Avicenna

Persian polymath, physician and philosopher (c. 980–1037)

For the crater, see Avicenna (crater).

"Ibn Sīnā" redirects here; not to be confused with Ali Sina or Ibn Sina Peak.

Avicenna
Ibn Sina

ابن سینا

Modern portrait, 1952

Born| c. 980

Afshana, Transoxiana, Samanid Empire

Died| 22 June 1037(1037-06-22) (aged 56–57)[1]

Hamadan, Kakuyid Emirate

Monuments| Avicenna Mausoleum
Other names|

* Sharaf al-Mulk (شرف الملك)
* Hujjat al-Haq (حجة الحق)
* al-Sheikh al-Ra'is (الشيخ الرئيس)
* Ibn-Sino (Abu Ali Abdulloh Ibn-Sino)
* Bu Alī Sīnā (بو علی سینا)

Philosophical work
Era| Islamic Golden Age
Region| Middle Eastern philosophy

* Persian philosophy

School| Aristotelianism, Avicennism
Main interests|

*     * Medicine
* Aromatherapy

* Philosophy and logic
* Kalām (Islamic theology)
*     * Science
* Poetry

Notable works|

* The Book of Healing
* The Canon of Medicine

This article contains special characters. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Part of a series on
Avicenna
(Ibn Sīnā)
Works

*     * The Book of Healing
* The Canon of Medicine
* Al-Nijat

Thoughts

* Avicennism
* On God's existence
* Floating man
* Al-Ghazali's criticism of Avicennian philosophy

Pupils

* Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani
* Bahmanyar
* Ibn Abi Sadiq
* Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi

Monuments

* Avicenna Mausoleum
* Avicenna (crater)
* Bu-Ali Sina University
* Avicenne Hospital
* The Physician
* The Physician (2013 film)
* Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation
* Scholars Pavilion

* v
* t
* e

Ibn Sina[a] (c. 980 – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna (/ˌævɪˈsɛnə, ˌɑːv-/ A(H)V-iss-EN-ə), was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world.[2][3] He was a seminal figure of the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian rulers,[4] and was influential to medieval European medical and Scholastic thought.[5]

Often described as the father of early modern medicine,[6][7][8] Avicenna's most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia[9][10][11] that became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities[12] and remained in use as late as 1650.[13]

Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry.[14] His philosophy was of the Peripatetic school derived from Aristotelianism,[15] of which he is considered among the greatest proponents within the Muslim world.[5]

Avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in Arabic but also wrote several key works in Persian; his poetry was written in both languages. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.[15]

## Name

[edit]

Avicenna is a Latin corruption of the Arabic patronym Ibn Sīnā (ابن سينا),[16] meaning "Son of Sina". However, Avicenna was not the son but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina.[17] His formal Arabic name was Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn bin ʿAbdallāh bin al-Ḥasan bin ʿAlī bin Sīnā al-Balkhī al-Bukhārī (أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن علي بن سينا البلخي البخاري).[18][19]

## Circumstances

[edit]

Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Byzantine, Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Middle Platonic, Neoplatonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine.[20]

The Samanid Empire in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and Central Asia, as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq, provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad for cultural capital of the Muslim world.[21] There, Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarazm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan.

Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that Avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Nizami Aruzi described how before ibn Sina left Khwarazm, he had met al-Biruni (a scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Mansur (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi (a respected philosopher) and ibn al-Khammar (a great physician). The study of the Quran and the Hadith also thrived, and Islamic philosophy, fiqh "jurisprudence", and kalam "speculative theology" were all further developed by ibn Sina and his opponents at this time.

