Spain. As a result, all Pacific coast ports of South America situated south of Colombia were closed to the Spanish fleet. Argentina, however, refused to join the alliance and maintained amicable relations with Spain[20] and delivered coal to the Spanish fleet.

### War of the Pacific

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On 6 February 1873, Peru and Bolivia signed a secret treaty of alliance against Chile.[21] On 24 September, Argentine president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento asked the Argentine Chamber of Deputies to join Argentina with the alliance. The Argentine chamber assented by a vote of 48–18. The treaty made available a credit of six million pesos for military expenditures. However, in 1874, after the delivery of the Chilean ironclad Almirante Cochrane and the ironclad Blanco Encalada, the Argentine Senate postponed the matter until late 1874, and Sarmiento was prevented signing the treaty.[22] Consequently, Argentina remained neutral during the war; and the Argentines signed a Border Treaty with Chile in 1881.

### Claims on Patagonia

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See also: East Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and Strait of Magellan dispute; Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina; and Treaty of Arbitration between Chile and Argentina of 1902

Territorial losses of the Republic of Chile de jure (by law) according to Chilean historiography.[23]

Border disputes continued between Chile and Argentina, as Patagonia was then a largely unexplored area. The Border Treaty of 1881 established the line of highest mountains dividing the Atlantic and Pacific watersheds as the border between Argentina and Chile. This principle was easily applied in northern Andean border region; but in Patagonia drainage basins crossed the Andes. This led to further disputes over whether the Andean peaks would constitute the frontier (favoring Argentina) or the drainage basins (favoring Chile). Argentina argued that previous documents referring to the boundary always mentioned the Snowy Cordillera as the frontier and not the continental divide. The Argentine explorer Francisco Perito Moreno suggested that many Patagonian lakes draining to the Pacific were in fact part of the Atlantic basin but had been moraine-dammed during the quaternary glaciations changing their outlets to the west. In 1902, war was again avoided when British King Edward VII agreed to mediate between the two nations. He cleverly established the current Argentina-Chile border in Patagonia by dividing many disputed lakes into two equal parts. Several of these lakes still have different names on each side of the frontier, such as the lake known in Chile as Lago O'Higgins and in Argentina as Lago San Martín. A dispute that arose in the northern Puna de Atacama was resolved with the Puna de Atacama Lawsuit of 1899.

This section is an excerpt from East Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and Strait of Magellan dispute.[edit]

Map of the Dispute of Eastern Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and the Strait of Magellan between Argentina and Chile (1842–1881).

The East Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego and Strait of Magellan Dispute[24] or the Patagonia Question was the boundary dispute between Argentina and Chile[25] during the 19th century[26][27][28] for the possession of the southernmost territories of South America[29] on the basis of disagreements over the boundaries corresponding to the uti possidetis juris inherited from the Spanish Empire.[30][31][32]

The extensive territory corresponds to approximately one million two hundred km²,[33][34] which represent 45% of the current surface of Argentina, all of the center and south of that country, and which, according to Chilean historiography, would have implied a loss for Chile[35][36][37] of two-thirds of its nominal territory de jure.

Both countries started effectively occupying different parts of the disputed land, Chile the Strait of Magellan and its nearby territory in the Santa Cruz River[38] as well as the Neuquén Valley,[26] and Argentina the Pampas land as well with Chubut settled with Welsh people. Both countries also started having discussions of the legal title of each country on the land inherited from the Spanish Empire, which motivated the signing of the 1856 treaty between both countries that affirmed that both countries were committed to apply the uti possidetis juris on the border; something which they both disagreed on was which territories had been inherited by each of the two nations.

The decade of 1870 saw an intensification of the dispute in the southern part of Patagonia, which saw settlements from both countries in between of each other.[38][39] The dispute was ended with the Boundary Treaty of 1881 between both countries which divided the territory.[40] At the time of the signing, Chile was fighting against Peru and Bolivia in the War of the Pacific (1879-1885), Argentina also started the Conquest of the Desert in 1878, intensifying it when Chile was in the war, occupying several parts of Patagonia.

### 1893 Border protocol

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The 1893 Boundary Protocol between Argentina and Chile, also known as the Errázuriz-Quirno Costa Protocol, was an agreement signed by Isidoro Errázuriz Errázuriz Errázuriz representing Chile and Norberto Camilo Quirno Costa representing Argentina on 1 May 1893 in Santiago, Chile. It was signed to solve problems that arose during the demarcation of the boundary on the basis of the 1881 Treaty.

This protocol ratified the principle of "Chile to the Pacific and Argentina to the Atlantic" from which, later on, discrepancies arose regarding the limit of both oceans, and whether the principle applies to the south of parallel 52° or not, according to the protocol, it applies to the north of parallel 52° only. In addition, the principle of the "main chain" of the Andes Mountains was established. The areas affected by the protocol were: the Seno Ultima Esperanza and the Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego.

### Southern Patagonian Ice Field border definition in 1898 by experts from both countries

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This section is an excerpt from Southern Patagonian Ice Field dispute § Delimitation.[edit]

Map of the 1902 award between Argentina and Chile in the area of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field (which was not affected by it) Argentine map of 1912 showing historical boundary markers agreed upon by the Argentine and Chilean experts (Fitz Roy, Huemul, Campana, Agassiz, Heim, Mayo, and Stokes/Cervantes)[41][42][43]

The area was delimited by the Treaty of 1881 between Argentina and Chile[44]

> The boundary between Chile and the Argentine Republic is, from North to South, up to the fifty-second parallel of latitude, the Andes Mountain Range. The boundary line shall run in that extension along the highest peaks of said Cordillera dividing the waters, and shall pass between the slopes that break off on one side and the other. The difficulties that may arise due to the existence of certain valleys formed by the bifurcation of the Cordillera and where the dividing line of the waters is not clear, shall be resolved amicably by two experts appointed, one from each party. In case they do not reach an agreement, a third Expert appointed by both Governments shall be called upon to decide them. Of the operations carried out by them, a record shall be drawn up in duplicate, signed by the two Experts, on the points on which they have agreed, and also by the third Expert on the points decided by him. These minutes shall take full effect as soon as they have been signed by them and shall be considered firm and valid without the need for any other formalities or formalities. A copy of the minutes shall be sent to each of the Governments.[45]

On 20 August 1888, an agreement was signed to carry out the demarcation of the limits according to the 1881 treaty, appointing the experts Diego Barros Arana for Chile and Octavio Pico Burgess for Argentina.[46] In 1892, Barros Arana presented his thesis according to which the 1881 treaty had fixed the limit in the continental divortium aquarum, which was rejected by the Argentine expert.[47]

