Armenian language

Indo-European language

Armenian

հայերեն[a]

"Armenian language" in the Armenian alphabet

Pronunciation| [hɑjɛˈɾɛn] ⓘ
Native to|

* Armenia
* Georgia (including Abkhazia[b])
* Iran
* Nagorno-Karabakh
* Turkey

Ethnicity| Armenians

Native speakers

| 5.3 million[c] (2013–2021)[1]

Language family

Indo-European

* Armenian

Early forms

Proto-Indo-European

* Proto-Armenian
* Classical Armenian
* Middle Armenian

Standard forms

* Eastern Armenian
* Western Armenian

Dialects|

* Yerevan
* Homshetsi
* Karabakh
* Karin
* Mush
* Kharberd–Yerznka
* Shabin–Karahisar
* Kakavaberd
* Zok
* Akn
* Malatia
* Nor-Nakhichevan

Writing system

* Armenian alphabet
* Armenian Braille

Official status

Official language in

* Armenia
* Eurasian Economic Union[d]

Recognised minority
language in

*  Cyprus[5][6]
*  Hungary[7]
*  Iraq[8]
*  Poland[9][10]
*  Romania[11]
*  Turkey[12][13][14][15]
*  Ukraine[16]

Regulated by|

* Armenian National Academy of Sciences (Armenia)[17]
* Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation (Western Armenian, de facto)[18][19]

Language codes
ISO 639-1| `hy`
ISO 639-2| `arm (B)`
`hye (T)`
ISO 639-3| Variously:
`hye` – Eastern Armenian
`hyw` – Western Armenian
`xcl` – Classical Armenian
`axm` – Middle Armenian
Glottolog| `arme1241`
Linguasphere| `57-AAA-a`

The current distribution of the Armenian language in the southern Caucasus

Official language spoken by the majority

Recognized minority language

Significant number of speakers

This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

Armenian (endonym: հայերեն,[a] hayeren, pronounced [hɑjɛˈɾɛn] ⓘ) is an Indo-European language and the sole member of the independent branch of the Armenian language family. It is the native language of the Armenian people and the official language of Armenia. Historically spoken in the Armenian highlands, today Armenian is also widely spoken throughout the Armenian diaspora. Armenian is written in its own writing system, the Armenian alphabet, introduced in 405 AD by Saint Mesrop Mashtots. The estimated number of Armenian speakers worldwide is between five and seven million.[20][21]

## History

[edit]

### Classification and origins

[edit]

Main article: Proto-Armenian language

See also: Armenian hypothesis, History of the Armenian alphabet, and Urartian language

History of the Armenian language

* Armenian hypothesis
* Proto-Armenian
* Classical Armenian (from 405)
* Middle Armenian (c. 1100 – 1700)
* Modern Armenian (c. 1700 – present)
Eastern, Western,
Zok, Homshetsi, Lomavren (mixed)

Armenian alphabet
Romanization of Armenian

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Armenians
Armenian culture

* Architecture
* Art
* Cuisine
* Dance
* Dress
* History
* Literature
* Music
* Theater

By country or region

* Armenia
* Artsakh (See also Nagorno-Karabakh)
* Azerbaijan
* Turkey

* * *

Armenian diaspora

* Russia
* France
* India
* United States
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel and Palestine
* Armenian Quarter
* Georgia
* Abkhazia
* Samtskhe–Javakheti
* Tbilisi
* Brazil
* Argentina
* Uruguay
* Syria
* Afghanistan
* Lebanon
* Ukraine
* Crimea
* Poland
* Canada
* Mexico
* Australia
* Greece
* Cyprus
* Egypt
* Sweden
* Singapore
* Bangladesh
* China
* Romania
* Moldova
* Belarus
* Hungary
* Spain
* Germany
* The Netherlands
* Switzerland
* Italy
* Lithuania
* Austria
* Czech Republic
* Serbia
* Bulgaria
* North Macedonia
* Malta
* Myanmar
* Ethiopia
* New Zealand
* Indonesia
* Surabaya
* United Arab Emirates
* United Kingdom
* Qatar
* Kuwait
* Jordan
* Pakistan

Subgroups

* Hamshenis
* Cherkesogai
* Armeno-Tats
* Loms
* Hayhurum
* Zoks

Religion

* Armenian Apostolic
* Armenian Catholic
* Evangelical
* Brotherhood
* Hetanism

Languages and dialects
Armenian: Eastern (Zok) • Western (Homshetsi)
Sign languages: Armenian Sign • Caucasian Sign
Persian: Armeno-Tat
Cuman: Armeno-Kipchak
Armenian–Lom: Lomavren
Persecution

* Genocide (Denial)
* Hamidian massacres
* Adana massacre
* Anti-Armenianism
* Hidden Armenians
* First Nagorno-Karabakh War
* Second Nagorno-Karabakh War

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Languages

* * *

* List of Indo-European languages

* * *

Extant

* Albanoid
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Balto-Slavic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Hellenic
* Greek
* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Italic
* Romance

Extinct

* Anatolian
* Tocharian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Messapic
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Thracian

* * *

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European language

* Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut

* * *

Hypothetical

* Balkanic
* Daco-Thracian
* Graeco-Albanian
* Graeco-Armenian
* Graeco-Aryan
* Graeco-Phrygian
* Indo-Hittite
* Italo-Celtic
* Thraco-Illyrian

* * *

Grammar

* Vocabulary
* Root
* Verbs
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Numerals
* Particles

* * *

Other

* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse)
* Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic)
* Proto-Greek
* Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Indo-Aryan, Proto-Iranian, Proto-Nuristani)

Philology

* Hittite inscriptions
* Hieroglyphic Luwian
* Linear B
* Rigveda
* Avesta
* Homer
* Behistun
* Greek epigraphy
* Phrygian epigraphy
* Messapic epigraphy
* Latin epigraphy
* Gaulish epigraphy
* Runic epigraphy
* Ogham
* Gothic Bible
* Bible translations into Armenian
* Tocharian script
* Old Irish glosses
* Albanian Kanun

Origins

* Homeland
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Society
* Religion

* * *

Mainstream

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Indo-European migrations
* Eurasian nomads

* * *

Alternative and fringe

* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Beech argument
* Indigenous Aryanism
* Baltic homeland
* Paleolithic continuity theory

Archaeology

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

* Domestication of the horse
* Kurgan
* Kurgan stelae
* Kurgan culture
* Steppe cultures
* Bug–Dniester
* Sredny Stog
* Dnieper–Donets
* Samara
* Khvalynsk
* Yamnaya
* Mykhailivka culture
* Novotitarovskaya culture

Caucasus

* Maykop

East Asia

* Afanasievo

Eastern Europe

* Usatove
* Cernavodă
* Cucuteni

Northern Europe

* Corded ware
* Baden
* Middle Dnieper

* * *

Bronze Age
Pontic Steppe

* Chariot
* Yamnaya
* Catacomb
* Multi-cordoned ware
* Poltavka
* Srubnaya

Northern/Eastern Steppe

* Abashevo culture
* Andronovo
* Sintashta

Europe

* Globular Amphora
* Corded ware
* Bell Beaker
* Únětice
* Trzciniec
* Nordic Bronze Age
* Terramare
* Tumulus
* Urnfield
* Proto-Villanovan
* Lusatian
* Este

South Asia

* Bishkent
* Vakhsh
* BMAC
* Ochre Coloured Pottery
* Copper Hoard
* Cemetery H
* Gandhara grave

* * *

Iron Age
Steppe

* Chernoles

Europe

* Thraco-Cimmerian
* Hallstatt
* Latial
* Jastorf

Caucasus

* Colchian

Central Asia

* Yaz

India

* Painted Grey Ware
* Northern Black Polished Ware

Peoples and societies

Bronze Age

* Anatolian peoples (Hittites)

* Armenians
* Mycenaean Greeks
* Indo-Iranians

Iron Age Indo-Aryans

* Indo-Aryans

Iranians

* Iranians

Nuristanis

* Nuristanis

East Asia

* Wusun
* Yuezhi

Europe

* Celts
* Gauls
* Celtiberians
* Insular Celts
* Cimmerians
* Hellenic peoples
* Italic peoples
* Germanic peoples
* Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia
* Thracians
* Dacians
* Illyrians
* Paeonians
* Phrygians
* Scythians

Middle Ages
East Asia

* Tocharians

Europe

* Albanians
* Balts
* Slavs
* Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians
* Middle Ages

Indo-Aryan

* Medieval India

Iranian

* Greater Iran

Religion and mythology

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-Iranian religion
* Historical Vedic religion
* Ancient Iranian religion

* * *

Historical

* Hittite

Indo-Aryan

* Vedic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian

* Persian
* Zoroastrianism
* Kurdish
* Yazidism
* Yarsanism
* Scythian
* Ossetian

Others

* Armenian

European

* Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian)
* Greek
* Roman
* Celtic
* Irish
* Scottish
* Breton
* Welsh
* Cornish
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Norse
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Slavic

Practices

* Fire rituals
* Horse sacrifice
* Sati
* Winter solstice/Yule

Indo-European studies

Scholars

* Marija Gimbutas
* J. P. Mallory

Institutes

* Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European

Publications

* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
* The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
* Journal of Indo-European Studies
* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

Category

* v
* t
* e

Armenian is an independent branch of the Indo-European languages.[22] It is of interest to linguists for its distinctive phonological changes within that family. Armenian exhibits more satemization than centumization, although it is not classified as belonging to either of these subgroups. Some linguists tentatively conclude that Armenian, Greek (and Phrygian), Albanian and Indo-Iranian were dialectally close to each other;[23][24][25][26][27][28] within this hypothetical dialect group, Proto-Armenian was situated between Proto-Greek (centum subgroup) and Proto-Indo-Iranian (satem subgroup).[27] Ronald I. Kim has noted unique morphological developments connecting Armenian to Balto-Slavic languages.[29]

The Armenian language has a long literary history, with a 5th-century Bible translation as its oldest surviving text. Another text translated into Armenian early on, and also in the 5th-century, was the Armenian Alexander Romance. The vocabulary of the language has historically been influenced by Western Middle Iranian languages, particularly Parthian;[30] its derivational morphology and syntax were also affected by language contact with Parthian, but to a lesser extent.[31][32] Contact with Greek, Persian, and Syriac also resulted in a number of loanwords. There are two standardized modern literary forms, Eastern Armenian (spoken mainly in Armenia) and Western Armenian (spoken originally mainly in modern-day Turkey and, since the Armenian genocide, mostly in the diaspora). The differences between them are considerable but they are mutually intelligible after significant exposure.[33][34][35] Some subdialects such as Homshetsi are not mutually intelligible with other varieties.[36]

Although Armenians were known to history much earlier (for example, they were mentioned in the 6th-century BC Behistun Inscription and in Xenophon's 4th century BC history, The Anabasis),[37] the oldest surviving Armenian-language writing is etched in stone on Armenian temples and is called Mehenagir.[38][dubious – discuss] The Armenian alphabet was created by Mesrop Mashtots in 405, at which time it had 36 letters. He is also credited by some with the creation of the Georgian alphabet and the Caucasian Albanian alphabet.