## Biography

[edit]

### Early life and education

[edit]

Avicenna was born in c. 980 in the village of Afshana in Transoxiana to a Persian family.[22] The village was near the Samanid capital of Bukhara, which was his mother's hometown.[23] His father Abd Allah was a native of the city of Balkh in Bactria.[24] An official of the Samanid bureaucracy, he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of Harmaytan near Bukhara during the reign of Nuh II (r. 976–997).[24] Avicenna also had a younger brother. A few years later, the family settled in Bukhara, a center of learning, which attracted many scholars. It was there that Avicenna was educated, which early on was seemingly administered by his father.[25][26][27]

Although both Avicenna's father and brother had converted to Isma'ilism, he himself did not follow the faith.[28][29] He was instead a Hanafi Sunni, the same school followed by the Samanids.[30]

Avicenna was first schooled in the Quran and literature, and by the age of 10, he had memorized the entire Quran.[26] He was later sent by his father to an Indian greengrocer, who taught him arithmetic.[31] Afterwards, he was schooled in fiqh by the Hanafi jurist Ismail al-Zahid. Sometime later, his father invited the physician and philosopher al-Natili to their house to educate ibn Sina.[26][27] Together, they studied the Isagoge of Porphyry (died 305) and possibly the Categories of Aristotle (died 322 BCE) as well. After Avicenna had read the Almagest of Ptolemy (died 170) and Euclid's Elements, al-Natili told him to continue his research independently.[27] By the time Avicenna was eighteen, he was well-educated in Greek sciences. Although ibn Sina only mentions al-Natili as his teacher in his autobiography, he most likely had other teachers as well, such as the physicians Qumri and Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi.[25][31]

### Career

[edit]

#### In Bukhara and Gurganj

[edit]

Map of Khurasan and Transoxiana

At the age of seventeen, Avicenna was made a physician of Nuh II. By the time Avicenna was at least 21 years old, his father died. He was subsequently given an administrative post, possibly succeeding his father as the governor of Harmaytan. Avicenna later moved to Gurganj, the capital of Khwarazm, which he reports that he did due to "necessity". The date he went to the place is uncertain, as he reports that he served the Khwarazmshah, the ruler of Khwarazm, the Ma'munid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali. The latter ruled from 997 to 1009, which indicates that Avicenna moved sometime during that period.

He may have moved in 999, the year in which the Samanid Empire fell after the Kara-Khanid Khanate captured Bukhara and imprisoned the Samanid emir Abd al-Malik II. Due to his high position and strong connection with the Samanids, ibn Sina may have found himself in an unfavorable position after the fall of his suzerain.[25]

It was through the minister of Gurganj, Abu'l-Husayn as-Sahi, a patron of Greek sciences, that Avicenna entered into the service of Abu al-Hasan Ali.[32] Under the Ma'munids, Gurganj became a centre of learning, attracting many prominent figures, such as ibn Sina and his former teacher Abu Sahl al-Masihi, the mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur, the physician ibn al-Khammar, and the philologist al-Tha'alibi.[33][34]

#### In Gorgan

[edit]

Avicenna later moved due to "necessity" once more (in 1012), this time to the west. There he travelled through the Khurasani cities of Nasa, Abivard, Tus, Samangan and Jajarm. He was planning to visit the ruler of the city of Gorgan, the Ziyarid Qabus (r. 977–981, 997–1012), a cultivated patron of writing, whose court attracted many distinguished poets and scholars. However, when Avicenna eventually arrived, he discovered that the ruler had been dead since the winter of 1013.[25][35] Avicenna then left Gorgan for Dihistan, but returned after becoming ill. There he met Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani (died 1070) who became his pupil and companion.[25][36] Avicenna stayed briefly in Gorgan, reportedly serving Qabus's son and successor Manuchihr (r. 1012–1031) and resided in the house of a patron.[25]

#### In Ray and Hamadan

[edit]

Coin of Majd al-Dawla (r. 997–1029), the amir (ruler) of the Buyid branch of Ray

In c. 1014, Avicenna went to the city of Ray, where he entered into the service of the Buyid amir Majd al-Dawla (r. 997–1029) and his mother Sayyida Shirin, the de facto ruler of the realm. There he served as the physician at the court, treating Majd al-Dawla, who was suffering from melancholia. Avicenna reportedly later served as the "business manager" of Sayyida Shirin in Qazvin and Hamadan, though details regarding this tenure are unclear.[25][37] During this period, Avicenna finished writing The Canon of Medicine and started writing his The Book of Healing.[37]