Experts have shown that it is always convenient to take the mountain as a support for the boundary and not the watershed. Rey Balmaceda tells an anecdote of Perito Moreno, who diverted the course of the Fénix River, with the help of a crew of laborers, so that it would stop heading toward the Pacific and would swell the waters of the Deseado River. With this, Moreno wanted to demonstrate that the true basis for drawing a solid and efficient line is the mountains and not the course of the waters.[48]

Because differences arose on several points of the border on which the experts could not agree, the demarcation was suspended in February 1892, until the Boundary Protocol between Chile and Argentina 1893 was subscribed, which in its article 1 provides:

> Article One of the Treaty of July 23, 1881, stipulating that "the boundary between Chile and the Argentine Republic is from North to South up to the 52nd parallel of latitude, the Andes Cordillera", and that "the boundary line shall run along the highest peaks of the said Cordillera, dividing the waters, and that it shall pass between the slopes that break off on either side", the Experts and the Sub-Commissions shall have this principle as the invariable rule of their proceedings. Consequently, all lands and all waters, namely: lakes, lagoons, rivers and parts of rivers, streams and slopes east of the line of the highest peaks of the Andes Mountains dividing the waters, shall be considered in perpetuity as property and absolute domain of the Argentine Republic, and all lands and all waters, namely: lakes, lagoons, rivers and parts of rivers, streams and slopes east of the highest peaks of the Andes Mountains dividing the waters, shall be considered as property and absolute domain of Chile: lakes, lagoons, rivers, and parts of rivers, streams, slopes, which are found to the west of the highest peaks of the Andes Mountains that divide the waters.[49]

This protocol is of particular importance, as the retreat of the glaciers could allow Pacific fjords to penetrate into Argentine territory.[50]

In January 1894, the Chilean expert declared that he understood that the main chain of the Andes was the uninterrupted line of peaks that divide the waters and that form the separation of the basins or tributary hydrographic regions of the Atlantic to the east and the Pacific to the west. The Argentine expert Norberto Quirno Costa (Pico's replacement) replied that they had no authority to define the meaning of the main chain of the Andes as they were only demarcators.[47]

Boundary based on 1898 landmarks set by the peritos in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field.[51][41]

In April 1896, the agreement to facilitate territorial delimitation operations was signed, which appointed the British monarch to arbitrate in case of disagreements. In the minutes of 1 October 1898, signed by Diego Barros Arana and Francisco Moreno (Quirno Costa's replacement, who resigned in September 1896) and by his assistants Clemente Onelli (from Argentina) and Alejandro Bertrand (from Chile), the experts:

> agree with the points and stretches indicated [...] 331 and 332 [...], resolv[ing] to accept them as forming part of the dividing line [...] between the Republic of Argentina and the Republic of Chile [...].

On the attached map, point 331 is Fitz Roy and 332 is Mount Stokes, both being agreed as boundary markers, although the former is not on the watershed and was taken as a natural landmark. As the experts did not access the area, they established the caveat that if the geographical principle did not run where they had supposed it did, there could be modifications.[48]

When the experts could not agree on different stretches of the border, it was decided in 1898 to resort to Article VI paragraph 2 of the 1881 Boundary Treaty and request Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom for an arbitration ruling on the issue, who appointed three British judges. In 1901, one of the judges, Colonel Thomas Holdich, traveled to study the disputed areas.[52]

The Argentine government argued that the boundary should essentially be an orographic boundary along the highest peaks of the Andes and the Chilean government argued for a continental watershed. The tribunal considered that the language of the 1881 treaty[53] and the 1893 protocol was ambiguous and susceptible to various interpretations, the two positions being irreconcilable. On 20 May 1902, King Edward VII issued the sentence which divided the territories of the four disputed sections within the boundaries defined by the extreme claims on both sides and appointed a British officer to demarcate each section in mid-1903. The award did not issue on the ice field, for, in its article III, it sentenced:

> From Mount Fitz Roy to Mount Stokes the boundary line has already been determined.[54]

The award thus considered that in that area the high peaks are water dividing and therefore there was no dispute. Both experts, Francisco Moreno from Argentina and Diego Barros Arana from Chile agreed on the border between Fitz Roy and Stokes.[55] Since 1898, the demarcation of the border in the ice field according to the minutes,[51] between the two mountains, was defined on the next mountains and their natural continuity: Fitz Roy, Torre, Huemul, Campana, Agassiz, Heim, Mayo, and Stokes (nowadays Cervantes).[41][42][43] In 1916, the Mariano Moreno range was visited by an expedition; however, Francisco Moreno already knew of its existence.[56]

Landmarks recorded in the 1898 experts' records,
and the location they understood them to be at[57][51][41] Landmark  | Coordinates (DMS)  | Coordinates (decimal)

|
|

Fitz Roy | 49°16′17.02″ S, 73°02′36.80″ W  |
Huemul | 49°25′21.59″ S, 73°02′08.57″ W  |
Campana | 49°42′42.38″ S, 73°10′56.81″ W  |
Agassiz | 49°57′34.19″ S, 73°27′16.71″ W  |
Heim | 50°09′49.55″ S, 73°22′12.64″ W  |
Mayo 2380 | 50°20′35.25″ S, 73°19′16.45″ W  |
Stokes (now Cervantes) | 50°34′12.17″ S, 73°08′47.92″ W  |

Fitz Roy

Huemul

Campana

Agassiz

Heim

Mayo 2380

Stokes (now Cervantes)

### Puna de Atacama dispute (1889-1898)

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This section is an excerpt from Puna de Atacama dispute.[edit]

The Puna de Atacama dispute, sometimes referred to as Puna de Atacama Lawsuit (Spanish: Litigio de la Puna de Atacama), was a border dispute involving Argentina, Chile and Bolivia in the 19th century over the arid high plateau of Puna de Atacama located about 4500 meters above the sea around the current borders of the three countries.[58]

The dispute originated with the Chilean annexation of the Bolivian Litoral Department in 1879 during the War of the Pacific. That year, the Chilean Army occupied San Pedro de Atacama, the main settlement of the current Chilean part of Puna de Atacama. By 1884, Bolivia and its ally Peru had lost the war, and Argentina communicated to the Chilean government that the border line in the Puna was still a pending issue between Argentina and Bolivia. Chile answered that the Puna de Atacama still belonged to Bolivia. The same year, Argentina occupied Pastos Grandes in the Puna.