While Armenian constitutes the sole member of the Armenian branch of the Indo-European family, Aram Kossian has suggested that the hypothetical Mushki language may have been a (now extinct) Armenic language.[39]

### Early contacts

[edit]

Armenian Birds Mosaic from Jerusalem with Armenian language and alphabet Armenian language writing in Haghpat Monastery

W. M. Austin (1942) concluded[40] that there was early contact between Armenian and Anatolian languages, based on what he considered common archaisms, such as the lack of a feminine gender and the absence of inherited long vowels. Unlike shared innovations (or synapomorphies), the common retention of archaisms (or symplesiomorphy) is not considered conclusive evidence of a period of common isolated development. There are words used in Armenian that are generally believed to have been borrowed from Anatolian languages, particularly from Luwian, although some researchers have identified possible Hittite loanwords as well.[41] One notable loanword from Anatolian is Armenian xalam, "skull", cognate to Hittite ḫalanta, "head".[42]

In 1985, the Soviet linguist Igor M. Diakonoff noted the presence in Classical Armenian of what he calls a "Caucasian substratum" identified by earlier scholars, consisting of loans from the Kartvelian and Northeast Caucasian languages.[43] Noting that Hurro-Urartian-speaking peoples inhabited the Armenian homeland in the second millennium BC, Diakonoff identifies in Armenian a Hurro-Urartian substratum of social, cultural, and animal and plant terms such as ałaxin "slave girl" ( ← Hurr. al(l)a(e)ḫḫenne), cov "sea" ( ← Urart. ṣûǝ "(inland) sea"), ułt "camel" ( ← Hurr. uḷtu), and xnjor "apple (tree)" ( ← Hurr. ḫinzuri). Some of the terms he gives admittedly have an Akkadian or Sumerian provenance, but he suggests they were borrowed through Hurrian or Urartian. Given that these borrowings do not undergo sound changes characteristic of the development of Armenian from Proto-Indo-European, he dates their borrowing to a time before the written record but after the Proto-Armenian language stage.

Contemporary linguists, such as Hrach Martirosyan, have rejected many of the Hurro-Urartian and Northeast Caucasian origins for these words and instead suggest native Armenian etymologies, leaving the possibility that these words may have been loaned into Hurro-Urartian and Caucasian languages from Armenian, and not vice versa.[44] A notable example is arciv, meaning "eagle", believed to have been the origin of Urartian Arṣibi and Northeast Caucasian arzu. This word is derived from Proto-Indo-European *h₂r̥ǵipyós, with cognates in Sanskrit (ऋजिप्य, ṛjipyá), Avestan (ərəzifiia), and Greek (αἰγίπιος, aigípios).[45][46] Hrach Martirosyan and Armen Petrosyan propose additional borrowed words of Armenian origin loaned into Urartian and vice versa, including grammatical words and parts of speech, such as Urartian eue ("and"), attested in the earliest Urartian texts and likely a loan from Armenian (compare to Armenian եւ yev, ultimately from Proto-Indo-European *h₁epi). Other loans from Armenian into Urartian includes personal names, toponyms, and names of deities.[44][47][27][48][49] More recent scholarship is even more sceptical, suggesting that fewer than 10 Armenian words are of assuredly Hurro-Urartian origin, and that no secure loans can be established in the other direction.[50]

Loan words from Iranian languages, along with the other ancient accounts such as that of Xenophon above, initially led some linguists to erroneously classify Armenian as an Iranian language. Scholars such as Paul de Lagarde and F. Müller believed that the similarities between the two languages meant that Armenian belonged to the Iranian language family.[51] The distinctness of Armenian was recognized when philologist Heinrich Hübschmann (1875)[51][52] used the comparative method to distinguish two layers of Iranian words from the older Armenian vocabulary. He showed that Armenian often had two morphemes for one concept, that the non-Iranian components yielded a consistent Proto-Indo-European pattern distinct from Iranian, and that the inflectional morphology was different from that of Iranian languages.

#### Graeco-Armenian hypothesis

[edit]

Main article: Graeco-Armenian

The hypothesis that Greek is Armenian's closest living relative originates with Holger Pedersen (1924), who noted that the number of Greek-Armenian lexical cognates is greater than that of agreements between Armenian and any other Indo-European language. Antoine Meillet (1925, 1927) further investigated morphological and phonological agreement and postulated that the parent languages of Greek and Armenian were dialects in immediate geographical proximity during the Proto-Indo-European period. Meillet's hypothesis became popular in the wake of his book Esquisse d'une histoire de la langue latine (1936). Georg Renatus Solta (1960) does not go as far as postulating a Proto-Graeco-Armenian stage, but he concludes that considering both the lexicon and morphology, Greek is clearly the dialect to be most closely related to Armenian. Eric P. Hamp (1976, 91) supports the Graeco-Armenian thesis and even anticipates a time "when we should speak of Helleno-Armenian" (meaning the postulate of a Graeco-Armenian proto-language). Armenian shares the augment and a negator derived from the set phrase in the Proto-Indo-European language *ne h₂oyu kʷid ("never anything" or "always nothing"), the representation of word-initial laryngeals by prothetic vowels, and other phonological and morphological peculiarities with Greek. Nevertheless, as Fortson (2004) comments, "by the time we reach our earliest Armenian records in the 5th century AD, the evidence of any such early kinship has been reduced to a few tantalizing pieces".

#### Greco-Armeno-Aryan hypothesis

[edit]

Main article: Graeco-Aryan

Graeco-(Armeno)-Aryan is a hypothetical clade within the Indo-European family, ancestral to the Greek language, the Armenian language, and the Indo-Iranian languages. Graeco-Aryan unity would have become divided into Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian by the mid-3rd millennium BC. Conceivably, Proto-Armenian would have been located between Proto-Greek and Proto-Indo-Iranian, consistent with the fact that Armenian shares certain features only with Indo-Iranian (the satem change) but others only with Greek (s > h).

Graeco-Aryan has comparatively wide support among Indo-Europeanists who believe the Indo-European homeland to be located in the Armenian Highlands, the "Armenian hypothesis".[53][54][55][56][57][58] Early and strong evidence was given by Euler's 1979 examination on shared features in Greek and Sanskrit nominal flection.[59]

Used in tandem with the Graeco-Armenian hypothesis, the Armenian language would also be included under the label Aryano-Greco-Armenic, splitting into Proto-Greek/Phrygian and "Armeno-Aryan" (ancestor of Armenian and Indo-Iranian).[23][24]

### Evolution

[edit]

Classical Armenian (Arm: grabar), attested from the 5th century to the 19th century as the literary standard (up to the 11th century also as a spoken language with different varieties), was partially superseded by Middle Armenian, attested from the 12th century to the 18th century. Specialized literature prefers "Old Armenian" for grabar as a whole, and designates as "Classical" the language used in the 5th century literature, "Post-Classical" from the late 5th to 8th centuries, and "Late Grabar" that of the period covering the 8th to 11th centuries. Later, it was used mainly in religious and specialized literature, with the exception of a revival during the early modern period, when attempts were made to establish it as the language of a literary renaissance, with neoclassical inclinations, through the creation and dissemination of literature in varied genres, especially by the Mekhitarists. The first Armenian periodical, Azdarar, was published in grabar in 1794.

The classical form borrowed numerous words from Middle Iranian languages, primarily Parthian,[60] and contains smaller inventories of loanwords from Greek,[60] Syriac,[60] Aramaic,[61] Arabic,[62] Mongol,[63] Persian,[64] and indigenous languages such as Urartian. An effort to modernize the language in Bagratid Armenia and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (11–14th centuries) resulted in the addition of two more characters to the alphabet ("օ" and "ֆ"), bringing the total number to 38.[65]

The Book of Lamentations by Gregory of Narek (951–1003) is an example of the development of a literature and writing style of Old Armenian by the 10th century. In addition to elevating the literary style and vocabulary of the Armenian language by adding well above a thousand new words,[66] through his other hymns and poems Gregory paved the way for his successors to include secular themes and vernacular language in their writings. The thematic shift from mainly religious texts to writings with secular outlooks further enhanced and enriched the vocabulary. "A Word of Wisdom", a poem by Hovhannes Sargavak devoted to a starling, legitimizes poetry devoted to nature, love, or female beauty. Gradually, the interests of the population at large were reflected in other literary works as well. Konsdantin Yerzinkatsi and several others took the unusual step of criticizing the ecclesiastic establishment and addressing the social issues of the Armenian homeland. These changes represented the nature of the literary style and syntax, but they did not constitute immense changes to the fundamentals of the grammar or the morphology of the language. Often, when writers codify a spoken dialect, other language users are then encouraged to imitate that structure through the literary device known as parallelism.[67]

In the 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland was once again divided. This time Eastern Armenia was conquered from Qajar Iran by the Russian Empire, while Western Armenia, containing two thirds of historical Armenia, remained under Ottoman control. The antagonistic relationship between the Russian and Ottoman empires led to creation of two separate and different environments under which Armenians lived. Halfway through the 19th century, two important concentrations of Armenian communities were further consolidated.[68] Because of persecutions or the search for better economic opportunities, many Armenians living under Ottoman rule gradually moved to Istanbul, whereas Tbilisi became the center of Armenians living under Russian rule. These two cosmopolitan cities very soon became the primary poles of Armenian intellectual and cultural life.[69]

The introduction of new literary forms and styles, as well as many new ideas sweeping Europe, reached Armenians living in both regions. This created an ever-growing need to elevate the vernacular, Ashkharhabar, to the dignity of a modern literary language, in contrast to the now-anachronistic Grabar. Numerous dialects existed in the traditional Armenian regions, which, different as they were, had certain morphological and phonetic features in common. On the basis of these features two major standards emerged:

* Western standard: The influx of immigrants from different parts of the traditional Armenian homeland to Istanbul crystallized the common elements of the regional dialects, paving the way for a style of writing that required a shorter and more flexible learning curve than Grabar.
* Eastern standard: The Yerevan dialect provided the primary elements of Eastern Armenian, centered in Tbilisi, Georgia. Similar to the Western Armenian variant, the Modern Eastern was in many ways more practical and accessible to the masses than Grabar.

