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The art of the Jewish people refers to all art forms including visual plastic arts, ancient Jewish art, modern Jewish art and to some extent Israeli art practiced or created by the Jewish people. Jewish art can first be referred to in the ancient Israelite and Hebrew culture in the Levant, which evolved through the Second Temple period and later the Mishnaic and Talmudic periods, with Jews continuing to produce art through out the millennia, including in the diaspora. Until the emancipation, Jewish art was mostly centered around religious practices and rituals. Following the emancipation in the early modern period, Jewish artists, notably in Europe began to explore different themes, with different levels of connection to religious art. Notably, Jews in France, some of whom from fleeing from Eastern Europe, produced at times modernist art of completely secular nature. Later in the first half of the 20th century, a group composed mainly of these Eastern European Jews fleeing from persecution were known as the School of Paris. From the late to mid 20th century, following the holocaust and the immigration of Jews to modern Israel and the holocaust, Israel reemerged as a center of Jewish art while Europe declined in its importance as a centre of Jewish culture.

## Second Temple and late antiquity[edit]

Main article: Ancient Jewish art

Mordecai and Esther, Dura-Europos Synagogue, ancient Syria

In the Second Temple period, Jewish art was heavily influenced by the Biblical injunction against graven images, leading to a focus on geometric, floral, and architectural motifs rather than figurative or symbolic representations. This artistic restraint was a response to the Hellenistic cultural pressures that threatened Jewish religious practices, notably the imposition of idolatry. Symbolic elements like the menorah and the shewbread table were sparingly used, primarily reflecting their significance in priestly duties.[1][2][3][4]

However, the rise of Christianity and its establishment as the dominant religion of the Roman Empire marked a turning point in Jewish artistic expression. This period, known as Late Antiquity, witnessed Jewish communities gradually incorporating symbolic motifs into their synagogal and funerary art. The expansion of these symbols beyond the menorah and the shewbread table to include other ritual objects and emblems signified a broader expression of Jewish identity. This shift in cultural representation aimed to affirm Jewish faith and community following the rise of Christian dominance in the Mediterranean region, making symbols like the menorah emblematic of national identity as well as religious faith.[5][6]

David anointed king by Samuel, Dura-Europos Synagogue, ancient Syria

The menorah, initially a representation of priestly duties in the Second Temple, evolved into a central symbol of Jewish identity, especially after the Temple's destruction. Its depiction in Jewish art, ranging from synagogue mosaics to catacombs, signified not only the religious importance of the Temple but also served as a distinguishing marker of Jewish places of worship and burial. Scholars debate the menorah's symbolism, with interpretations ranging from its seven branches representing divine light, the seven planets, or the days of the week, reflecting its integral role in both daily rituals and as a symbol of Judaism itself.[5][6]

The shewbread table, alongside other ritual objects such as the lulav, etrog, shofar, and flask, also played significant roles in Jewish art, marking the continuation of Temple traditions in diaspora communities. These objects, alongside depictions of the Temple, the Ark of the Scrolls, and the Ark of the Covenant, are part of an array of symbols used by Jewish

Zodiac Mosaic in Tzippori synagogue, 5th century AD

communities to express and maintain their religious and cultural identity.[7][8][9]

## Medieval period[edit]

Middle Age Rabbinical and Kabbalistic literature also contain textual and graphic art, most famously illuminated haggadahs such as the Sarajevo Haggadah, and other manuscripts like the Nuremberg Mahzor. Some of these were illustrated by Jewish artists and some by Christians; equally some Jewish artists and craftsmen in various media worked on Christian commissions.[10]