Bolivia had still not signed any peace treaty with Chile until the Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1904. In the light that influential Bolivian politicians considered the Litoral Province to be lost forever, the adjacent Puna de Atacama appeared to be a remote, mountainous and arid place that was difficult to defend. That prompted the Bolivian government to use it as a tool for to obtaining benefits from both Chile and Argentina. That led to the signature of two contradictory treaties in which Bolivia granted Argentina and Chile overlapping areas:

* On May 10, 1889, a secret treaty between the Argentine minister Norberto Quirno Costa and the Bolivian envoy Santiago Vaca Guzmán was signed in Buenos Aires. The treaty established that Argentina renounced to its claims on Tarija in exchange for all the Bolivian Puna de Atacama (see Tarija dispute).[59]
* On May 19, 1891, the Matta-Reyes Protocol was signed between Chile and Bolivia. It recognised the Bolivian territories occupied by Chile since the War of the Pacific as ceded to Chile, including those in the Puna de Atacama, in exchange for defaulting some debts.

On November 2, 1898, Argentina and Chile signed two documents in which they decided to convene a conference to define the border in Buenos Aires with delegates of both countries.[60] If there was no agreement, a Chilean and Argentine delegate and the United States minister to Argentina, William Buchanan, would decide. As foreseen, there was no accord at the conference, and Buchanan proceeded with the delegates of Chile, Enrique Mac Iver, and Argentina José Evaristo Uriburu, to define the border.

Of the 75,000 km2 in dispute, 64,000 (85%) were awarded to Argentina and 11,000 (15%) to Chile.[60]

### Arms race and foreign policy cooperation

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See also: ABC countries

#### Dreadnought race

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Main article: South American dreadnought race

At the start of the 1900s a naval arms race began amongst the most powerful and wealthy countries in South America: Argentina, Brazil and Chile. It began when the Brazilian government ordered three formidable battleships whose capabilities far outstripped older vessels after the Brazilian Navy found itself well behind the Argentine and Chilean navies in quality and total tonnage.

### Baltimore Crisis

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Main article: Baltimore Crisis

During the Baltimore Crisis which brought Chile and the United States to the brink of war in 1891 (at the end of the 1891 Chilean Civil War), the Argentine foreign minister Estanislao Zeballos offered the US-minister in Buenos Aires the Argentine province of Salta as base of operations from which to attack Chile overland.[61]: 65 In return, Argentina asked the U.S. for the cession of southern Chile to Argentina.[62] Later, Chile and the United States averted the war.

### Pactos de Mayo and 1902 Andes Boundary Case

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Main article: Pactos de Mayo

See also: Argentine-Chilean naval arms race

1902 Andes Boundary Case.

The Pactos de Mayo are four protocols signed in Santiago de Chile by Chile and Argentina on 28 May 1902 in order to extend their relations and resolve its territorial disputes. The disputes had led both countries to increase their military budgets and run an arms race in the 1890s. More significantly the two countries divided their influence in South America into two spheres: Argentina would not threaten Chile's Pacific Coast hegemony, and Santiago promised not to intrude east of the Andes.[61]: page 71

This section is an excerpt from 1902 Arbitral award of the Andes between Argentina and Chile.[edit]

The 1902 Arbitral award of the Andes between Argentina and Chile (Spanish: Laudo limítrofe entre Argentina y Chile de 1902) was a British arbitration in 1902 that established the present-day boundaries between Argentina and Chile. In northern and central Patagonia, the borders were established between the latitudes of 40° and 52° S as an interpretation of the Boundary treaty of 1881 between Chile and Argentina.

As result of the arbitration, some Patagonian lakes, such as O'Higgins/San Martín Lake, became divided by a national boundary. Additionally the preferences of settled colonists in a cultivated part of the area in dispute had been canvassed. The boundary proposed in the arbitration was a compromise between the boundary preferences of the two disputing governments, which strictly followed neither the alignment of highest peaks nor the fluvial watershed, and was published in the name of King Edward VII.

### Snipe incident

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Main article: Snipe incident

In 1958 the Argentine Navy shelled a Chilean lighthouse and disembarked infantry in the uninhabitable islet Snipe, at the east entrance of the Beagle Channel.

### Laguna del Desierto dispute (1949-1994) and the killing of Hernán Merino Correa

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Main articles: Laguna del Desierto incident and Hernán Merino

Chilean Carabineros Lieutenant Hernán Merino Correa

The Laguna del Desierto incident, in Argentina called also Battle of Laguna del Desierto occurred between four members of Carabineros de Chile and 90 members of the Argentine Gendarmerie and took place in zone south of O'Higgins/San Martín Lake on 6 November 1965, resulting in Lieutenant Hernán Merino Correa killed and Sergeant Miguel Manríquez injured, both members of Carabineros, creating a tense atmosphere between Chile and Argentina.

### Encuentro River-Alto Palena boundary dispute (1913-1966)

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Main article: Alto Palena–Encuentro River dispute

Alto Palena–Encuentro River dispute

The Encuentro River-Alto Palena boundary dispute was a territorial dispute between the Republic of Argentina and the Republic of Chile over the delimitation of the boundary between milestones XVI and XVII of their common border in the valleys located north of Lake General Vintter/Palena (formerly Lake General Paz), which was resolved on 24 November 1966 by means of an arbitration decision of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.

The ruling divided the disputed territory between the two countries, which was distributed between the commune of Palena in the province of Palena, Región de Los Lagos in Chile and the department of Languiñeo in the province of Chubut in Argentina.[63]

### Beagle conflict (1904-1984) and the Argentinian invasion plan "Operation Soberanía"

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Main article: Beagle conflict

See also: Direct negotiations between Chile and Argentina in 1977–1978 and Operation Soberanía

The Beagle Conflict and its maritime projection.

Trouble once again began to brew in the 1960s, when Argentina began to claim that the Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands in the Beagle Channel were rightfully theirs, although this was in direct contradiction of the 1881 treaty, as the Beagle Channel Arbitration, and the initial Beagle Channel cartography since 1881 stated.

Both countries submitted the controversy to binding arbitration by the international tribunal. The decision (see Beagle Channel Arbitration between the Republic of Argentina and the Republic of Chile, Report and Decision of the Court of Arbitration) recognized all the islands to be Chilean territory. Argentina unilaterally repudiated the decision of the tribunal and planned a war of aggression against Chile.[64]

Direct negotiations between Chile and Argentina in 1977-78 failed and relations became extremely tense. Argentina sent troops to the border in Patagonia and in Chile large areas were mined. On 22 December, Argentina started Operation Soberanía in order to invade the islands and continental Chile, but after a few hours stopped the operation when Pope John Paul II sent a personal message to both presidents urging a peaceful solution. Both countries agreed that the Pope would mediate the dispute through the offices of Cardinal Antonio Samoré his special envoy (See Papal mediation in the Beagle conflict).