Both centers vigorously pursued the promotion of Ashkharhabar. The proliferation of newspapers in both versions (Eastern & Western) and the development of a network of schools where modern Armenian was taught, dramatically increased the rate of literacy (in spite of the obstacles by the colonial administrators), even in remote rural areas. The emergence of literary works entirely written in the modern versions increasingly legitimized the language's existence. By the turn of the 20th century both varieties of the one modern Armenian language prevailed over Grabar and opened the path to a new and simplified grammatical structure of the language in the two different cultural spheres. Apart from several morphological, phonetic, and grammatical differences, the largely common vocabulary and generally analogous rules of grammatical fundamentals allows users of one variant to understand the other as long as they are fluent in one of the literary standards.[70]

After World War I, the existence of the two modern versions of the same language was sanctioned even more clearly. The Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (1920–1990) used Eastern Armenian as its official language, whereas the diaspora created after the Armenian genocide preserved the Western Armenian dialect.

The two modern literary dialects, Western (originally associated with writers in the Ottoman Empire) and Eastern (originally associated with writers in the Russian Empire), removed almost all of their Turkish lexical influences in the 20th century, primarily following the Armenian genocide.[71]

* Armenian manuscript, 5th–6th centuries.

* Armenian inscription in Gandzasar Monastery

* The Four Gospels, 1495, Portrait of St Mark Wellcome with Armenian inscriptions

* First printed Armenian language Bible, 1666

* Armenian language road sign.

## Geographic distribution

[edit]

In addition to Armenia and Turkey, where it is indigenous, Armenian is spoken among the diaspora. According to Ethnologue, globally there are 1.6 million Western Armenian speakers and 3.7 million Eastern Armenian speakers, totalling 5.3 million Armenian speakers.[1]

Armenian speakers, Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)[e][1] Country | Armenian speakers | Main variety

|
|

Armenia | 3,000,000 | Eastern
Russia | 510,000 | Eastern
Lebanon | 340,000 | Western
United States | 240,000 | Western
Argentina | 150,000 | Western
Georgia | 150,000 | Western
Azerbaijan | 120,000 | Eastern
Iran | 110,000 | Eastern
Turkmenistan | 84,000 | Western
France | 70,000 | Western
Iraq | 70,000 | Western
Turkey | 67,000 | Western
Uzbekistan | 66,000 | Western
Syria | 60,000 | Western
Ukraine | 50,000 | Western
Brazil | 47,000 | Western
Canada | 45,000 | Western
Germany | 27,000 | Western
Greece | 20,000 | Western
Kazakhstan | 16,000 | Western
Spain | 12,000 | Western
Australia | 11,000 | Western
Kuwait | 11,000 | Western
Jordan | 10,000 | Western

In Georgia, Armenian speakers are concentrated in Ninotsminda and Akhalkalaki districts where they represent over 90% of the population.[72]

## Status and usage

[edit]

The short-lived First Republic of Armenia declared Armenian its official language. Eastern Armenian was then dominating in institutions and among the population. When Armenia was incorporated into the USSR, the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic made Eastern Armenian the language of the courts, government institutions and schools. Armenia was also russified. The current Republic of Armenia upholds the official status of the Armenian language. Eastern Armenian is the official variant used, making it the prestige variety while other variants have been excluded from national institutions. Indeed, Western Armenian is perceived by some as a mere dialect.[73] Armenian was also official in the Republic of Artsakh. It is recognized as an official language of the Eurasian Economic Union although Russian is the working language.

Armenian (without reference to a specific variety) is officially recognized as a minority language in Cyprus,[5][6] Hungary,[7] Iraq,[8] Poland,[9][10] Romania,[11] and Ukraine.[16] It is recognized as a minority language and protected in Turkey by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne.[12][13][14][15]

Western Armenian is the main language of the Armenian diaspora, and is the medium of instruction in the majority of Armenian-language schools outside Armenia.[73] In particular, although Armenian has no legal status in Georgia, as of 2010 Armenian was the main language of instruction in 144 state-funded schools in the Samtskhe-Javakheti region.[74][75] The curriculum in Lebanon allows Armenian schools to teach Armenian as a basic language.[76][77] In California, home to a large Armenian American community, various state government agencies provide Armenian translations of their documents, including the California Department of Social Services,[78] California Department of Motor Vehicles,[79] and California superior courts.[80] In the city of Glendale, there are some street signs in Armenian.[81][82]

In Lebanon, Syria and Iran, Armenian communities were given greater autonomy than Assyrian, Kurdish, and other communities. In practice, Armenians were the only ethnic minority group in these countries allowed to teach their language in schools.[83][84] In Iran, article 15 of the constitution allows the use of "regional and tribal languages" in the mass media as well as within the schools. However, these languages do not receive formal status and are not officially regulated by the authorities.[85][86] Iranian Armenians are de facto the only non-Persian ethnic group in Iran enjoying this right, with private schools where Armenian is the medium of instruction.[87]

## Phonology

[edit]

See also: Western Armenian § Phonology

Spoken Eastern Armenian

Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants are aspirated in the Proto-Armenian language, one of the circumstances that is often linked to the glottalic theory, a version of which postulated that some voiceless occlusives of Proto-Indo-European were aspirated.[88][89][90]

### Stress

[edit]

In Armenian, the stress falls on the last syllable unless the last syllable contains the definite article [ə] or [n], and the possessive articles ս and դ, in which case it falls on the penultimate one. For instance, [ɑχɔɾˈʒɑk], [mɑʁɑdɑˈnɔs], [ɡiˈni] but [vɑˈhɑɡən] and [ˈdɑʃtə]. Exceptions to this rule are some words with the final letter է (ե in the reformed orthography) (մի՛թէ, մի՛գուցե, ո՛րեւէ) and sometimes the ordinal numerals (վե՛ցերորդ, տա՛սներորդ, etc.), as well as նաեւ, նամանաւանդ, հիմա, այժմ, and a small number of other words.

### Vowels

[edit]

All varieties of Armenian employ only monophthongs. Eastern Armenian has six vowels, while Western Armenian has an additional two front rounded vowels.

Eastern Armenian vowel phonemes[91] | Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

Close | /i/

i  |  | /u/

Mid | /ɛ/
ե, է
e, ē  | /ə/

ë  | /ɔ/
ո, օ
o, ō
Open |  |  | /ɑ/

Western Armenian vowel phonemes  | Front | Central | Back

|
|
|

| Unrounded | Rounded | Unrounded | Rounded
Close | i  ⟨ի⟩ | ʏ  ⟨իւ⟩ |   |   | u  ⟨ու⟩
Mid | ɛ  ⟨է, ե⟩[92] | œ  ⟨էօ⟩ | ə  ⟨ը⟩ |   | o  ⟨ո, օ⟩[92]
Open |   |   |   | ɑ  ⟨ա⟩ |

### Consonants

[edit]

The following table lists the Eastern Armenian consonantal system. The occlusives and affricates have an aspirated series, commonly transcribed with a reversed apostrophe after the letter. Each phoneme in the table is represented by IPA, Armenian script and romanization.

Eastern Armenian consonant phonemes[93] | Labial | Dental/
Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Uvular | Glottal

|
|
|
|
|
|

Nasal | /m/ մ – m  | /n/ ն – n  |  | (ŋ)[i] |  |
Plosive | voiced[ii] | /b/ բ – b  | /d/ դ – d  |  | /ɡ/ գ – g  |  |
voiceless[iii][ii] | /p/ պ – p  | /t/ տ – t  |  | /k/ կ – k  |  |
aspirated[ii] | /pʰ/ փ – pʻ  | /tʰ/ թ – tʻ  |  | /kʰ/ ք – kʻ  |  |
Affricate | voiced[ii] |  | /d͡z/ ձ – j  | /d͡ʒ/ ջ – ǰ  |  |  |
voiceless[iii][ii] |  | /t͡s/ ծ – c  | /t͡ʃ/ ճ – č  |  |  |
aspirated[ii] |  | /t͡sʰ/ ց – cʻ  | /t͡ʃʰ/ չ – čʻ  |  |  |
Fricative | voiceless | /f/ ֆ – f  | /s/ ս – s  | /ʃ/ շ – š  | /x ~ χ/[iv] խ – x  | /h/ հ – h
voiced | /v/ վ – v  | /z/ զ – z  | /ʒ/ ժ – ž  | /ɣ ~ ʁ/[iv] ղ – ġ  |
Approximant | (ʋ)  | /l/ լ – l  | /j/ յ – y  |  |  |
Trill |  | /r/ ռ – ṙ  |  |  |  |
Flap |  | /ɾ/ ր – r  |  |  |  |

1. ^ Occurs before velars.
2. ^ a b c d e f /pʰ p b/ in Eastern Armenian dialects generally correspond to /pʰ b pʰ/ in Western dialects (more detailed table given below).
3. ^ a b Some of the dialects may release the voiceless stops and affricates as ejectives.[94]
4. ^ a b Sources differ on the place of articulation of these consonants.

The major phonetic difference between dialects is in the reflexes of Classical Armenian voice-onset time. The seven dialect types have the following correspondences, illustrated with the t–d series:[95]

Correspondence in initial position  Armenian Letter  | Թ  | Տ  | Դ

|
|
|

Indo-European | *t | *d | *dʰ
Karin, Sebastia | tʰ | d | dʱ
Istanbul | d
Kharberd, Middle Armenian | d | t
Malatya, SWA | tʰ
Classical Armenian, Agulis, SEA, Yerevan | t | d
Van, Artsakh  | t

## Morphology

[edit]

Armenian corresponds to other Indo-European languages in structure, but it shares distinctive sounds and grammatical features with neighboring languages of the Caucasus region. Armenian orthography is rich in consonant clusters, but in pronunciation, they are broken up with schwas.[96][97] Both classical Armenian and the modern spoken and literary dialects have a system of noun declensions, with six or seven cases but no gender. In modern Armenian, the use of auxiliary verbs to show tense (comparable to "will" in "he will go") has generally supplanted the inflected verbs of Classical Armenian. Negative verbs are conjugated differently from positive ones (as in English "he goes" and "he does not go") in many tenses, otherwise adding only the negative չ to the positive conjugation. Grammatically, early forms of Armenian had much in common with classical Greek and Latin, but the modern language has undergone many analytic transformations like modern Greek.