In 1015, during Avicenna's stay in Hamadan, he participated in a public debate, as was customary for newly arrived scholars in western Iran at that time. The purpose of the debate was to examine one's reputation against a prominent resident.[38] The person whom Avicenna debated against was Abu'l-Qasim al-Kirmani, a member of the school of philosophers of Baghdad.[39] The debate became heated, resulting in ibn Sina accusing Abu'l-Qasim of lack of basic knowledge in logic, while Abu'l-Qasim accused ibn Sina of impoliteness.[38]

After the debate, Avicenna sent a letter to the Baghdad Peripatetics, asking if Abu'l-Qasim's claim that he shared the same opinion as them was true. Abu'l-Qasim later retaliated by writing a letter to an unknown person in which he made accusations so serious that ibn Sina wrote to Abu Sa'd, the deputy of Majd al-Dawla, to investigate the matter. The accusation made towards Avicenna may have been the same as he had received earlier, in which he was accused by the people of Hamadan of copying the stylistic structures of the Quran in his Sermons on Divine Unity.[40] The seriousness of this charge, in the words of the historian Peter Adamson, "cannot be underestimated in the larger Muslim culture".[41]

Not long afterwards, Avicenna shifted his allegiance to the rising Buyid amir Shams al-Dawla, the younger brother of Majd al-Dawla, which Adamson suggests was due to Abu'l-Qasim also working under Sayyida Shirin.[42][43] Avicenna had been called upon by Shams al-Dawla to treat him, but after the latter's campaign in the same year against his former ally, the Annazid ruler Abu Shawk (r. 1010–1046), he forced Avicenna to become his vizier.[44]

Although Avicenna would sometimes clash with Shams al-Dawla's troops, he remained vizier until the latter died of colic in 1021. Avicenna was asked to stay as vizier by Shams al-Dawla's son and successor Sama' al-Dawla (r. 1021–1023), but he instead went into hiding with his patron, Abu Ghalib al-Attar, to wait for better opportunities to emerge. It was during this period that Avicenna was secretly in contact with Ala al-Dawla Muhammad (r. 1008–1041), the Kakuyid ruler of Isfahan and uncle of Sayyida Shirin.[25][45][46]

It was during his stay at Attar's home that Avicenna completed The Book of Healing, writing 50 pages a day.[47] The Buyid court in Hamadan, particularly the Kurdish vizier Taj al-Mulk, suspected Avicenna of correspondence with Ala al-Dawla, and as a result, had the house of Attar ransacked and ibn Sina imprisoned in the fortress of Fardajan, outside Hamadan. Juzjani blames one of ibn Sina's informers for his capture. He was imprisoned for four months until Ala al-Dawla captured Hamadan, ending Sama al-Dawla's reign.[25][48]

#### In Isfahan

[edit]

Coin of Ala al-Dawla Muhammad (r. 1008–1041), the Kakuyid ruler of Isfahan

Avicenna was subsequently released, and went to Isfahan, where he was well received by Ala al-Dawla. In the words of Juzjani, the Kakuyid ruler gave Avicenna "the respect and esteem which someone like him deserved".[25] Adamson also says that Avicenna's service under Ala al-Dawla "proved to be the most stable period of his life".[49] Avicenna served as the advisor, if not vizier of Ala al-Dawla, accompanying him in many of his military expeditions and travels.[25][49] Avicenna dedicated two Persian works to him, a philosophical treatise named Danish-nama-yi Ala'i ("Book of Science for Ala"), and a medical treatise about the pulse.[50]