On 9 January 1979 the Act of Montevideo was signed in Uruguay pledging both sides to a peaceful solution and a return to the military situation of early 1977. The conflict was still latent during the Falklands War and was resolved only after the fall of the Argentine military junta.

A number of prominent public officials in Chile still point to past Argentine treaty repudiations when referring to relations between the two neighbors.[65][66][67][68][69][70]

### Falklands War

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Main article: Falklands War

See also: Events leading to the Falklands War

During the Falklands War in 1982, with the Beagle conflict still pending, Chile and Colombia were the only South American countries to abstain from voting in the TIAR.

The Argentine government planned to seize the disputed Beagle Channel islands after the occupation of the Falkland Islands. Basilio Lami Dozo the then Chief of the Argentine Air Force, disclosed that Leopoldo Galtieri told him that:

"[Chile] have to know what we are doing now, because they will be the next in turn.[71]

Óscar Camilión, the last Argentine Foreign Minister before the war (29 March 1981 to 11 December 1981) has stated that:

"The military planning was, after the solution of the Falklands case, to invade the disputed islands in the Beagle. That was the determination of the Argentine Navy."[72]

These preparations were public. On 2 June 1982 the newspaper La Prensa published an article by Manfred Schönfeld explaining what would follow Argentina's expected victory in the Falkland Islands:

"The war will not be finished for us, because after the defeat of our enemies in the Falklands, they must be blown away from South Georgia, the South Sandwich Islands, and all Argentine Austral archipelagos."[73]

Argentine General Osiris Villegas demanded (in April 1982) after the successful Argentine landing in the Falklands that his government stop negotiations with Chile and seize the islands south of the Beagle. In his book La propuesta pontificia y el espacio nacional comprometido, (p. 2), he asked:

no persistir en una diplomacia bilateral que durante años la ha inhibido para efectuar actos de posesión efectiva en las islas en litigio que son los hechos reales que garantizan el establecimiento de una soberanía usurpada y la preservación de la integridad del territorio nacional.[74]

This intention was probably known to the Chilean government,[75] as the Chileans provided the United Kingdom with 'limited, but significant information' during the conflict. The Chilean Connection is described in detail by Sir Lawrence Freedman in his book The Official History of the Falklands Campaign.

Post-Pinochet democratic governments in Chile have given greater support to the Argentine claim on the Falkland Islands.[76][77][78][79]

In June 2010 (as in 2009[80] and years before[81][82][83][77]) Chile has supported the Argentine position at the United Nations Special Committee on Decolonization calling for direct negotiations between Argentina and the United Kingdom concerning the Falkland Islands dispute.[84]

### Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1984

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Main article: Treaty of Peace and Friendship of 1984 between Chile and Argentina

This important treaty (Spanish: Tratado de Paz y Amistad de 1984 entre Chile y Argentina) was an agreement signed in 1984 between Argentina and Chile establishing friendly relations between the two countries. Particularly, the treaty defines the border delineation and freedom of navigation in the Strait of Magellan and gives possession of the Picton, Lennox and Nueva islands and sea located south of Tierra del Fuego to Chile, but the most part of the Exclusive Economic Zone eastwards of the Cape Horn-Meridian to Argentina. After that, other border disputes were resolved by peaceful means.

The 1984 treaty was succeeded by the Maipu Treaty of Integration and Cooperation (Tratado de Maipú de Integración y Cooperación) signed on 30 October 2009.[85]

## Post-1990 relations

[edit]

### Argentine support for Bolivia

[edit]

Despite the Pactos de Mayo agreement, in 2004 Argentina proposed to establish a "corridor" through Chilean territory under partial Argentine administration as a Bolivian outlet to sea. After talks with Chilean ambassador to Argentina, the Kirchner government pulled out of the proposal and declared the issue as "concerning Chile and Bolivia" only.[86][87]

### Border issues

[edit]

Main article: Southern Patagonian Ice Field dispute § Boundary area of pending demarcation

This map shows the current border of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, the B Section is pending delineation since 1998.

In 1898 the border in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field was defined and wasn't objected during the 1902 Arbitral award of the Andes which defined most of the border on the current Province territory. Both experts, Francisco Pascasio Moreno from Argentina and Diego Barros Arana from Chile agreed on the border between Mount Fitz Roy and Cerro Daudet.[88] However the border started being questioned by Argentina later on which started the dispute between both countries.

In the 1990s, relations improved dramatically. The dictator and last president of the Argentine Military Junta, General Reynaldo Bignone, called for democratic elections in 1983, and Augusto Pinochet of Chile did the same in 1989. As a consequence, militaristic tendencies faded in Argentina. The Argentine presidents Carlos Menem and Fernando de la Rúa had particularly good relations with Chile. In a bilateral manner, both countries settled all the remaining disputes except Laguna del Desierto, which was decided by International Arbitration in 1994. That decision favoured Argentine claims.[89][90][91][92][93]

According to a 1998 negotiation held in Buenos Aires, a 50 km (31 mi) a border redraw is agreed, being pending to this day the part between Mount Fitz Roy and Cerro Murallón,[94] however a new border was drawn between Cerro Murallón and Cerro Daudet.

In 2006, president Néstor Kirchner invited Chile to define the border in the pending area, but Michelle Bachelet's government left the invitation unanswered.[95] The same year, the Chilean government sent a note to Argentina complaining that Argentine tourism maps showed the boundary claimed by Argentina in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field prior to the 1998 agreement, placing most of the area in Argentina.

In the maps published in Argentina, until today, the region continues to be shown without the white rectangle, as can be seen in a map of Santa Cruz on a website of an official Argentine agency.[96] While in the official Chilean maps and most tourist maps, the rectangle is shown and it is clarified that the boundary is not demarcated according to the 1998 treaty.[97][98][99]

Officially Chile is a neutral party in the Argentine claim on the Falkland Islands. Although Chile acknowledges the Argentine claim as legal, it does not support any special party continuously calling for peaceful negotiations to resolve the matter.[100]

Overlapping Argentine and Chilean Antarctic claims on Antarctica (1946–present).

Geopolitics over Antarctica and the control of the passages between the south Atlantic and the south Pacific have led to the founding of cities and towns such as Ushuaia and Puerto Williams, both of which claim to be the southernmost cities in World. Currently, both countries have research stations in Antarctica, as does the United Kingdom. All three nations claim the totality of the Antarctic Peninsula.