### Nouns

[edit]

Armenian has no grammatical gender, not even in pronouns, but there is a feminine suffix (-ուհի "-uhi") which has no grammatical effect. For example, ուսուցիչ (usucʻičʻ, "teacher") becomes ուսուցչուհի (usucʻčʻuhi, female teacher). The nominal inflection preserves several types of inherited stem classes. Historically, nouns were declined for one of seven cases: nominative (ուղղական uġġakan), accusative (հայցական haycʻakan), locative (ներգոյական nergoyakan), genitive (սեռական seṙakan), dative (տրական trakan), ablative (բացառական bacʻaṙakan), or instrumental (գործիական gorciakan), but in the modern language, the nominative and accusative cases, as well as the dative and genitive cases, have merged.

Examples of noun declension in Eastern Armenian
Հեռախոս Heṙaxos (telephone)  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nominative/ Accusative  |

հեռախոս(ը/ն)*

heṙaxos(ë/n)*

հեռախոս(ը/ն)*

heṙaxos(ë/n)*

հեռախոսներ(ը/ն)*

heṙaxosner(ë/n)*

հեռախոսներ(ը/ն)*

heṙaxosner(ë/n)*

Genitive/ Dative  |

հեռախոսի(ն)

heṙaxosi(n)

հեռախոսի(ն)

heṙaxosi(n)

հեռախոսների(ն)

heṙaxosneri(n)

հեռախոսների(ն)

heṙaxosneri(n)

Ablative  |

հեռախոսից

heṙaxosicʻ

հեռախոսից

heṙaxosicʻ

հեռախոսներից

heṙaxosnericʻ

հեռախոսներից

heṙaxosnericʻ

Instrumental  |

հեռախոսով

heṙaxosov

հեռախոսով

heṙaxosov

հեռախոսներով

heṙaxosnerov

հեռախոսներով

heṙaxosnerov

Locative  |

հեռախոսում

heṙaxosum

հեռախոսում

heṙaxosum

հեռախոսներում

heṙaxosnerum

հեռախոսներում

heṙaxosnerum

Մայր Mayr (mother)  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nominative/ Accusative  |

մայր(ը/ն)*

mayr(ë/n)*

մայր(ը/ն)*

mayr(ë/n)*

մայրեր(ը/ն)*

mayrer(ë/n)*

մայրեր(ը/ն)*

mayrer(ë/n)*

Genitive/ Dative  |

մոր(ը/ն)*

mor(ë/n)*

մոր(ը/ն)*

mor(ë/n)*

մայրերի(ն)

mayreri(n)

մայրերի(ն)

mayreri(n)

Ablative  |

մորից

moricʻ

մորից

moricʻ

մայրերից

mayrericʻ

մայրերից

mayrericʻ

Instrumental  |

մորով

morov

մորով

morov

մայրերով

mayrerov

մայրերով

mayrerov

Which case the direct object takes is split based on animacy (a phenomenon more generally known as differential object marking). Inanimate nouns take the nominative, while animate nouns take the dative. Additionally, animate nouns can never take the locative case.

Հանրապետություն Hanrapetut'yun (republic)  Case  | Singular  | Plural

|
|

Nominative/ Accusative  |

հանրապետություն(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyun(ë/n)*

հանրապետություն(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyun(ë/n)*

հանրապետություններ(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyunner(ë/n)*

հանրապետություններ(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyunner(ë/n)*

Genitive/ Dative  |

հանրապետության(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyan(ë/n)*

հանրապետության(ը/ն)*

hanrapetutʻyan(ë/n)*

հանրապետությունների(ն)

hanrapetutʻyunneri(n)

հանրապետությունների(ն)

hanrapetutʻyunneri(n)

Ablative  |

հանրապետությունից

hanrapetutʻyunicʻ

հանրապետությունից

hanrapetutʻyunicʻ

հանրապետություններից

hanrapetut'yunnericʻ

հանրապետություններից

hanrapetut'yunnericʻ

Instrumental  |

հանրապետությամբ

hanrapetutʻyamb

հանրապետությամբ

hanrapetutʻyamb

հանրապետություններով

hanrapetutʻyunnerov

հանրապետություններով

hanrapetutʻyunnerov

Locative  |

հանրապետությունում

hanrapetut'yunum

հանրապետությունում

hanrapetut'yunum

հանրապետություններում

hanrapetut'yunnerum

հանրապետություններում

hanrapetut'yunnerum

Examples of noun declension in Western Armenian
| դաշտ tašd (field)  | կով gov (cow)

|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural
Nom-Acc
(Ուղղական-Հայցական)  |

դաշտ

tašd

դաշտ

tašd

դաշտեր

tašder

դաշտեր

tašder

կով

gov

կով

gov

կովեր

gover

կովեր

gover

Gen-Dat
(Սեռական-Տրական)  |

դաշտի

tašdi

դաշտի

tašdi

դաշտերու

tašderu

դաշտերու

tašderu

կովու

govu

կովու

govu

կովերու

goveru

կովերու

goveru

Abl
(Բացառական)  |

դաշտէ

tašdē

դաշտէ

tašdē

դաշտերէ

tašderē

դաշտերէ

tašderē

կովէ

govē

կովէ

govē

կովերէ

goverē

կովերէ

goverē

Instr
(Գործիական)  |

դաշտով

tašdov

դաշտով

tašdov

դաշտերով

tašderov

դաշտերով

tašderov

կովով

govov

կովով

govov

կովերով

goverov

կովերով

goverov

| գարուն karun (spring)  | օր ōr (day)  | Քոյր koyr (sister)

|
|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural  | singular | plural
Nom-Acc
(Ուղղական-Հայցական)  |

գարուն

karun

գարուն

karun

գարուններ

karunner

գարուններ

karunner

օրեր

ōrer

օրեր

ōrer

քոյր

koyr

քոյր

koyr

քոյրեր

koyrer

քոյրեր

koyrer

Gen-Dat
(Սեռական-Տրական)  |

գարնան

karnan

գարնան

karnan

գարուններու

karunneru

գարուններու

karunneru

օրուայ

ōruay

օրուայ

ōruay

օրերու

ōreru

օրերու

ōreru

քրոջ

kroč

քրոջ

kroč

քոյրերու

koyreru

քոյրերու

koyreru

Abl
(Բացառական)  |

գարունէ

karunē

գարունէ

karunē

գարուններէ

karunnerē

գարուններէ

karunnerē

օրուընէ

ōruënē

օրուընէ

ōruënē

օրերէ

ōrerē

օրերէ

ōrerē

քրոջմէ

kročmē

քրոջմէ

kročmē

քոյրերէ

koyrerē

քոյրերէ

koyrerē

Instr
(Գործիական)  |

գարունով

karunov

գարունով

karunov

գարուններով

karunnerov

գարուններով

karunnerov

օրով

ōrov

օրով

ōrov

օրերով

ōrerov

օրերով

ōrerov

քրոջմով

kročmov

քրոջմով

kročmov

քոյրերով

kuyrerov

քոյրերով

kuyrerov

| հայր / hayr (father)  | Աստուած / Asdvaj (God)  | գիտութիւն / kidutiwn (science)

|
|
|

singular | plural  | singular | plural  | singular | plural
Nom-Acc
(Ուղղական-Հայցական)  |

հայր

hayr

հայր

hayr

հայրեր

hayrer

հայրեր

hayrer

Աստուած

Asdvaj

Աստուած

Asdvaj

աստուածներ

Asdvajner

աստուածներ

Asdvajner

գիտութիւն

kidutiwn

գիտութիւն

kidutiwn

գիտութիւններ

kidutiwnner

գիտութիւններ

kidutiwnner

Gen-Dat
(Սեռական-Տրական)  |

հօր

hōr

հօր

hōr

հայրերու

hayreru

հայրերու

hayreru

Աստուծոյ

Asdujoy

Աստուծոյ

Asdujoy

աստուածներու

Asdvajneru

աստուածներու

Asdvajneru

գիտութեան

kidutean

գիտութեան

kidutean

գիտութիւններու

kidutiunneru

գիտութեանց

kiduteancʻ

գիտութիւններու / գիտութեանց

kidutiunneru / kiduteancʻ

Abl
(Բացառական)  |

հօրմէ

hōrmē

հօրմէ

hōrmē

հայրերէ

hayrerē

հայրերէ

hayrerē

Աստուծմէ

Asdujmē

Աստուծմէ

Asdujmē

աստուածներէ

Asdvajnerē

աստուածներէ

Asdvajnerē

գիտութենէ

kidutenē

գիտութենէ

kidutenē

գիտութիւններէ

kidutiwnnerē

գիտութիւններէ

kidutiwnnerē

Instr
(Գործիական)  |

հօրմով

hōrmov

հօրմով

hōrmov

հայրերով

hayrerov

հայրերով

hayrerov

Աստուծմով

Asdujmov

Աստուծմով

Asdujmov

աստուածներով

Asdvajnerov

աստուածներով

Asdvajnerov

գիտութեամբ

kiduteamp

գիտութիւնով

kidutiwnov

գիտութեամբ / գիտութիւնով

kiduteamp / kidutiwnov

գիտութիւններով

kidutiwnnerov

գիտութիւններով

kidutiwnnerov

### Verbs

[edit]

Main article: Armenian verbs

Verbs in Armenian have an expansive system of conjugation with two main verb types in Eastern Armenian and three in Western Armenian changing form based on tense, mood and aspect.

## Dialects

[edit]

Main article: Armenian dialects

Map of the Armenian dialects in early 20th century:

-owm dialects, nearly corresponding to Eastern Armenian

-el dialects (intermediate)

-gë dialects, nearly corresponding to Western Armenian

Armenian is a pluricentric language, having two modern standardized forms: Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. And numerous other non-standard dialects, many of which are extinct.[98] The most distinctive feature of Western Armenian is that it has undergone several phonetic mergers; these may be due to proximity to Arabic- and Turkish-speaking communities.

A man speaking in Western Armenian

Classical Armenian (Grabar), which remained the standard until the 18th century, was quite homogeneous across the different regions that works in it were written; it may have been a cross-regional standard.[99] The Middle Armenian variety used in the court of Cilician Armenia (1080–1375) provides a window into the development of Western Armenian, which came to be based on what became the dialect of Istanbul, while the standard for Eastern Armenian was based on the dialect around Mount Ararat and Yerevan.[99] Although the Armenian language is often divided into "east" and "west", the two standards are actually relatively close to each other in light of wealth of the diversity present among regional non-standard Armenian dialects. The different dialects have experienced different degrees of language contact effects, often with Turkic and Caucasian languages; for some, the result has been significant phonological and syntactic changes.[99] Fortson notes that the modern standard as well has now attained a subordinate clausal structure that greatly resembles a Turkic language.[100]

Eastern Armenian speakers pronounce (թ) as [tʰ], (դ) as [d], and (տ) as a tenuis occlusive [t˭]. Western Armenian has simplified the occlusive system into a simple division between voiced occlusives and aspirated ones; the first series corresponds to the tenuis series of Eastern Armenian, and the second corresponds to the Eastern voiced and aspirated series. Thus, the Western dialect pronounces both (թ) and (դ) as [tʰ], and the (տ) letter as [d].