Outside of Europe, Yemenite Jewish silversmiths developed a distinctive style of finely wrought silver that is admired for its artistry. Johnson again summarizes this sudden change from a limited participation by Jews in visual art (as in many other arts) to a large movement by them into this branch of European cultural life: Again, the arrival of the Jewish artist was a strange phenomenon. It is true that, over the centuries, there had been many animals (though few humans) depicted in Jewish art: lions on Torah curtains, owls on Judaic coins, animals on the Capernaum capitals, birds on the rim of the fountain-basis in the 5th century Naro synagogue in Tunis; there were carved animals, too, on timber synagogues in eastern Europe – indeed the Jewish wood-carver was the prototype of the modern Jewish plastic artist. A book of Yiddish folk-ornament, printed at Vitebsk in 1920, was similar to Chagall's own bestiary. But the resistance of pious Jews to portraying the living human image was still strong at the beginning of the 20th century.[11]

## After the emancipation[edit]

Napoleon emancipating the Jewish people, 1806, in French reading: Napoleon the great, reestablishing the religion of the Israelites

Prior to the widespread Emancipation triggered by Napoleon's conquests across Europe, the presence of Jewish secular artists was minimal. However, there were notable figures such as Salomon Adler, an esteemed portrait painter in Milan during the 18th century. The slow engagement of Jews with the visual arts mirrored their limited involvement in European classical music up until the 19th century, a situation that gradually changed with the advent of Modernism in the 20th century. Through out the 19th century more Jews began to practice art, but it was only after World War I that Jewish artistic expression is said to have truly begun to flourish. This burgeoning of Jewish art traced its origins back to the Fifth Zionist Congress in 1901, which hosted an art exhibition featuring works by Jewish artists E.M. Lilien and Hermann Struck, thereby affirming the role of art in Jewish cultural expression. Nadine Nieszawer remarked on this cultural transformation, noting that post-1905, following the first Russian Revolution, Jews began to engage more actively in politics and the arts, marking a significant cultural renaissance, saying: "Until 1905, Jews were always plunged into their books but from the first Russian Revolution, they became emancipated, committed themselves in politics and became artists. A real Jewish cultural rebirth".[12] . Jews played significant roles within the modern artistic movements of Europe, and although many were part of isolated Jewish communities, their contributions were not confined to Jewish culture alone but were intertwined with the broader cultures of the countries they resided in. Their work and lives represented a blend of Jewish and non-Jewish cultural elements, rather than existing in separate cultural spheres.[13][14][15][16]

### In Eastern Europe[edit]

Early discussions among critics like Majer Bałaban and Abram Efros oscillated between defining Jewish art through the lens of Jewish creativity and considering Jewish artists as integral to the art of their respective countries. This debate was further complicated as Jewish artists, integrating into European artistic circles in the 19th century, began to incorporate Jewish subjects and experiences into their work. Despite these efforts, their manner of representation often borrowed heavily from Christian visual vocabulary, leading to artworks where Jewish themes were depicted through a lens traditionally associated with Christian iconography.[13]

This incorporation of Jewish subjects did not result in a distinctively Jewish aesthetic but rather underscored the complexities of identifying what constituted Jewish art. The secular works produced by artists of Jewish origin—ranging from landscapes to portraits—further blurred these distinctions, challenging the notion that an artist's Jewish background alone could imbue their work with a Jewish essence. It was only with the rise of Jewish nationalism at the turn of the 20th century that the discourse surrounding Jewish art took on a more ideological dimension. Jewish genre painting began to emerge as a significant element within the cultural politics of Zionism, depicting the Jewish experience of exile and the longing for a homeland through a narrative that was both culturally specific and also universal.[13]

The integration of Jewish artists into the European art scene was is said to have been marked by a dichotomoy: a departure from the confines of their provincial Jewish backgrounds towards a broader artistic and cultural engagement, and a thematic exploration that wove Jewish sensibilities into the broader tapestry of European art. Artists like Maurycy Gottlieb exemplified this dual journey by blending contemporary Jewish life with the heroic imagery of the Jewish Jesus, navigating the delicate balance between Jewish identity and Christian modes of representation. This period saw the laying of thematic foundations for Jewish genre painting, with artists navigating the complexities of representing Jewish themes within a predominantly Christian visual framework.[13]