See also: Argentine Antarctica and Chilean Antarctic Territory

#### Dispute over the extended continental shelf

[edit]

Map of the dispute.

This section is an excerpt from Dispute over the extended continental shelf in the Southern Zone Sea between Argentina and Chile § History.[edit]

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) of April 30, 1982, which entered into force on November 16, 1994, established the regime of the continental shelf in Part VI (Articles 76 to 85), defining in Article 76, paragraph 1 what is understood as a continental shelf.

Argentina ratified the convention on January 12, 1995, and it came into force for the country on December 31, 1995.

On August 25, 1997, Chile signed and ratified the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, and it entered into force for the country on September 24, 1997.[101]

In 2009, Argentina submitted a presentation to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which was accepted in 2016 by the UNCLOS.[102] The map in the submission included the disputed territories with the United Kingdom, such as the Falkland Islands, South Georgia, and South Sandwich Islands, a crescent-shaped area south of Argentina's territorial sea as defined in the 1984 treaty with Chile.[103] This area was also claimed by Chile as part of its presential sea,[104] and the sea surrounding the Antarctic Peninsula, which is claimed by all three aforementioned countries.[105] That same year, on May 8, Chile submitted its Preliminary Report to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf.[106][107][108]

In 2020, the Argentine Chamber of Deputies unanimously approved the outer limit of the Argentine Continental Shelf in Law 27,557.[109]

That same year, on December 21, Chile submitted to the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf the partial report on the extended continental shelf in Easter Island and Salas y Gómez.[110][111]

In 2021, Chilean President Sebastián Piñera signed Supreme Decree No. 95, which outlined the continental shelf east of the 67º 16' 0 meridian as part of Chile's continental shelf (not the extended one) area projected from the Diego Ramírez Islands, also claiming the crescent area that Argentina considers part of its extension achieved under the extended continental shelf principle.[112][113][114] This was reflected in the SHOA Chart No. 8[115] and prompted a response from the Argentine Foreign Ministry against Chile's measure.[116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123]

In February 2022, Chile submitted its second partial presentation regarding the Western Continental Shelf of the Chilean Antarctic Territory.[124][125] In August of the same year, Chile made the oral presentations of both partial submissions during the 55th Session of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf at the United Nations in New York.[126][101]

In 2023, Chile, through SHOA, made available an illustrative graphic showing all the maritime areas claimed by the country, which was once again rejected by Argentina.[127][128][129][130]

In July 2023, the International Court of Justice ruled on the priority of a Continental Shelf over a Extended Continental Shelf in the case of the territorial and maritime dispute between Colombia and Nicaragua.[131]

### Economy and energy

[edit]

Trade between the two countries is made mostly over the mountain passes that have enough infrastructure for large scale trade. The trade balance shows a great deal of asymmetry. As of 2005[update], Chile was the third export trading partner for Argentina, behind Brazil and the United States.[132]

In 1996, Chile became an associate member of Mercosur, a regional trade agreement that Argentina and Brazil created in the 1990s. This associate membership does not convey full membership to Chile, however. In 2009, approvals were granted for a $3-billion Pascua Lama project to mine an ore body on the border of the two countries.[133] In 2016, Argentina's exports to Chile amounted to US$2.3 billion, while Chile's exports to Argentina amounted to US$689.5 million.[134]

### Gas

[edit]

Argentine president Carlos Menem signed a natural gas exportation treaty with Chilean president Eduardo Frei Ruiz-Tagle in 1996. In 2005, President Néstor Kirchner broke the treaty due to a supply shortage experienced by Argentina. The situation in Argentina was partly resolved when Argentina increased its own imports from Bolivia, a country with no diplomatic relations with Chile since 1978. In the import contract signed with Bolivia it was specified that not even a drop of Bolivian gas could be sold to Chile from Argentina.[135]

### Sports

[edit]

In 2003, Argentine AFA's president suggested that both countries launch a joint bid for the 2014 FIFA World Cup but was abandoned in favor of a CONMEBOL unified posture to allow the tournament be hosted in Brazil.

Beginning in 2009, the Dakar Rally began to be held in South America, and both Argentina and Chile have collaborated in organizing the annual cross-border event multiple times.

Host country Chile and Argentina contested the 2015 Copa America final and Chile was declared Champion after penalty shots. Copa America 2016 trophy was also for Chile against Argentina once again in the penalty shots.[136][137]

Argentina's and Chile's clash in Pool D of the 2023 Rugby World Cup in France marked the first ever encounter between two South American teams since the inception of the tournament in 1987. Los Pumas went on to defeat Los Cóndores 59 points to 5. The encounter is considered a milestone in the development of rugby in South America.[138]

### Technology

[edit]

Argentina announced on 28 August 2009[139] the election of the Japanese/Brazilian ISDB-T digital television standard with Chile following the same direction on 14 September.[140][dubious - discuss]

### Military integration

[edit]

Since the 1990s, both militaries have begun a close defense cooperation and friendship policy. In September 1991 they signed together with Brazil, the Mendoza Declaration, which commits signatories not to use, develop, produce, acquire, stock, or transfer —directly or indirectly— chemical or biological weapons.

Joint exercises were established on an annual basis in the three armed forces alternately in Argentina and Chile territory. An example of such maneuvers is the Patrulla Antártica Naval Combinada (English: Joint Antarctic Naval Patrol) performed by both Navies to guarantee safety to all touristic and scientific ships that are in transit within the Antarctic Peninsula.

Both nations are highly involved in UN peacekeeping missions. UNFICYP in Cyprus was a precedent where Chilean troops are embedded in the Argentine contingent.[141] They played a key role together at MINUSTAH in Haiti(Video Haiti) and in 2005 they began the formation of a joint force for future United Nations mandates.[142] Named Cruz del Sur (English: Crux), the new force began assembly in 2008 with headquarters alternately on each country every year.[143]

In 2005, while the Argentine Navy school ship ARA Libertad was under overhaul, Argentine cadets were invited to complete their graduation on the Chilean Navy school ship Esmeralda[144] and in another gesture of confidence, on 24 June 2007, a Gendarmeria Nacional Argentina (Border Guard) patrol was given permission to enter Chile to rescue tourists after their bus became trapped in snow.[145]

### Chilean earthquake

[edit]

On 13 March 2010, following the Chilean earthquake the benefit concert Argentina Abraza Chile (English: Argentina Hugs Chile) was hosted in Buenos Aires, and an Argentine Air Force Mobile Field Hospital was deployed to Curicó.