There is no precise linguistic border between one dialect and another because there is nearly always a dialect transition zone of some size between pairs of geographically identified dialects.

Armenian can be divided into two major dialectal blocks and those blocks into individual dialects, though many of the Western Armenian dialects have become extinct due to the effects of the Armenian genocide. In addition, neither dialect is completely homogeneous: any dialect can be subdivided into several subdialects. Although Western and Eastern Armenian are often described as different dialects of the same language, many subdialects are not readily mutually intelligible. Nevertheless, a fluent speaker of one of two greatly varying dialects who is also literate in one of the standards, when exposed to the other dialect for a period of time will be able to understand the other with relative ease.

Distinct Western Armenian varieties currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin peoples;[101] the dialects of Armenians of Kessab (Քեսապի բարբառ), Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur (Syria), Anjar, Lebanon, and Vakıflı, Samandağ (Turkey), part of the "Sueidia" dialect (Սուէտիայի բարբառ).

Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in Shirak Province,[102] and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).[103]

Nakhichevan-on-Don Armenians speak another Western Armenian variety based on the dialect of Armenians in Crimea, where they came from in order to establish the town and surrounding villages in 1779 (Նոր Նախիջևանի բարբառ).

Western Armenian dialects are currently spoken also in Gavar (formerly Nor Bayazet and Kamo, on the western shore of Lake Sevan), Aparan, and Talin in Armenia (Mush dialect), and by the large Armenian population residing in Abkhazia, where they are considered to be the first or second ethnic minority, or even equal in number to the local Abkhaz population[104]

Examples  English  | Eastern Armenian | Western Armenian

|
|

Yes  | Ayo (Այո)  | Ayo (Այո)
No  | Vočʻ (Ոչ)  | Voč (Ոչ)
I see you  | Yes kʻez tesnum em (Ես քեզ տեսնում եմ)  | Yes kez(i) gë desnem (Ես քեզ(ի) կը տեսնեմ)
Hello  | Barev (Բարեւ)  | Parev (Բարեւ)
I'm going  | Gnum em (Գնում եմ)  | G'ertam (gor) (Կ՚երթամ (կոր))
Come!  | Ari! (Արի՛)  | Yegur! (Եկո՛ւր)
I will eat  | Utelu em (Ուտելու եմ)  | Bidi udem (Պիտի ուտեմ)
I must do  | Piti/petkʻ ē anem (Պիտի/պետք է անեմ)  | Bēdk ē ënem (Պէտք է ընեմ)
I was going to eat  | Utelu ēi (Ուտելու էի)  | Bidi udēi (Պիտի ուտէի)
Is this yours?  | Sa kʻonn ē? (Սա քո՞նն է)  | Asiga kugt ē? (Ասիկա քո՞ւկդ է)
His grandma  | Nra tatikë (Նրա տատիկը)  | Anor nēnēn / mej maman (Անոր նէնէն / մեծ մաման)
Look at that one!  | Dran nayir (Դրան նայիր)  | Ador nayē / Anor nayē (Ատոր նայէ / Անոր նայէ)
Have you brought these?  | Du es berel srankʻ? (Դո՞ւ ես բերել սրանք)  | Asonk tun peraj es? (Ասոնք դո՞ւն բերած ես)
How are you? I'm fine.  | Inčʻpes es? / Voncʻ es? Lav em (Ինչպե՞ս ես։ / Ո՞նց ես։ Լավ եմ։)  | Inčbēs es? Lav em (Ինչպէ՞ս ես։ Լաւ եմ։)
Did you say it? Say it!  | Du asacʻir (asecʻir)? Asa! (Դո՞ւ ասացիր (ասեցիր): Ասա՛։)  | Tun ësir? Ësē! (Դո՞ւն ըսիր։ Ըսէ՛։)
Have you taken it from us?  | Mezanicʻ es vercʻrel? (Մեզանի՞ց ես վերցրել)  | Mezmē araj es? (Մեզմէ՞ առած ես)
Good morning  | Bari luys (Բարի լույս)  | Pari luys (Բարի լոյս)
Good evening  | Bari yereko (Բարի երեկո)  | Pari irigun / Parirgun (Բարի իրիկուն / Բարիրկուն)
Good night  | Bari gišer (Բարի գիշեր)  | Kišer pari (Գիշեր բարի)
You love me  | Sirum es inj (Սիրում ես ինձ)  | Inji gë sires (Ինծի կը սիրես)
I am Armenian  | Yes hay em (Ես հայ եմ)  | Yes hay em (Ես հայ եմ)
I missed you  | Karotel em kʻez (Կարոտել եմ քեզ)  | Garōdcay kezi (Կարօտցայ քեզի)

## Orthography

[edit]

Main articles: Armenian alphabet and Armenian Braille

See also: History of the Armenian alphabet

Armenian keyboard layout using the Armenian alphabet.

The Armenian alphabet (Armenian: Հայոց գրեր, romanized: Hayots grer or Armenian: Հայոց այբուբեն, romanized: Hayots aybuben) is a graphically unique alphabetical writing system that is used to write the Armenian language. It was introduced around AD 405 by Mesrop Mashtots, an Armenian linguist and ecclesiastical leader, and originally contained 36 letters. Two more letters, օ (ō) and ֆ (f), were added in the Middle Ages.

During the 1920s orthography reform in Soviet Armenia, a new letter և (capital ԵՎ) was added, which was a ligature before ե+ւ, whereas the letter Ւ ւ was discarded and reintroduced as part of a new letter ՈՒ ու (which was a digraph before). This alphabet and associated orthography is used by most Armenian speakers of Armenia and the countries of the former Soviet Union. Neither the alphabet nor the orthography has been adopted by Diaspora Armenians, including Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and all Western Armenian speakers, who keep using the traditional alphabet and spelling.

## Vocabulary

[edit]

### Indo-European cognates

[edit]

Armenian is an Indo-European language, so many of its Proto-Indo-European-descended words are cognates of words in other Indo-European languages such as English, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit.

Due to extensive loaning, only around 1,500 words (G. Jahukyan) are known to have been inherited from Indo-European by the Classical Armenian stage; the rest were lost, a fact that presents a major challenge to endeavors to better understand Proto-Armenian and its place within the family, especially as many of the sound changes along the way from Indo-European to Armenian remain quite difficult to analyze.[105]

This table lists some of the more recognizable cognates that Armenian shares with English words descended from Old English.[106]

Armenian | English | Latin | Classical and Hellenistic Greek | Persian | Sanskrit | Russian | Old Irish | PIE

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մայր mayr "mother" | mother ( ← OE mōdor) | māter | μήτηρ mētēr | مادر mâdar | मातृ mātṛ | мать mat' | máthair | *méh₂tēr "mother"
հայր hayr "father" | father ( ← OE fæder) | pater | πατήρ patēr | پدر pedar | पितृ pitṛ |  | athair | *ph₂tḗr "father"
եղբայր eġbayr "brother" | brother ( ← OE brōþor) | frāter | φράτηρ phrātēr "brother-in-arms, comrade" | برادر barâdar | भ्रातृ bhrātṛ | брат brat | bráthair | *bʰréh₂tēr "brother"
դուստր dustr "daughter" | daughter ( ← OE dohtor) | (Oscan futrei) | θυγάτηρ thugátēr | دختر doxtar | दुहितृ duhitṛ | дочь doč' | der, Dar- "daughter (of)" | *dʰugh₂tḗr "daughter"
կին kin "woman, wife" | queen ( ← OE cwēn "queen, woman, wife") |  | γυνή gunē | زن zan | ग्ना gnā/ जनि jani | жена žena "wife" | ben "woman" | *gʷḗn "woman, wife"
իմ im "my, mine" | my, mine ( ← OE min) | me-us, -a, -um etc. | ἐμ-ός, -ή, -όν em-ós, -ē, -ón etc. | من، ـم man,-am | मम mama | мой moy | mo "my, me" | *h₁me- "my, mine"
անուն anun "name" | name ( ← OE nama) | nōmen | ὄνομα ónoma | نام nâm | नामन् nāman | имя im'a | ainm | *h₃nom-n̥- "name"
յոթ yotʻ ( ← եաւթն "eawtʻn") "seven" | seven ( ← OE seofon) | septem | ἑπτά heptá | هفت haft | सप्तन् saptán | семь sem' | secht | *septḿ̥ "seven"
ութ utʻ "eight" | eight ( ← OE eahta) | octō | ὀκτώ óktō | هشت hašt | अष्ट aṣṭa | во́семь vosem' | ocht | *oḱtṓw "eight"
ինն inn "nine" | nine ( ← OE nigon) | novem | ἐννέα ennéa | نه noh | नवन् navan | де́вять dev'at' | noí | *h₁néwn̥ "nine"
տասը tas (<տասն "tasn") "ten" | ten ( ← OE tien) ( ← P.Gmc. *tehun) | decem | δέκα déka | ده dah | दश daśa | де́сять des'at' | deich | *déḱm̥ "ten"
աչք ačʻkʻ "eye" | eye ( ← OE ēge) | oculus | ὀφθαλμός ophthalmós | Avestan 𐬀𐬱𐬌 (aši, “eyes”) | अक्षि akṣi | око oko (archaic) |  | *H₃okʷ- "to see"
արմունկ armunk (<*h₂(e)rH-mo-+ -ուկն) "elbow"
| arm ( ← OE earm "joined body parts below shoulder") | armus "shoulder" | ἁρμός harmós "a joint" | ارم arm "arm" | ईर्म īrma "arm" | рамя ram'a "shoulder" (archaic) |  | *h₂er- "fit, join (that which is fitted together)"
ծունկ cunk "knee" | knee ( ← OE cnēo) | genū | γόνυ gónu | زانو zânu | जानु jānu |  | glún | *ǵénu- "knee"
ոտք otkʻ "foot, leg" | foot ( ← OE fōt) | pēs, pedis | πούς, πόδος poús, pódos | پا، پای pâ, pây "foot" | पाद् pād "foot" |  | (Gaul. ades "feet") | *pod-, *ped- "foot, leg"
սիրտ sirt "heart" | heart ( ← OE heorte) | cor, cordis | καρδία kardía | دل del | हृदय hṛdaya | се́рдце serdce | cride | *ḱerd- "heart"
մուկ muk "mouse" | mouse ( ← OE mūs) | mūs, mūris | μῦς mûs "mouse, muscle" | موش muš | मूष् mūṣ | мышь myš' |  | *múh₂s "mouse, muscle"
կով kov "cow" | cow ( ← OE cū) | bōs, bovis | βοῦς boûs | گاو gâv | गो go | говядина gov'adina "beef" | bó | *gʷṓws "cow"
շուն šun "dog" | hound ( ← OE hund "hound, dog") | canis | κύων kúōn | سگ sag | श्वन् śvan | сука suka[f] "bitch" | cú | *ḱwṓ "hound, dog"
ամիս amis "month" | moon, month ( ← OE mōnaþ) | mēnsis | μήν mēn "moon, month" | ماه mâh "moon, month" | मास māsa "moon, month" | месяц mes'ac | mí | *meH₁ns- "moon, month"
ամառ amaṙ ( ← Proto-Armenian *sm̥h₂er-m̥ <*s(e)m-eh₂-) "summer" | summer ( ← OE sumor) |  |  | هامین hâmin (archaic) | समा samā "season" |  | sam "summer" | *semh₂- "summer, hot season"
ջերմ ǰerm "warm" | warm ( ← OE wearm) | formus | θερμός thermós | گرم garm | घर्म gharma "heat" | жарко žarko "hot" | geirid "warm (v)" | *gʷʰerm- "warm"
լույս luys "light" | light ( ← OE lēoht "brightness") | lūx | λευκός leukós "bright, shining, white" | روز ruz "day" | रोक roka | луч luč' "beam" | lóch "bright" | *leuk- "light, brightness"
հուր hur "flame" | fire ( ← OE fȳr) | (Umbrian pir "fire") | πῦρ pûr "fire" |  |  | пожа́р požar "wildfire" |  | *péh₂wr̥ "fire"
հեռու heṙu "far" | far ( ← OE feor "to a great distance") | per "through" | πέρα péra "beyond" | فرا farâ "forward" | परस् paras "beyond" | пере- pere- "through", про- pro- "forth" | íre "further" | *per- "through, across, beyond"
լվանալ lvanal "to wash" | flow ( ← OE flōwan) | pluĕre "to rain" | πλύνω plúnō "I wash" |  | प्लु plu "to float, swim" | плавать plavat' "swim" | luí "rudder" | *pleu- "to flow, float, wash"
ուտել utel "to eat" | eat ( ← OE etan) | edō | ἔδω édō |  | अद्मि admi | есть jest' | ithid | *h₁ed- "to eat"
գիտեմ gitem "I know" | wit ( ← OE wit, witan "intelligence, to know") | vidēre "to see" | οἶδα oîda | ویده vida "knowledge" | विद् vid | видеть videt' "see, understand" | adfet "tells" | *weyd- "to see"
գետ get "river" | water ( ← OE wæter) | (Umbrian utur "water") | ὕδωρ húdōr "water" | bārān باران

