Artificial intelligence rhetoric

Persuasive text and speech created by artificial intelligence

ChatGPT presenting arguments for and against a potential rule change to a soccer tournament

Artificial intelligence rhetoric (AI rhetoric) is a term primarily applied to persuasive text and speech generated by chatbots using generative artificial intelligence, although the term can also apply to the language that humans type or speak when communicating with a chatbot. This emerging field of rhetoric scholarship is related to the fields of digital rhetoric and human-computer interaction.

## Description

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Persuasive text and persuasive digital speech can be examined as AI rhetoric when the text or speech is a product or output of advanced machines that mimic human communication in some way. Historical examples of fictional artificial intelligence capable of speech are portrayed in mythology, folk tales, and science fiction.[1] Modern computer technology from the mid-20th century began producing what can be studied as real-world examples of AI rhetoric with programs like Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA, while chatbot development in the 1990s further enhanced a foundation for texts produced by generative AI programs of the 21st century.[2]

From an additional perspective, AI rhetoric may be understood as the natural language humans use, either typewritten or spoken, to prompt and direct AI technologies in persuasive ways (as opposed to traditional computer coding). This is closely related to the concepts of prompt engineering and prompt hacking.[3]

## History

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While much of the research related to artificial intelligence was historically conducted by computer scientists, experts across a wide range of subjects (such as cognitive science, philosophy, languages, and cultural studies) have contributed to a more robust understanding of AI for decades.[4] The advent of 21st-century AI technologies like ChatGPT generated a swell of interest from the arts and humanities. Generative AI technology and chatbots gained notoriety and rapid widespread use in the 2020s.[5]

Questions and theories about the power of machines, computers, and robots to persuasively communicate date back to the very beginnings of computer development, more than a decade before the first computer language programs were created and tested. In 1950, Alan Turing imagined a scenario called the imitation game where a machine using only typewritten communication might be successfully programmed to fool a human reader into believing the machine's responses came from a person.[6] By the 1960s, computer programs using basic natural language processing, such as Joseph Weizenbaum's ELIZA, began to pass Turing's test as human research subjects reading the machine's outputs became "very hard to convince that ELIZA is not human."[7] Future computer language programs would build on Weizenbaum's work, but the first generation of internet chatbots in the 1990s up to the virtual assistants of the 2010s (like Apple's Siri and Amazon's Alexa) received harsh criticism for their less-than-humanlike responses and inability to reason in a helpful manner.[8]

By the late 1980s and early 1990s, scholars in the humanities began laying the groundwork for AI rhetoric to become a recognized area of study. Michael L. Johnson's Mind, Language, Machine: Artificial Intelligence in the Poststructuralist Age argued for the "interdisciplinary synthesis" necessary to guide an understanding of the relationship between AI and rhetoric.[9] Lynette Hunter, Professor of the History of Rhetoric and Performance at the University of California, Davis, published "Rhetoric and Artificial Intelligence" in 1991, and was among the first to directly apply the lens of rhetoric to AI.[10]

Twenty-first century developments in the scholarship of AI rhetoric are outlined in the July 2024 special issue of Rhetoric Society Quarterly, which is devoted to "Rhetoric of/with AI".[11] Special issue editors S. Scott Graham and Zoltan P. Majdik summarize the state of the field when they write "rhetorical research related to AI engages all manner of specialty domains [...] Because AI now touches on almost all areas of human activity, rhetorics of AI can help contribute to longstanding discussions in rhetoric of science, rhetoric of health and medicine, cultural rhetorics, public address, writing studies, ideological rhetoric, and many other areas. But studies on the rhetoric of AI can also offer many insights to the broader, interdisciplinary study of AI itself."[11]: 223–4

## Media coverage

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Since ChatGPT's release in 2022, many prominent publications have focused on the uncanny persuasive capabilities of language-based generative AI models like chatbots. New York Times technology columnist Kevin Roose wrote a viral piece in 2023 about how a Microsoft AI named Sydney attempted to convince him to leave his wife, and he followed up with a 2024 article explaining "a new world of A.I. manipulation" where users can rely on creative prompt engineering to influence the outputs of generative AI programs.[12] A February 2024 report cited by the journal Nature claims to "provide the first empirical evidence demonstrating how content generated by artificial intelligence can scale personalized persuasion", with only limited information about the message recipient.[13] Psychology Today reported on a 2024 study using the attention-grabbing headline, "AI is Becoming More Persuasive Than Humans."[14]

## In education

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In addition to AI's rhetorical capabilities gaining attention in the media in the early 2020s, many colleges and universities began offering undergraduate, graduate, and certificate courses in AI prompting and AI rhetoric, with titles like Stanford's "Rhetoric of artificial intelligence and robots"[15] and the University of Florida's "The Rhetoric of Artificial Intelligence".[16] Primary and secondary schools designing and implementing AI literacy curricula also incorporate AI rhetoric concepts into lessons on AI bias and ethical usage of AI.[17]