On 8 April 2010 the newly elected Chilean president Sebastián Piñera made his first trip abroad a visit to Buenos Aires where he thanked president Cristina Fernández for the help received. He also stated his commitment to an increased cooperation between the two countries.[146]

### Argentina protects fugitive of Chilean justice

[edit]

In September 2010, CONARE (the Argentine National Refugee Commission, a department of the Argentine Interior Ministry[147]) granted asylum to Chilean citizen Galvarino Apablaza. Apablaza now lives in Argentina where he is married to journalist Paula Chain, and is father to three Argentine-born children. Chain has worked for the Argentine Government press office since 2009.[148] Apablaza is accused by Chile of being involved in the murder of Chilean Senator Jaime Guzmán in 1991, during the government of Patricio Aylwin, as well as the kidnapping of the son of one of the owners of the El Mercurio newspaper. The asylum status has been universally rejected by the Chilean government,[149] as well as by the Argentine political opposition.[150] Some Argentine media and journalists[151] have pointed out that the Argentine government ignored a ruling of the Argentine Supreme Court of Justice allowing the extradition of Apablaza.[149] Chilean state attorney Gustavo Gené has pointed out that there was no question of the Chilean legal system's authority or grounds by the Argentine Commission, and that the reasons for granting political asylum were based exclusively on "humanitarian grounds".[152]

### The Argentine decree 256/2010 about the Strait of Magellan

[edit]

On 17 February 2010 the Argentine executive issued the decree 256/2010[153] pertaining to authorisation requirements placed on shipping to and from Argentina but also to ships going through Argentine jurisdictional water heading for ports in the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands. This decree was implemented by disposition 14/2010[154] of the Prefectura Naval Argentina. On 19 May 2010 the United Kingdom presented a note verbale rejecting the Argentine government's decrees and stipulating that the UK considered the decrees "are not compliant with International Law including the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea ", and with respect to the Straits of Magellan the note recalls that "the rights of international shipping to navigate these waters expeditiously and without obstacle are affirmed in the 1984 Treaty of Peace and Friendship between Chile and Argentina with respect to the Straits of Magellan".[155]

Article 10 of the 1984 Treaty states "The Argentine Republic undertakes to maintain, at any time and in whatever circumstances, the right of ships of all flags to navigate expeditiously and without obstacles through its jurisdictional waters to and from the Strait of Magellan".

## Resident diplomatic missions

[edit]

* Argentina has an embassy in Santiago and consulates-general in Antofagasta, Concepción, Puerto Montt, Punta Arenas and Valparaíso.[156]

* Chile has an embassy in Buenos Aires and consulates-general in Bariloche, Córdoba, Mendoza, Neuquén, Río Gallegos, Rosario and Salta; and consulates in Bahía Blanca, Comodoro Rivadavia, Mar del Plata, Río Grande and Ushuaia.[157]

* Embassy of Argentina in Santiago

* Consulate-General of Argentina in Santiago

* Consulate-General of Argentina in Valparaïso

* Embassy of Chile in Buenos Aires

* Consulate-General of Chile in Buenos Aires

* Consulate-General of Chile in Comodoro Rivadavia

* Consulate-General of Chile in Mendoza

## See also

[edit]

* Laguna del Desierto incident
* Southern Patagonian Ice Field dispute
* Beagle conflict
* Puna de Atacama dispute
* Argentina–Chile border
* ABC countries
* Foreign relations of Argentina
* Foreign relations of Chile
* List of ambassadors of Argentina to Chile

## References

[edit]