"rain"

| उदन् udan "water" | вода voda "water" | uisce "water" | *(*wodor, *wedor, *uder-) from *wed- "water"
գործ gorc "work" | work ( ← OE weorc) |  | ἔργον érgon | ورز varz |  | гора gora "mountain" (climbing is work) |  | *werǵ- "to work"
մեծ mec "big, great" | much ( ← OE mycel "great, big, many") | magnus | μέγας mégas | مه، مهست meh, mahest | मह maha | много mnogo "many" | maige "great, mighty" | *meǵ- "great"
ճանաչել čanačʻel' ( ← *ծանաչել canačʻel) "to recognize" | know ( ← OE cnawan) | nōscere "to learn, recognize" | γιγνώσκω gignōskō "I know" | شناختن šenâxtan "to know" | जानाति jānāti "to know" | знать znat' "to know" | ad·gnin "to know" | *ǵneH₃- "to know"
մեռնել meṙnel "to die" | murder ( ← OE morþor) | morī | βροτός brotós "mortal" | مردن mordan "death" | मरति marati | мереть meret' | marb "dead" | *mer- "to die"
միջին miǰin "middle" | mid, middle ( ← OE mid, middel) | medius | μέσος mésos | میان miyân | मध्य madhya | меж mež "between" | mide | *médʰyos from *me- "mid, middle"
այլ ayl "other" | else ( ← OE elles "other, otherwise, different") | alius | ἄλλος állos |  |  |  | aile "other" | *h₂élyos "other"
նոր nor "new" | new ( ← OE nīwe) | novus | νέος néos | نو now | नव nava | новый novyj | núae | *néwo- "new"
դուռ duṙ "door" | door ( ← OE dor, duru) | foris | θύρα thúrā | در dar | द्वार dvāra | дверь dver' | dorus | *dʰwer- "door, doorway, gate"
տուն tun "house" | town, timber ( ← OE timber "trees used for building material, structure") | domus | δόμος domos | mān مان

"house" Avestan: dąm 𐬛𐬄𐬨

| दम dama | дом dom |  | *domo-, *domu- "house"
բերել berel "to bring" | bear ( ← OE beran "give birth, carry") | ferre "to carry" | φέρω phérō | بردن، برـ bordan, bar- "to carry" | भरति bharati "to carry" | брать brat' "to take" | beirid "carry" | *bʱer- "to carry"

## Sample text

[edit]

Below is a sample text of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Armenian:[107]

Eastern Armenian  | Romanization  | Pronunciation

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|

Բոլոր մարդիկ ծնվում են ազատ ու հավասար` իրենց արժանապատվությամբ և իրավունքներով: Նրանք օժտված են բանականությամբ ու խղճով, և պարտավոր են միմյանց նկատմամբ վարվել եղբայրության ոգով:  | Bolor mardik tznvum yen azat u havasar irents arzhanapatvuthyamb yev iravunqnerov. Nranq ozhtvatz yen banakanuthyamb u xghcov, yev partavor yen mimyants nkatmamb varvel yeghbayruthyan vogov.  | [bɔˈlɔɾ mɑɾˈdik t͡sənˈvum jɛn ɑˈzɑt u hɑvɑˈsɑɾ iˈɾɛnt͡sʰ ɑɾʒɑnɑpɑtvuˈtʰjɑmb jɛv iɾɑvuŋkʰnɛˈɾɔv ‖ nəˈɾɑŋkʰ ɔʒtˈvɑt͡s jɛn bɑnɑkɑnuˈtʰjɑmb u χəʁˈt͡ʃɔv jɛv pɑɾtɑˈvɔɾ jɛn miˈmjɑnt͡sʰ nəkɑtˈmɑmb vɑɾˈvɛl jɛʁbɑjɾuˈtʰjɑn vɔˈɡɔv ‖]
Western Armenian  | Romanization  | Pronunciation
Բոլոր մարդիկ կը ծնուին ազատ եւ հաւասար իրենց արժանապատուութեամբ եւ իրաւունքներով: Իրենք օժտուած են բանականութեամբ ու խիղճով, եւ պարտաւորուած են միմեանց հանդէպ եղբայրութեան ոգիով վարուիլ:  | Polor martig gė dznvin azad yev havasar irents arzhanabadvuthyamp yev iravunqnerov. Irenq ozhtvadz yen panaganuthyamp u xighjov, yev bardavorvadz yen mimyants hantèb yeghpayruthyan voqiov varvil.  | [pɔˈlɔɾ mɑɾˈtig gə d͡zənˈvin ɑˈzɑd jɛv hɑvɑˈsɑɾ iˈɾɛnt͡sʰ ɑɾʒɑnɑbɑdvuˈtʰjɑmp jɛv iɾɑvuŋkʰnɛˈɾɔv ‖ iˈɾɛŋkʰ ɔʒtˈvɑd͡z jɛn pɑnɑgɑnuˈtʰjɑmp u χiʁˈd͡ʒɔv jɛv bɑɾdɑvɔɾˈvɑd͡z jɛn miˈmjɑnt͡sʰ hɑnˈtɛb jɛχpɑjɾuˈtʰjɑn vɔkʰiˈɔv vɑɾˈvil ‖]
English translation

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

## See also

[edit]

* Language portal

* Armenian PowerSpell, electronic text corrector
* Armenian Sign Language
* Auguste Carrière
* Classical Armenian orthography
* European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
* Languages of Armenia
* Language families and languages
* List of Indo-European languages

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b Spelled in classical orthography as հայերէն.
2. ^ The political status of Abkhazia is disputed. Having unilaterally declared independence from Georgia in 1992, Abkhazia is formally recognised as an independent state by 5 UN member states (two other states previously recognised it but then withdrew their recognition), while the remainder of the international community recognizes it as de jure Georgian territory. Georgia continues to claim the area as its own territory, designating it as Russian-occupied territory.
3. ^ 1.6 million for Western Armenian and 3.7 million for Eastern Armenian
4. ^ Though Russian is the working language of the Union according to the Treaty on Eurasian Economic Union, Armenian and the languages of other member states are officially recognized.[2] The websites of the Eurasian Economic Union[3] and the Eurasian Economic Commission[4] are available in Armenian, among other languages.
5. ^ Only countries with at least 10,000 speakers are listed.
6. ^ etymology debated, see [1]