Camille Pissaro, a French Jewish painter, self portrait, Tate Britain

By the early 20th century, Jewish genre painting was attempting to express in art Jewish suffering and aspiration. The works of artists like Szmul Hirszenberg and Maurycy Minkowski, while drawing on the universal moral themes prevalent in Christian visual vocabulary, were deeply rooted in the Jewish experience. These artists managed to convey the trials of Jewish life with a depth of emotion that transcended cultural boundaries, embedding their work within the broader canvas of Zionist iconography.[13][17]

Marc Chagall, born in 1887 in Vitebsk, Belarus, blended Eastern European Jewish themes with European modernism. His work, characterized by vivid colors and fantastical imagery, sought to capture the essence of Jewish folklore and tradition alongside avant-garde influences. Chagall's contributions during the interwar period significantly advanced a secular Jewish iconography, with elements of both Jewish identity and the broader currents of secular modern art in his paintings. Following the Bolshevik Revolution, Chagall left Russia in 1922 for Western Europe.

## Modern period[edit]

### School of Paris[edit]

Main article: School of Paris

A Jewish wedding, 1944, Marc Chagall

The École de Paris, a term coined in 1925 by art critic André Warnod[18], represented a diverse group of artists, many of Jewish origin from Eastern Europe, who settled in Montparnasse, Paris, to escape persecution. This group included notable figures such as Marc Chagall, Jules Pascin, Chaïm Soutine, Isaac Frenkel Frenel, Amedeo Modigliani, and Abraham Mintchine. Their work often depicted Jewish themes and expressed deep emotional intensity, reflecting their experiences of discrimination, pogroms, and the upheavals of the Russian Revolution. It is said that the art of these artists, especially those of Eastern European origin is said to have reflected in expressionist works the plight and suffering of the Jewish people. Despite facing xenophobia and criticism from some quarters, these artists played a central role in the vibrant artistic community of Paris, contributing significantly to its status as the capital of the art world. The School of Paris ebbed away following the Nazi occupation of France and the Holocaust, which led to the death of several prominent Jewish artists, and the dispersal of artists to Israel and the United States;.[19][20][21][22][23]

Carcass of Beef, 1925, Chaim Soutine

In Israel, the influence of the École de Paris persisted from the 1920s through the 1940s, with French art and especially French Jewish artists continuing to shape Israeli art for decades. The return of École de Paris artist Isaac Frenkel Frenel to Mandatory Palestine in 1925 and the establishment of the Histadrut Art Studio marked the beginning of this influence. His students, upon returning from Paris, further amplified the French artistic influence in Pre-Independence Israel.[24][25][26] This period saw artists in Tel Aviv and Safed creating works that portrayed humanity and emotion, often with a dramatic and tragic quality reflective of Jewish experiences. Safed, one of the holy cities of Judaism, in particular, became a center for artists influenced by the École de Paris in the mid to late 20th century. Its mystical and romantic setting attracted artists like Moshe Castel and Yitzhak Frenkel, who sought to capture the city's spiritual essence and dynamic landscapes.[27][28][29]

### In Israel[edit]

Main article: Visual arts in Israel

Binding of Isaac, 1924, Yitzhak Frenkel

Art in Israel is said to reflect a dialogue with Jewish art either as a cultural or religious background or in establishing a national identity.[30] In the 19th century, the artistic landscape in Eretz Israel, was predominantly focused on decorative and religious art, catering to pilgrims and reflecting Orientalist themes. This period was marked by the production of religious artifacts, decorative items, and early photography that often mirrored Orientalist aesthetics.[31][32]