1. ^ The annual register, or, A view of the history, politics, and literature for 1819, Volume 61, John Davis Batchelder Collection (Library of Congress) link, page 138
2. ^ a b José María Rosa, Historia argentina: Unitarios y federales (1826–1841) at Google Books
3. ^ Historia Argentina: Unitarios y federales (1826–1841). Written by José María Rosa. Published by Editorial Oriente, 1841
4. ^ Domingo Faustino Sarmiento (1889). El General Fray Félix Aldao Gobernador de Mendoza (1845) (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile. Retrieved 5 April 2024.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
5. ^ Bustos Díaz, Carlos (January 2001). "Chile y Argentina. A cien años del primer arbitraje británico" (PDF). Revista Actualidad Jurídica (in Spanish) (3). Retrieved 14 May 2025.
6. ^ Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985). Historia de las fronteras de Chile - Los tratados de límites con Argentina (in Spanish). Andrés Bello.
7. ^ "Discurso del Señor Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores Dr. D. Bernardo de Irigoyen" (PDF) (in Spanish). Imprenta de S. Ostwald. 1882. p. 17. Retrieved 14 May 2025. "mismo que á los Potreros de Cordillera"
8. ^ Bermejo, Antonio (1879). La cuestión chilena y el arbitraje (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Imp. de la Nación.
9. ^ Congreso Internacional Andrés Bello y el Derecho - realizado con motivo del bicentenario de su nacimiento (in Spanish). Editorial Jurídica de Chile. 1982.
10. ^ Cuestión chileno-argentina: notas diplomáticas y otros escritos en defensa de los derechos de la República Argentina (in Spanish). Argentina. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 1877. p. 95.
11. ^ Lafont, Julio B. (1953). Anarquía. Tiranía. Organización (in Spanish). Editorial F. V. D.
12. ^ Memoria (in Spanish). Chile. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 1849.
13. ^ Goyena, Pedro; Frías, Félix (1884). Folletos. Chile durante la legación, 1869–1874. Artículos sobre la cuestión chilena. Homenajes á la memoria de D. Félix Frías (in Spanish). C. Casavalle.
14. ^ Cuestión de límites entre Chile y la República Argentina: Contestación del Señor Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores de Chile a la nota del Sr. Enviado Extraordinario y Ministro Plenipotenciario de la República Argentina, fecha 20 de septiembre de 1873 (in Spanish). Chile. Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores. 1874.
15. ^ Toro, Gaspar (1878). La diplomacia chileno-argentina en la cuestión de límites (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile: Imp. de la lib. del Mercurio de E. Undurraga i ca.
16. ^ a b c d e f "POTREROS CORDILLERANOS AL INTERIOR DE TALCA: HISTORIA DE LA PRIMERA CONTROVERSIA TERRITORIAL ENTRE CHILE Y ARGENTINA". Corporación de Defensa de la Soberanía (in Spanish). 12 November 2006.
17. ^ "THE BEGINNING OF THE CHILEAN-ARGENTINE CONTROVERSY FOR TERRITORIAL RIGHTS IN THE PATAGONIA: FROM THE GOVERNMENT OF O'HIGGINS UNTIL THE TREATY OF 1855–1856". Corporación de Defensa de la Soberanía (in Spanish). 12 April 2007. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
18. ^ Álvaro Barros (1975). Fronteras y territorios federales de las pampas del sur. Buenos Aires: Librería Hachette, pp. 20
19. ^ La conquista de quince mil leguas: Estudio sobre la traslacion de la Frontera Sud de la Republica al Rio Negro, dedicado a los gefes y oficiales del Ejército Expedicionario. Pp. 346–348. Written by Estanislao Severo Zeballos. Published by Establecimiento Tipográfico a vapor de "La Prensa", 1878
20. ^ Spain and the American Civil War: relations at mid-century, 1855–1868, p. 99, at Google Books
21. ^ "The Alliance With Bolivia". South Pacific Times. 26 April 1879.
22. ^ "Iberoamerica -- Bienvenido --". Retrieved 2 April 2016.
23. ^ Eyzaguirre, Jaime (1967). Breve historia de las fronteras de Chile (in Spanish). Editorial Universitaria.
24. ^ Mario Barros Van Buren (1998). "OUR RELATIONS WITH ARGENTINA" (PDF) (in Spanish). Revista Marina. Retrieved 23 April 2024. "The Argentine government replied claiming for itself all the territory south of the Diamante River, including the Strait and Tierra del Fuego."
25. ^ Piero Castagneto; Diego M. Lascano (2009). Prat, agente secreto en Buenos Aires: 1878, la guerra que no fue (in Spanish) (1st ed.). Santiago de Chile: RIL Editores. ISBN 9789562846837.
26. ^ a b Richard O. Perry (1980). "Argentina and Chile: The Struggle for Patagonia 1843-1881". The Americas. 36 (3). JSTOR: 347–363\. doi:10.2307/981291. JSTOR 981291. S2CID 147607097. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
27. ^ Edmundo Bustos Azócar (2023). Mala guerra, cristiano. Los Aónikenk, Chile y Argentina. La disputa por la Patagonia durante el Siglo XIX (in Spanish). Chile: Pehuén. ISBN 9789561608832.
28. ^ Passetti, Gabriel (16 November 2020). ""La cuestión de límites": Intelectuais, diplomatas e a disputa pelas fronteiras entre Argentina e Chile (Séculos XIX a XXI)". Projeto História: Revista do Programa de Estudos Pós-Graduados de História (in Portuguese). 69. doi:10.23925/2176-2767.2020v69p53-89.
29. ^ Miguel Luis Amunátegui Aldunate (1853). Títulos de la República de Chile a la soberanía i dominio de la Estremidad Austral del continente americano: refutación de la memoria histórica que en 1852 ha publicado en Buenos Aires don Pedro de Angelis con el objeto de sostener la soberanía i dominio de la República Arjentina sobre el mismo territorio (in Spanish). Imprenta de Julio Belin i Ca.
30. ^ Ravest Mora, Manuel (2005). "La Patagonia oriental según una real cédula de 1570 menospreciada por la historiografía chilena". Historia (Santiago) (in Spanish). 38 (2). Instituto de Historia: 445–464\. doi:10.4067/S0717-71942005000200007. ISSN 0717-7194.
31. ^ Lagos Carmona, Guillermo (1985). Los Títulos Históricos – Historia de las fronteras de Chile (in Spanish). Andrés Bello. "(p. 543) In this document it is seen that those of the province of Cuyo finish to the South in the origin of the Diamante River, and that from that point towards the East, the dividing line leaves until that in which the Quinto River crosses the road that goes from Santiago to Buenos Aires."
32. ^ Jaime Eyzaguirre (1967). Breve Historia de las Fronteras de Chile. "The Governorate of Chile was not for long constrained, from north to south, between the 27th and 41st parallels. The emperor, by two decrees issued in Arras, on September 29, 1554, extended the jurisdiction of Pedro de Valdivia to the Strait of Magellan, thus transferring to Chile lands previously given to Camargo, and instituted a new Governorate south of the Strait in favor of Jeronimo de Alderete, who thus succeeded the former grantee Pero Sancho de Hoz. The death of Valdivia immediately produced a new change and Charles V, by two decrees dated May 29, 1555, appointed Alderete Governor of Chile up to the Strait and at the same time ordered him to take "possession in our name of the lands and provinces that fall in the demarcation of Castile, on the other side of the said Strait"."
33. ^ González Carrera, Benjamín. Historia cartográfica resumida de los límites de Chile (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2022. Retrieved 4 April 2024.
34. ^ "LOSS OF PATAGONIA, 1881" (in Spanish). Educar Chile. 29 March 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2024.
35. ^ Manuel Ravest Mora (2006). "BARROS ARANA AND THE LOSS OF PATAGONIA: MYTH AND TRUTH". Imprenta Minerva (in Spanish) (27): 170–171 Pág.
36. ^ "Border treaty with Argentina" (in Spanish). Memoria Chilena. Retrieved 14 May 2024.
37. ^ Rolando Rojas (September 2010). "THE TERRITORIES CHILE LOST IN THE PACIFIC WAR". Revista Argumentos (in Spanish). 4. ISSN 2076-7722. Retrieved 23 April 2024.
38. ^ a b Mateo Martinic Beros (1971). Presencia de Chile en la Patagonia austral 1843 – 1879 (in Spanish). Editorial Andrés Bello. Retrieved 8 December 2022.