## Footnotes

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Eastern Armenian at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
Western Armenian at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
Classical Armenian at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
Middle Armenian at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)
2. ^ "Treaty on Eurasian Economic Union" (PDF). eaeunion.org. Eurasian Economic Union. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2021. "Article 110 Working Language of the Bodies of the Union. Language of International Treaties within the Union and Decisions of the Commission: 2. International treaties within the Union and decisions of the Commission that are binding on the Member States shall be adopted in Russian with subsequent translation into the official languages of the Member States, if it is provided for by their legislation, in the procedure determined by the Commission."
3. ^ "Եվրասիական տնտեսական միություն". eaeunion.org (in Armenian). Eurasian Economic Union. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
4. ^ "Եվրասիական Տնտեսական Հանձնաժողով". eurasiancommission.org (in Armenian). Eurasian Economic Commission. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
5. ^ a b "Western Armenian – Cypriot Arabic: new century, new speakers?". ec.europa.eu. European Commission. 21 February 2017. "Dedicated to the two officially recognized minority languages of Cyprus, the event will focus on the teaching aspect of Western Armenian and Cypriot Arabic as mother tongues."
6. ^ a b Hadjilyra, Alexander – Michael. "The Armenians of Cyprus" (PDF). publications.gov.cy. Press and Information Office, Republic of Cyprus. p. 15\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 December 2019. "According to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages of the Council of Europe, Armenian was recognised as a minority language of Cyprus as of 1 December 2002."
7. ^ a b Kenesei, István (2009). "Minority languages in Hungary" (PDF). efnil.org. European Federation of National Institutions for Language. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 December 2019. "As far as indigenous (autochthonous) minority languages are concerned, Hungarian legislation acknowledges the languages in the following list ...: Armenian, Boyash, Bulgarian, Croatian, German, Greek, Polish, Romani, Romanian, Ruthenian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Ukrainian, and Hungarian Sign Language (HSL)."
8. ^ a b "Iraqi Constitution: Article 4" (PDF). The Republic of Iraq Ministry of Interior General Directorate for Nationality. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 16 June 2014. "The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Syriac, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions."
9. ^ a b Zych, Maciej. "New Polish legislation regarding national, ethnic and linguistic minorities" (PDF). gugik.gov.pl. Head Office of Geodesy and Cartography of Poland. p. 2\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 December 2019. "There are 9 national minorities: Belorussian, Czech, Lithuanian, German, Armenian, Russian, Slovak, Ukrainian and Jewish; and 4 ethnic minorities – Karait, Lemko, Roma and Tartar."
10. ^ a b Pisarek, Walery (2009). "The relationship between official and minority languages in Poland" (PDF). efnil.org. European Federation of National Institutions for Language. p. 118\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 December 2019. "In a Statement made by the Republic of Poland with relation to the ratification of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Belarusian, Czech, Hebrew, Yiddish, Karaim, Kashubian, Lithuanian, Lemkian, German, Armenian, Romani, Russian, Slovak, Tatar and Ukrainian were recognized as minority languages."
11. ^ a b Saramandu, Nicolae; Nevaci, Manuela (2009). "MULTILINGVISM ȘI LIMBI MINORITARE ÎN ROMÂNIA [MULTILINGUALISM AND MINORITY LANGUAGES IN ROMANIA]" (PDF) (in Romanian). Institute of Linguistics "Iorgu Iordan – Alexandru Rosetti", Romanian Academy. p. 25\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-12-14. Retrieved 2019-12-14. "În cazul României, 10 limbi beneficiază de protecție generală (albaneză, armeană, greacă, italiană, idiș, macedoneană, poloneză, romani, ruteană, tătară) și 10 limbi beneficiază de protecție sporită (bulgară, cehă, croată, germană, maghiară, rusă, sârbă, slovacă, turcă, ucraineană)."
12. ^ a b Toktaş, Şule (2006). "EU enlargement conditions and minority protection : a reflection on Turkey's non-Muslim minorities". East European Quarterly. 40 (4): 489–519\. ISSN 0012-8449. p. 514: "This implies that Turkey grants educational right in minority languages only to the recognized minorities covered by the Lausanne who are the Armenians, Greeks and the Jews."
13. ^ a b Bayır, Derya (2013). Minorities and nationalism in Turkish law. Cultural Diversity and Law. Farnham: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 89–90\. ISBN 978-1-4094-7254-4. "Oran farther points out that the rights set out for the four categories are stated to be the 'fundamental law' of the land, so that no legislation or official action shall conflict or interfere with these stipulations or prevail over them (article 37). [...] According to the Turkish state, only Greek, Armenian and Jewish non-Muslims were granted minority protection by the Lausanne Treaty. [...] Except for non-Muslim populations - that is, Greeks, Jews and Armenians - none of the other minority groups' language rights have been de jure protected by the legal system in Turkey."
14. ^ a b Questions and Answers: Freedom of Expression and Language Rights in Turkey. New York: Human Rights Watch. April 2002. "The Turkish government accepts the language rights of the Jewish, Greek and Armenian minorities as being guaranteed by the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne."
15. ^ a b Uzum, Melike; Demir, Nurettin (2017-10-24). "Minority Language Education and Policy in Turkey: The Case of Cankiri Poshas". Journal of Universality of Global Education Issues. 4: 5–6\. ISSN 2575-9388. "In the Lausanne treaty, people of the republic were defined through a religion based definition, similar to the Ottoman concept of millet (nation). For example, the non-Muslim minorities such as Armenians, Greeks, and Jews were recognized as minorities, and their language rights were identified in articles 39, 40, and 41."
16. ^ a b "Law of Ukraine "On Principles of State Language Policy" (Current version – Revision from 01.02.2014)". Document 5029-17, Article 7: Regional or minority languages Ukraine, Paragraph 2 (in Ukrainian). rada.gov.ua. 1 February 2014. Retrieved 30 April 2014. "Стаття 7. Регіональні мови або мови меншин України ... 2. У контексті Європейської хартії регіональних мов або мов меншин до регіональних мов або мов меншин України, до яких застосовуються заходи, спрямовані на використання регіональних мов або мов меншин, що передбачені у цьому Законі, віднесені мови: російська, білоруська, болгарська, вірменська, гагаузька, ідиш, кримськотатарська, молдавська, німецька, новогрецька, польська, ромська, румунська, словацька, угорська, русинська, караїмська, кримчацька."
17. ^ "H. Acharian Institute of Language". sci.am. Archived from the original on 5 October 2014. "Main Fields of Activity: investigation of the structure and functioning, history and comparative grammar of the Armenian language, exploration of the literary Eastern and Western Armenian Language, dialectology, regulation of literary language, development of terminology"
18. ^ Borjian, Maryam (2017). Language and Globalization: An Autoethnographic Approach. Routledge. p. 205. ISBN 9781315394619. "At the forefront of the development of Western Armenian in everyday life as well as in arts and technology is the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation."
19. ^ Yesayan, Catherine (June 19, 2019). "Unraveling the Life of Calouste Gulbenkian". Asbarez. Archived from the original on 2 May 2021. "The 'core' activity of the Armenian Department is the preservation, advancement and revitalization of Western Armenian."
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74. ^ "Javakhk Armenians Looks Ahead to Local Elections". Asbarez. 31 March 2010. Retrieved 26 May 2014. "Javakheti for use in the region's 144 Armenian schools ..."
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## References

[edit]

* Dolatian, Hossep (2024). Adjarian's Armenian dialectology (1911): Translation and commentary (PDF). Berlin: Language Science Press. ISBN 978-3-96110-489-5.
* Dum-Tragut, Jasmine (2009). Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian. London Oriental and African language library. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-8879-0. OCLC 593240232.
* Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction. Blackwell textbooks in linguistics (1st ed.). Malden: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4051-0316-9. OCLC 863202575.
* Hübschmann, Heinrich (1875), "Über die Stellung des armenischen im Kreise der indogermanischen Sprachen", Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Sprachforschung, 23: 5–42, archived from the original on 2005-12-21
* Livshits, Vladimir (2006). "Armeno-Partho-Sogdica". Iran and the Caucasus. 10 (1): 77–86\. doi:10.1163/157338406777979412. ISSN 1609-8498.
* Price, Glanville (2005) [1998]. Encyclopedia of the languages of Europe (1st ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19286-2.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Achaṛean, Hrachʻeay H. (1909). Classification des dialectes arméniens (in French). Paris: Honoré Champion. OCLC 5018723.
* Clackson, James (1994). The Linguistic Relationship Between Armenian and Greek. Publications of the Philological Society (1st ed.). Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-19197-1. OCLC 30701694.
* Holst, Jan Henrik (2009). Armenische Studien (in German). Wiesbade, Germany: Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-06117-9.
* Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology and Myth. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27616-7. OCLC 24710469.
* Nielsen, R. T. (2023). Prehistoric loanwords in Armenian: Hurro-Urartian, Kartvelian, and the Unclassified Substrate (PhD). Leiden, Netherlands: Leiden University. hdl:1887/3656151.
* Seyfarth, Scott; Dolatian, Hossep; Guekguezian, Peter; Kelly, Niamh; Toparlak, Tabita (April 2024). "Armenian (Yerevan Eastern Armenian and Beirut Western Armenian)". Illustrations of the IPA. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 54 (1): 445–478\. doi:10.1017/S0025100323000130, with supplementary sound recordings.

* Vaux, Bert (1998). The Phonology of Armenian. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-823661-0.
* Vaux, Bert (2002). "The Armenian Dialects of Jerusalem". In Stone, Michael Edward; Ervine, Roberta R.; Stone, Nira (eds.). Armenians in Jerusalem and the Holy Land. Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Armenian Studies. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 978-90-429-1078-2.

## External links

[edit]

* Haylib - A free library of courses, books, videos and other resources to help you learn Armenian
* Armenian PowerSpell
* ARMENIA AND IRAN iv. History, discussion, and the presentation of Iranian influences in Armenian Language over the millennia
* Nayiri.com (Library of Armenian dictionaries)
* dictionaries.arnet.am Collection of Armenian XDXF and Stardict dictionaries
* Grabar (Brief introduction to Classical Armenian also known as Grabar)
* բառարան.հայ – Armenian dictionary

* v
* t
* e

Armenian language

Origin|

* Armenian hypothesis
* Graeco-Armenian
* Armeno-Aryan

History|

* Proto-Armenian
* Classical Armenian (c. 405–1100)
* Middle Armenian (c. 1100–1700)
* Modern Armenian (from c. 1700)
* History of the Armenian alphabet

Alphabet|

* Orthography
* Classical
* Reformed
* Braille
* Romanization
* Numerals

Grammar|

* Verb table
* Eastern
* Western

Dialects|

* Standardized
* Western
* Akn
* Homshetsi
* Karin
* Kharberd–Yerznka
* Malatia
* Mush
* Nor-Nakhichevan
* Shabin–Karahisar
* Eastern
* Kakavaberd
* Karabakh
* Nor Jugha
* Yerevan
* Zok

Potentially Armenian dialects|

* Mannaean
* Mushkian
* Urumean

Literature|

* List of writers

Promotion and study|

* Armenian National Academy of Sciences
* Armenian studies

Related topics|

* Proverbs

* Category

Armenian language at Wikipedia's sister projects:

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Phrasebook from Wikivoyage
* Armenian edition of Wikipedia

* v
* t
* e

Indo-European languages (list)

Anatolian|

* Hittite
* Lydian
* Palaic

Luwic|

* Carian
* Luwian
* Lycian
* Milyan
* Pisidian
* Sidetic
* Kalasmaic?