The early 20th century witnessed a transformative period with the influx of Jewish painters from Europe, escaping pogroms and seeking refuge in Tel Aviv. Among these, Yitzhak Frenkel, introduced the influence of the École de Paris to Palestine. Frenkel's mentorship and the subsequent migration of artists to the Artist's Quarter of Tzfat catalyzed what is at times referred to as a "golden age of art" in the city, spanning the 1950s through the 1970s.[33][34][32][35][31] This era also saw the rise of significant art movements such as the Canaanite and New Horizons movements, further diversified the Israeli art scene.[36][37][38][39][40][41]

The establishment of the Bezalel School of Arts and Crafts in 1906 by Boris Schatz marked a seminal moment in the development of Israeli art, blending European Art Nouveau with local artistic traditions. This period also saw the emergence of modern art movements and a shift towards a more subjective artistic expression, challenging the traditional confines of Bezalel's artistic doctrine. With the establishment of studios and exhibitions oriented toward modern art, Tel Aviv emerging as a cultural hub, in time replacing Jerusalem as the country's prominent art centre.[36][33][38][35][39][41]

Tel Hai, lion of Judah, Avraham Melnikov

During the 1950s and 1960s, Israeli artists delved into the avant-garde movements prevalent in Europe and the United States, with immigrant artists introducing new trends to Israel and influential local artists spending time abroad, particularly in France. This period saw artists striving to create art that was either universally appealing or distinctly Israeli, inspired by themes of nationalistic socialism and Zionism. The "New Horizons" ("Ofakim Hadashim") movement, which began with an exhibition by a group known as "the Group of Eight" in 1942, became a significant force in Israeli art after the state's founding in 1948. Led by figures like Joseph Zaritsky and including artists such as Arie Aroch and Zvi Meirowitch, the movement aimed to embody a modernist approach that was particularly influenced by French modernism, yet sought to articulate a unique style reflective of Israeli reality.[42][43][44][45]

The "New Horizons" group aspired to blend Zionism with modernism, adopting a style that leaned towards lyrical abstraction. While the movement's art was not purely abstract, it was deeply rooted in the Israeli landscape, characterized by bold brushstrokes and vibrant colors that mirrored the Mediterranean light. Joseph Zaritsky's work, for example, showcased natural scenes from Kibbutz Yehiam, transitioning from watercolor depictions to oil-based abstract interpretations. This evolution in style was indicative of the group's broader movement towards abstraction, influenced by European modernism but distinctly Israeli in its execution and themes. Zvi Meirovich and other members brought unique contributions to this style, incorporating elements from their personal artistic influences and backgrounds.[46][47][48][49]

Despite the abstract and secular direction of the "New Horizons" movement, it faced criticism for straying from mainstream Israeli art, which was more figurative and often imbued with explicit Jewish and Zionist narratives. However, the movement's exploration of abstract art laid the groundwork for future artistic expressions in Israel, with later artists like Arie Aroch deviating from the group's initial vision by integrating historical and cultural content into their abstract works. This period also saw the emergence of new artistic media and techniques, such as welded steel sculpture, which allowed for more abstract expressions.[50][51][52][53][54]