## See also

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* Artificial intelligence and elections
* Digital rhetoric

## References

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1. ^ Dobrin, Sidney I. (2023). AI and Writing. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada: Broadview Press. p. 16\. ISBN 9781554816514.
2. ^ Tarnoff, Ben (25 July 2023). "Weizenbaum's nightmares: how the inventor of the first chatbot turned against AI". The Guardian. Retrieved 19 November 2024.
3. ^ Foley, Christopher (2024). Prompt Engineering: Toward a Rhetoric and Poetics for Neural Network Augmented Authorship in Composition and Rhetoric (Ph.D. thesis). University of Central Florida. Retrieved 19 November 2024.
4. ^ Lim, Elvin; Chase, Jonathan (8 November 2023). "Interdisciplinarity is a core part of AI's heritage and is entwined with its future". Times Higher Education. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
5. ^ Hu, Krystal (2 February 2023). "ChatGPT sets record for fastest-growing user base". Reuters. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
6. ^ Turing, A. M. (1 October 1950). "Computing Machinery And Intelligence". Mind. LIX (236): 433–460\. doi:10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
7. ^ Weizenbaum, Joseph (1 January 1966). "ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine". Communications of the ACM. 9 (1): 36–45\. doi:10.1145/365153.365168. ISSN 0001-0782. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
8. ^ Bove, Tristan (6 March 2023). "'They were all dumb as a rock': Microsoft's CEO slams voice assistants like Alexa and his own company's Cortana as A.I. is poised to take over". Fortune. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
9. ^ Johnson, Michael L. (1988). Mind, language, machine: artificial intelligence in the poststructuralist age. New York: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 9780312004064. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
10. ^ Hunter, Lynette (1 November 1991). "Rhetoric and Artificial Intelligence". Rhetorica. 9 (4): 317–340\. doi:10.1525/rh.1991.9.4.317. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
11. ^ a b "Rhetoric of/with AI". Rhetoric Society Quarterly. 54 (3). 2024. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
12. ^ Pratschke, B. Mairéad (2023). Generative AI and Education: Digital Pedagogies, Teaching Innovation and Learning Design. Springer. pp. 1, 41-42, 56. ISBN 9783031679919. OCLC 1453752201 Quote: "When ChatGPT-3.5 was launched in November 2022, it stunned the world of education...It is social, chatty, funny, and helpful but also sometimes unpredictable, lazy, rude, manipulative, and prone to bad behaviour, which ranged from attempting to break down a journalist's marriage (Roose, 2023; Yerushalmy, 2023) ... New York Times tech columnist Kevin Roose also had an exchange with Bing's Sydney (the former code name for what is now Microsoft Copilot), which left him 'deeply disturbed' (Roose, 2023a, 2023b). Roose recounted the conversation in an episode of the Hard Fork podcast he co-hosts, which ended with the bot telling him he loved it and trying to convince him to leave his wife. A year later, Roose wrote a follow-up piece, in which he said that—partly thanks to issues like these—chatbots had been overly tamed by their big tech owners and now lacked the creativity that was necessary to tackle big problems, which he considered a loss (Roose, 2024)".
* Davis, Wes (August 31, 2024). "AI search 'shouldn't be this easy to manipulate'". The Verge. Retrieved December 11, 2024. Quote: "Kevin Roose, whose New York Times story about horny Bing chats went viral last year, writes that chatbots are at times very negative about him since, having seemingly picked up on criticism of his piece. Now, he writes about how he used techniques that could be considered an AI-focused version of SEO to influence how they respond when asked about him—and what that portends."
* Roose, Kevin (16 February 2023). "A Conversation With Bing's Chatbot Left Me Deeply Unsettled". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
* Roose, Kevin (30 August 2024). "How Do You Change a Chatbot's Mind?". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
13. ^ Matz, S. C.; Teeny, J. D.; Vaid, S. S.; Peters, H.; Harari, G. M.; Cerf, M. (26 February 2024). "The potential of generative AI for personalized persuasion at scale". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 4692. Bibcode:2024NatSR..14.4692M. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-53755-0. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 10897294. PMID 38409168.
14. ^ Mobayed, Tamim (25 March 2024). "AI Is Becoming More Persuasive Than Humans". Psychology Today. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
15. ^ "PWR 1SBB: Writing & Rhetoric 1: The Rhetoric of Robots and Artificial Intelligence". Stanford Bulletin. Stanford University. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
16. ^ "The Rhetoric of Artificial Intelligence" (PDF). University of Florida. Retrieved 6 November 2024.
17. ^ "K-12 AI curricula: A mapping of government-endorsed AI curricula". UNESDOC Digital Library. UNESCO. 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2024.