Balto-Slavic|

| Baltic|

* Dnieper-Oka
* Golyad
* East Baltic
* West Baltic

|

Slavic|

* East Slavic
* South Slavic
* West Slavic

Celtic|

| Hispano-Celtic|

* Celtiberian
* Gallaecian

|

Nuclear Celtic|

* Continental Celtic
* Insular Celtic

Germanic|

* East Germanic
* North Germanic
* West Germanic

Hellenic|

* Ancient Macedonian
* Greek

Indo-Iranian|

* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Badeshi (unclassified)

Italic|

* Latino-Faliscan
* Romance
* Osco-Umbrian
* Siculian

Tocharian|

* Tocharian A
* Tocharian B
* Tocharian C

Others|

* Albanian
* Armenian

| Unclassified|

* Dacian
* Dardanian
* Elymian
* Getaean
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Ligurian?
* Lusitanian
* Messapic
* Moesian
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Philistine?
* Phrygian
* Thracian
* Venetic
* Wusun

|

Proto-languages|

* Proto-Indo-European
* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Balto-Slavic
* Proto-Baltic
* Proto-Slavic
* Proto-Celtic
* Proto-Germanic
* Proto-Norse
* Proto-Hellenic
* Proto-Indo-Iranian
* Proto-Indo-Aryan
* Proto-Iranian
* Proto-Nuristani
* Proto-Italic
* Proto-Romance
* Proto-Tocharian

Italics indicate extinct languages

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Armenia

Official language|

* Armenian
* Eastern Armenian

Minority languages|

* Assyrian
* Greek
* Kurmanji
* Lomavren
* Russian
* Western Armenian

Sign languages|

* Armenian Sign Language
* Armenian Women's Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Armenia articles

History
(timeline)|

| Early|

* Origins
* Name
* Shulaveri–Shomu culture
* Kura–Araxes culture
* Hayk
* Hayasa-Azzi
* Mitanni
* Nairi
* Mushki
* Urumeans
* Diauehi
* Etiuni
* Kingdom of Urartu
* Median kingdom
* Orontid dynasty
* Achaemenid Empire
* Satrapy of Armenia
* Kingdom of Armenia
* Roman Armenia
* Parthian Empire
* Byzantine Armenia
* Sasanian Armenia

|

Middle|

* Arminiya
* Sajids
* Bagratid Armenia
* Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia
* Sallarids
* Ilkhanate
* Chobanids
* Aq Qoyunlu
* Kara Koyunlu
* Ottoman Armenia
* 1508–1828 Iranian Armenia
* Safavid Iran
* Afsharid Iran
* Qajar Iran
* Erivan Khanate
* Karabakh Khanate
* Treaty of Turkmenchay
* Russian Armenia

Modern|

* First Republic of Armenia
* Soviet Armenia
* Independent Armenia

By topic|

* Armenian genocide
* Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
* Armenian national movement
* more...

Geography|

* Ararat Plain
* Armenian highlands
* Cities
* Climate
* Earthquakes
* Extreme points
* Lake Sevan
* Mountains
* Municipalities
* Rivers
* Lakes
* Shikahogh State Reserve
* Shirak Plain
* more...

Politics|

* Administrative divisions
* Constitution
* Corruption
* Elections
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Human rights
* LGBT rights
* Judiciary
* Military
* National Assembly
* National Security Service
* Police
* Political parties
* President
* Prime Minister
* President of the National Assembly
* more on government
* on politics

Economy|

* Agriculture
* AMX (stock exchange)
* Central Bank
* Central Depository
* Dram (currency)
* Energy
* Mining
* Pension reform
* Taxation
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Waste management

Transport|

* South Caucasus Railway

Culture|

* Alphabet
* Architecture
* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine (wine)
* Dance
* Dress
* Language
* Eastern
* Western
* Literature
* Music
* Sport
* Theatre
* more...

Demographics|

* Census
* Crime
* Education
* Ethnic minorities
* Health
* People
* diaspora
* Social issues
* Women
* more...

Religion|

* Armenian Apostolic Church
* Armenian Catholic Church
* Armenian Evangelical Church
* Armenian Brotherhood Church
* Judaism
* Islam
* more...

Symbols|

* Armenian Cross
* Armenian eternity sign
* Coat of arms
* Flag
* Mount Ararat
* National anthem
* Apricot
* Grape
* Pomegranate

* Outline
* Index

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Languages of the Caucasus

Caucasian
(areal)|

| South
(Kartvelian)|

* Karto-Zan
* Georgian
* Judaeo-Georgian
* Old Georgian
* Zan
* Laz
* Mingrelian
* Svan

|

Northeast
(Caspian)|

| Avar–Andic|

* Andic
* Andi
* Akhvakh
* Bagvalal–Tindi
* Botlikh–Godoberi
* Chamalal
* Karata
* Avar

|

Dargin|

* Chirag

North-Central|

* Mehweb
* Gapshima
* Muira [ru]
* Tsudaqar–Usisha–Butri
* North Dargwa
* Aqusha
* Literary Dargwa
* Murego–Gubden [uk]
* Kadar
* Mugi [ru]
* Upper Mulebki
* Urakhi

Southern|

* Ashti [ru]–Kubachi
* Sanzhi–Itsari
* Amuzgi–Shiri
* Sanakari–Chakhrizhi
* Southwestern Dargwa
* Sirhwa [lez; uk]
* Tanti
* Upper Vurqni [ru]

Kaitag–Shari|

* Kaitag
* Shari

Lezgic|

* Archi
* Samur
* Eastern
* Aghul
* Lezgin
* Tabasaran
* Southern
* Budukh
* Kryts
* Jek
* Western
* Rutul
* Tsakhur
* Udi
* Caucasian Albanian

Nakh|

* Bats
* Vainakh
* Chechen
* Aukh
* Ingush

Tsezic (Didoic)|

* Bezhta–Hunzib–Khwarshi
* Hinukh–Tsez

Others|

* Khinalug
* Lak

Northwest
(Pontic)|

* Abazgi
* Abaza
* Abkhaz
* Bzyb
* Chakobsa
* Circassian
* Adyghe
* Kabardian
* Ubykh

Indo-
European|

| Iranian|

* Cimmerian
* Kurdish
* Kurmanji
* Ossetian
* Alanic
* Persian
* Talysh
* Kilit
* Tat
* Judeo-Tat

|

Slavic|

* Belarusian
* Russian
* Ukrainian

Others|

* Armenian
* Classical Armenian
* Middle Armenian
* Eastern
* Western
* Zok
* German
* Pontic Greek

Turkic|

| Kipchak|

* Karachay-Balkar
* Kumyk
* Nogai
* Urum

|

Oghuz|

* Azerbaijani
* Turkish
* Turkmen

Others|

* Kalmyk Oirat
* Lomavren
* Northeastern Neo-Aramaic
* Assyrian
* Bohtan
* Armazic
* Shirvani Arabic

* Italics indicate extinct languages
* Languages between parentheses are varieties of the language on their left.

See also
Languages of Armenia
Languages of Azerbaijan
Languages of Georgia
Languages of Russia

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Cyprus

Official languages|

* Greek
* Turkish

Semiofficial language|

* English

Vernacular languages|

* Cypriot Greek
* Cypriot Turkish
* Kurbet

Minority languages|

* Armenian
* Cypriot Maronite Arabic
* Russian

Sign languages|

* Cypriot Sign Language
* Greek Sign Language
* Turkish Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Iran

Official language|

* Persian (Iranian)

Regional languages|

* Azerbaijani
* Achomi
* Kurdish
* Kurmanji
* Sorani
* Xwarin
* Laki
* Gorani
* Luri
* Gilaki
* Mazanderani
* Arabic
* Balochi
* Talysh
* Tati
* Qashqai
* Turkmen
* Semnani
* Khorasani Turkic

Minority languages|

* Armenian
* Assyrian
* Circassian
* Domari
* Georgian
* Hebrew
* Jadgali
* Zargari Romani
* Khalaj

Working languages|

* English
* French
* Russian

Sign languages|

* Persian Sign Language
* Qahveh Khaneh Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Iraq

Official languages|

* Standard Arabic
* Mesopotamian Arabic (Main)
* Kurdish
* Sorani (Main)
* Kurmanji

Official minority languages|

* Neo-Aramaic
* Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
* Armenian
* Turkish
* Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects

Other minority languages|

* Gorani (Hawrami)
* Southern Kurdish (Xwarin)
* Persian
* Mandaic
* Neo-Mandaic
* Domari
* Hebrew
* Shabaki
* Luri

Sign languages|

* Iraqi Sign Language
* Kurdish Sign Language

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Syria

Official language|

* Standard Arabic

Minority languages|

* Armenian
* Circassian languages (Kabardian)
* Chechen
* Domari
* Greek
* Kurdish
* Kurmanji
* Turkish
* Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
* Aramaic
* Suret (Assyrian & Chaldean)
* Turoyo
* Western Neo-Aramaic

Varieties of Arabic|

* Shawi
* Levantine
* Aleppine
* Damascene
* Mesopotamian
* Najdi

Sign languages|

* Levantine Arabic Sign Language

Immigrant languages|

* English
* French
* Punjabi
* Spanish
* German
* Italian
* Hindi
* Hebrew
* Arabic
* Malay
* Chinese
* Portuguese
* Japanese
* Russian
* Danish
* Dutch

* v
* t
* e

Languages of Turkey

Official language|

* Turkish

Minority languages|

| Recognized|

* Armenian (Eastern, Western)
* Bulgarian
* Greek
* Hebrew

|

Unrecognized|

* Azerbaijani
* Balkan Gagauz Turkish
* Balkan Romani
* Domari
* Georgian
* Kurdish (Kurmanji)
* Ladino
* Laz
* Levantine Arabic
* Megleno-Romanian
* Pomak Bulgarian
* Romeika
* Syriac/Assyrian/Neo-Aramaic
* Zaza(ki)

Immigrant languages|

* Abaza
* Abkhaz
* Adyghe
* Albanian
* Arabic
* Avar
* Bosnian
* Chechen
* Crimean Tatar
* Kabardian
* Karakalpak
* Kazakh
* Kumyk
* Kyrgyz
* Lezgi
* Macedonian
* Mandarin Chinese
* Persian
* Russian
* Serbian
* Tatar
* Turkmen
* Ubykh
* Urdu
* Uyghur

Main foreign languages|

* English
* German
* Arabic
* French

Sign languages|

* Turkish Sign Language
* Mardin Sign Language
* Central Taurus Sign Language

Whistle languages|

* Turkish bird language

* Turkey portal
* Category

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Sweden
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

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