## References[edit]

1. ^ ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA, pp. 312–313
2. ^ https://www.imj.org.il/en/collections/493544-0 Israel Museum
3. ^ Adler, Yonatan. "Representations of the Temple Menorah in Ancient Jewish Art in Light of Rabbinic Halakhah and Archaeological Finds". Hebrew.
4. ^ Hachlili, Rachel (2018-06-07), "Why Did the Menorah and Not the Showbread Table Evolve into the Most Important Symbol of Judaism*", The Menorah: Evolving into the Most Important Jewish Symbol, Brill, pp. 5–20, ISBN 978-90-04-37509-3, retrieved 2024-02-09
5. ^ a b ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA, pp. 343–344
6. ^ a b Adler, Yonatan. "Representations of the Temple Menorah in Ancient Jewish Art in Light of Rabbinic Halakhah and Archaeological Finds". Hebrew.
7. ^ ANCIENT JEWISH ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE DIASPORA, pp. 347–349 Rachel Hachlili
8. ^ Kanof, Abram (1982). Jewish Ceremonial Art and Religious Observance. New York: Abrams. ISBN 9780810921993.
9. ^ N.Y.), Jewish Museum (New York (1955). Art of the Hebrew Tradition: Jewish Ceremonial Objects for Synagogue and Home. An Exhibit at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York City, Commenorating the American Jewish Tercentenary; Arranged by the Jewish Museum of the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, January 20, 1955 to February 27, 1955. Jewish Publication Society of America.
10. ^ Roza Bieliauskiene and Felix Tarm, Brief History of Jewish Art, Jewish Art Network. Accessed January 14, 2010.
11. ^ Johnson, op.cit., p. 411.
12. ^ Rebecca Assoun, Jewish artists in Montparnasse Archived September 29, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. European Jewish Press, July 19, 2005. Accessed February 12, 2006.
13. ^ a b c d e "YIVO | Painting and Sculpture". yivoencyclopedia.org. Retrieved 2024-02-09.
14. ^ Gilya Gerda Schmidt, The Art and Artists of the Fifth Zionist Congress, 1901 (Syracuse, N.Y., 2003)
15. ^ Landsberger, Franz (1941). "The Jewish Artist Before the Time of Emancipation". Hebrew Union College Annual. 16: 321–414. ISSN 0360-9049.
16. ^ https://cbh.pan.pl/de/cfp-international-conference-art-and-emancipation-jews-and-modern-visual-culture-eastern-and-western
17. ^ Ruth Apter-Gabriel, ed., Tradition and Revolution: The Jewish Renaissance in Russian Avant-Garde Art, 1912–1928, 2nd ed. (Jerusalem, 1988)
18. ^ "The Jewish painters of l'École de Paris-from the Holocaust to today". Jews, Europe, the XXIst century. 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-19. "" l'École de Paris is a term coined by the art critic André Warnod in 1925, in the magazine Comœdia, to define the group formed by foreign painters in Paris. The École de Paris does not designate a movement or a school in the academic sense of the term, but a historical fact. In Warnod's mind, this term was intended to counter a latent xenophobia rather than to establish a theoretical approach."
19. ^ "Paris School of Art | Encyclopedia.com". www.encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
20. ^ Barzel, Amnon (1974). Frenel Isaac Alexander. Israel: Masada. p. 14.
21. ^ Nieszawer, Nadine (2020). Histoire des Artistes Juifs de l'École de Paris: Stories of Jewish Artists of the School of Paris (in French). France. ISBN 979-8633355567.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
22. ^ "Marc CHAGALL". Bureau d’art Ecole de Paris. 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2023-11-19.
23. ^ "The Jewish painters of l'École de Paris-from the Holocaust to today". Jews, Europe, the XXIst century. 2021-11-25. Retrieved 2023-11-19. "" l'École de Paris is a term coined by the art critic André Warnod in 1925, in the magazine Comœdia, to define the group formed by foreign painters in Paris. The École de Paris does not designate a movement or a school in the academic sense of the term, but a historical fact. In Warnod's mind, this term was intended to counter a latent xenophobia rather than to establish a theoretical approach."