39. ^ Fasano, Héctor L. (2005). Luis Piedra Buena. Hero of the South Seas. Part III. Museum Magazine. Francisco P. Moreno" Museum Foundation of La Plata. Nº 19, pp 17–21. ISSN 1853-4414.
40. ^ Harambour, Alberto (2019). Soberanías fronterizas: estados y capital en la colonización de Patagonia: Argentina y Chile, 1830-1922. Valdivia, Chile: Ediciones UACh. ISBN 9789563900910.
41. ^ a b c d Francisco Pascasio Moreno (1902). Frontera Argentino-Chilena - Volumen II (in Spanish). pp. 905–911.
42. ^ a b Arbitraje de Limites entre Chile i la Republica Arjentina - Esposicion Chilena - Tomo IV (in Spanish). Paris. 1902. pp. 1469–1484.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
43. ^ a b Diego Barros Arana (1898). La Cuestion de Limites entre Chile i la Republica Arjentina (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
44. ^ Richard O. Perry (1980). "Argentina and Chile: The Struggle for Patagonia 1843-1881". The Americas. 36 (3). JSTOR: 347–363\. doi:10.2307/981291. JSTOR 981291. S2CID 147607097. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
45. ^ Treaty of 1881 between Argentina and Chile
46. ^ Sebastián Peredo. "Campos de Hielo Sur: Una Fuente para la Cooperación" (PDF). Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaíso. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
47. ^ a b Bartolomé, Gerardo M. (2008). Perito Moreno : el límite de las mentiras, 1852-1919. Ushuaia [Argentina]: Zagier & Urruty Publications. ISBN 978-9871468096.
48. ^ a b "Revista EXACTA mente - Nro 8 - Panorama". 24 August 2010. Archived from the original on 24 August 2010.
49. ^ Boundary Protocol between Chile and Argentina 1893
50. ^ Peri Fagerstrom, René (1995). Por qué perdimos Laguna del Desierto? : --y por qué podríamos perder Campos de Hielo Sur? (1a. ed.). Santiago de Chile: Salón Tte. Hernán Merino Correa. ISBN 9567271127.
51. ^ a b c Cedomir Marangunic (12 July 2024). "Frontera Chile-Argentina: atención urgente al Campo de Hielo" (in Spanish). Ciper. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
52. ^ Carlos Leonardo de la Rosa (1998). Acuerdo sobre los hielos continentales: razones para su aprobación. Ediciones Jurídicas Cuyo. ISBN 9789509099678.
53. ^ Robert D. Talbott (1967). "The Chilean Boundary in the Strait of Magellan". Hispanic American Historical Review. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
54. ^ "The Cordillera of the Andes Boundary Case (Argentina, Chile)" (PDF). Legal UN. Retrieved 5 February 2023.
55. ^ Cedomir Marangunic; Juan Ignacio Ipinza Mayor; Jorge Guzmán Gutiérrez (26 April 2021). "El Campo de Hielo Patagónico Sur ¿es mejor un mal arreglo que un buen juicio". Info Defensa. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
56. ^ P. Moreno, Francisco (1899). "Explorations in Patagonia". The Geographical Journal. 14 (3). Royal Geographical Society: 262. doi:10.2307/1774365. JSTOR 1774365. "I have seen it descending from the west as an immense ice field, from the crest of the central chain, 3000 meters high, which the ice covers to its western slope in the Eyre Strait. To the south and north of it, other narrower glaciers can be seen at the extremity of the fjord-like bays."
57. ^ Cedomir Marangunic, Juan Ignacio Ipinza (5 August 2022). El límite en los Hielos Patagónicos. Geoestudios.
58. ^ Resende-Santos, Joao (2007). Neorealism, States, and the Modern Mass Army: A Neorealist Theory of the State (hardbound) (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 327. ISBN 978-0-521-86948-5.
59. ^ Espinosa Moraga, Oscar (1958). La postguerra del Pacífico y la Puna de Atacama (1884–1899) (in Spanish). Editorial Andrés Bello. p. 14.
60. ^ a b (in Spanish) Historia de la relacciones exteriores de la Argentina
61. ^ a b William F. Sater, Chile and the United States, Empires in Conflict, University of Georgia Press, 1990, ISBN 0-8203-1249-5
62. ^ Arthur Preston Whitaker, The United States and the southern cone: Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay, Harvard University Press, 1976, page 34
63. ^ "RIO ENCUENTRO". Mágica Ruinas. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
64. ^ Clarín de Buenos Aires 20 December 1998
65. ^ See notes of the Chilean Foreign Minister Jose Miguel Insulza, in La Tercera de Santiago de Chile 13 July 1998 "Enfatizó que, si bien la situación es diferente, lo que hoy está ocurriendo con el Tratado de Campo de Hielo Sur hace recordar a la opinión pública lo sucedido en 1977, durante la disputa territorial por el Canal de Beagle"[permanent dead link]
66. ^ See notes of Senator (not elected but named by the Armed Forces) Jorge Martínez Bush in La Tercera de Santiago de Chile 26 July 1998 "El legislador expuso que los chilenos mantienen "muy fresca" en la memoria la situación creada cuando Argentina declaró nulo el arbitraje sobre el canal del Beagle, en 1978"
67. ^ See notes of the Chilean Foreign Minister Ignacio Walker "Y está en la retina de los chilenos el laudo de Su Majestad Británica, en el Beagle, que fue declarado insanablemente nulo por la Argentina. Esa impresión todavía está instalada en la sociedad chilena." Clarin de B.A., 22 July 2005
68. ^ See also "Reciprocidad en las Relaciones Chile - Argentina" of Andrés Fabio Oelckers Sainz. "También en Chile, todavía genera un gran rechazo el hecho que Argentina declarase nulo el fallo arbitral británico y además en una primera instancia postergara la firma del laudo papal por el diferendo del Beagle"
69. ^ See notes of Director académico de la Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales Flacso, Francisco Rojas, in Santiago de Chile, in "Desde la Argentina, cuesta entender el nivel de desconfianza que hoy existe en Chile a propósito de la decisión que tomó en 1978 de declarar nulo el laudo arbitral" Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine La Nación de Buenos Aires 26 September 1997
70. ^ See notes of Chilean Defense Minister Edmundo Pérez Yoma in "Centro Superior de Estudios de la Defensa Nacional del Reino de España" " ... Y que la Argentina estuvo a punto de llevar a cabo una invasión sobre territorio de Chile en 1978 ..." Archived 3 October 2008 at the Wayback Machine, appeared in Argentine newspaperEl Cronista Comercial 5 May 1997. These notes were later relativized by the Chilean Government (See "Chile desmintió a su ministro de Defensa". Archived from the original on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008. "El gobierno hace esfuerzos para evitar una polémica con Chile". Archived from the original on 3 October 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2008.)
71. ^ Argentine newspaper Perfil Después de Malvinas, iban a atacar a Chile Archived 25 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine on 22. November 2009, retrieved 22. November 2009:

Para colmo, Galtieri dijo en un discurso: "Que saquen el ejemplo de lo que estamos haciendo ahora porque después les toca a ellos".
72. ^ Óscar Camilión, Memorias Políticas, Editorial Planeta, Buenos Aires, 1999, page 281:

"Los planes militares eran, en la hipótesis de resolver el caso Malvinas, invadir las islas en disputa en el Beagle. Esa era la decisión de la Armada ..."
73. ^ All articles of Manfred Schönfeld published by "La Prensa" from 10 January 1982 to 2 August 1982, are compiled in La Guerra Austral, Manfred Schönfeld, Desafío Editores S.A., 1982, ISBN 950-02-0500-9
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### Sources

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* (in Spanish) Historia de las Relaciones Exteriores Argentinas Archived 18 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine by Carlos Escudé and Andrés Cisneros
* (in Spanish) Combined Military Force Cruz del Sur \- official press release

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