24. ^ Turner, Michael; Bohm-Duchen, Monica; Manor, Dalia; Blair, Sheila S.; Bloom, Jonathan M.; Koffler, Lia (2003). "Israel". Oxford Art Online. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T042514. ISBN 9781884446054.
25. ^ "יצחק פרנקל: "חיבור ללא עצמים"". המחסן של גדעון עפרת (in Hebrew). 2011-01-01. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
26. ^ Hecht Museum (2013). After the School Of Paris (in English and Hebrew). Israel. ISBN 9789655350272.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
27. ^ Ofrat, Gideon (1987). The Golden Age of Painting in Safed (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv: Sifriat HaPoalim.
28. ^ Ballas, Gila. The Artists' of the 1920 and Cubism. Israel.
29. ^ Hecht Museum (2013). After the School Of Paris (in English and Hebrew). Israel. ISBN 9789655350272.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
30. ^ "A Century of Israeli Art, on View in Berlin". 17 June 2005.
31. ^ a b "Estimation et cote de Alexandre Frenel". Mr Expert (in French). Retrieved 2023-10-28.
32. ^ a b "Alexandre Frenel". Bureau d’art Ecole de Paris (in French). 2019-01-02. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
33. ^ a b Hecht Museum (2013). After the School Of Paris (in English and Hebrew). Israel. ISBN 9789655350272.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
34. ^ Ofrat, Gideon (1987). The Golden Age of Painting in Safed (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv: Sifriat HaPoalim.
35. ^ a b Ballas, Gila. The Artists' of the 1920 and Cubism. Israel.
36. ^ a b Kleppner, Frank (2004). Yosl Bergner: Art as a meeting of Cultures. Melbourne: Macmillan. ISBN 1876832924.
37. ^ Rewald, John (1955). L'Histoire de l'Impressionism (in French). Paris. ISBN 978-2012793743.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
38. ^ a b Hecht Museum (2013). After the School Of Paris (in English and Hebrew). Israel. ISBN 9789655350272.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
39. ^ a b "יצחק פרנקל: "חיבור ללא עצמים"". המחסן של גדעון עפרת (in Hebrew). 2011-01-01. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
40. ^ "Les peintres juifs de " l'École de Paris " imposent leur génie au MahJ". fr.timesofisrael.com (in French). Retrieved 2023-10-28.
41. ^ a b Ofrat, Gideon (2012). The Birth of Secular Art from the Zionist Spirit (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Carmel. p. 234.
42. ^ See: Gila Blass, New Horizons, pp. 64–66.
43. ^ Mordechai Omer, Zaritzky (Tel Aviv Museum, Tel Aviv, 1984), p. 86.
44. ^ Davar Ha-Shavua, 12 February 1947.
45. ^ Gila Blass, New Horizons (Reshefim Publishers, Tel Aviv, 1980), pp. 16–17 (in Hebrew).
46. ^ See: Gila Blass, New Horizons, p. 29.
47. ^ See: Galia Bar-Or, Gideon Efrat, The First Decade: Hegemony and Multiciplicity (Museum of Art Ein Harod, 2008), pp. 22–23 (In Hebrew).
48. ^ Cited in: Galia Bar-Or, Gideon Efrat, The First Decade: Hegemony and Multiciplicity (Museum of Art Ein Harod, 2008), p. 21 (In Hebrew).
49. ^ Yona Fischer, Tamar Manor-Friedman, The Birth of Now: The 1960s in Israeli Art (Ashdod Museum of Art, 2008), p. 10 (In Hebrew).
50. ^ See: Sara Breitling-Semel, "Painting in a Time of Bankruptcy" (1983), In: Yona Fischer, Moshe Kupferman: Paintings, Works on Paper, 1963–1984 (The Israel Museum, Jerusalem, 1984), p.11 (In Hebrew).
51. ^ Exceptions to this are the works "With beers, beers, and more beers" (1982), influenced by the Sabra and Shatilla Massacre, drawings in memory of Emil Greenzweig (1983), and the group of late works "Fraction and Time", exhibited at Kibbutz Lohamei HaGeta'ot.
52. ^ See: Sara Breitling-Semel, "Agrippas vs. Nimrod", Kav, 9, p. 99.
53. ^ Cf, Sarit Shapiro, Paths of Wandering: Migrations, Journeys, and Transitions in Contemporary Israeli Art (The Israel Museum, 1991), p. 62; David Gintan, "The High Commissioner", Ha-Midrashah, 3, 2000, pp. 200–249 (In Hebrew).
54. ^ See: Gila Blass, New Horizons, pp. 95–96.

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