The Mausoleum of Avicenna, Hamadan, Iran

During the brief occupation of Isfahan by the Ghaznavids in January 1030, Avicenna and Ala al-Dawla relocated to the southwestern Iranian region of Khuzistan, where they stayed until the death of the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud (r. 998–1030), which occurred two months later. It was seemingly when Avicenna returned to Isfahan that he started writing his Pointers and Reminders.[51] In 1037, while Avicenna was accompanying Ala al-Dawla to a battle near Isfahan, he contracted a severe colic, having suffered from colic throughout his life. He died shortly afterwards in Hamadan, where he was buried.[52]

## Philosophy

[edit]

Avicenna wrote extensively on early Islamic philosophy, especially the subjects logic, ethics and metaphysics, including treatises named Logic and Metaphysics. Most of his works were written in Arabic, then the language of science in the Muslim world, and some in Early New Persian. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in Persian, particularly the Danishnama. Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle often criticized the philosopher,[53] encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad.

Avicenna's Neoplatonic scheme of emanations became fundamental in kalam in the 12th century.[54]

The Book of Healing became available in Europe in a partial Latin translation some fifty years after its composition under the title Sufficientia, and some authors have identified a "Latin Avicennism" as flourishing for some time paralleling the more influential Latin Averroism, but it was suppressed by the Parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215.[55]

Avicenna's psychology and theory of knowledge influenced the theologian William of Auvergne[56] and Albertus Magnus,[56] while his metaphysics influenced the thought of Thomas Aquinas.[56]

### Metaphysical doctrine

[edit]

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Early Islamic philosophy and Islamic metaphysics, imbued as it is with kalam, distinguishes between essence and existence more clearly than Aristotelianism. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Avicenna, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a definitive Islamic philosophy separate from Occasionalism can be seen in what is left of his work.

Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Arabic: ماهية, romanized: māhiya) and existence (Arabic: وجود, romanized: wujūd). He argued that the fact of existence cannot be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.[57]

#### Impossibility, contingency, necessity

[edit]

See also: Necessity and sufficiency, Contingency (philosophy), Metaphysical necessity, and Potentiality and actuality

Further information: Modal logic

Avicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (mumkin bi-dhatihi) has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary existent due to what is other than itself' (wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi) is true in itself, while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists.[58][59]

#### Differentia

[edit]

See also: Differentia

The Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence other than existence. Furthermore, It is 'One' (wahid ahad)[60] since there cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other than themselves'; and this is contradictory. If no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then, in no sense are these 'Existents' not the same.[61] Avicenna adds that the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (jins), nor a definition (hadd), nor a counterpart (nadd), nor an opposite (did), and is detached (bari) from matter (madda), quality (kayf), quantity (kam), place (ayn), situation (wad) and time (waqt).[62][63][64]

#### Reception

[edit]

Avicenna's theology on metaphysical issues (ilāhiyyāt) has been criticized by some Islamic scholars, among them al-Ghazali, ibn Taymiyya, and ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya.[65][page needed] While discussing the views of the theists among the Greek philosophers, namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal "Deliverance from Error", al-Ghazali noted:

> [the Greek philosophers] must be taxed with unbelief, as must their partisans among the Muslim philosophers, such as Avicenna and al-Farabi and their likes. None, however, of the Muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting Aristotle's lore as did the two men just mentioned. [...] The sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of Aristotle, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Avicenna, can be reduced to three parts: a part which must be branded as unbelief; a part which must be stigmatized as innovation; and a part which need not be repudiated at all.[66]

### Argument for God's existence

[edit]

Main article: Proof of the Truthful

Avicenna made an argument for the existence of God which would be known as the "Proof of the Truthful" (wajib al-wujud). Avicenna argued that there must be a Proof of the Truthful, an entity that cannot not exist[67] and through a series of arguments, he identified it with God in Islam.[68] Present-day historian of philosophy Peter Adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.[67]

### Al-Biruni correspondence

[edit]

Correspondence between ibn Sina with his student Ahmad ibn ʿAli al-Maʿsumi and al-Biruni has survived in which they debated Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school. al-Biruni began by asking eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens.[69]

### Theology

[edit]

Ibn Sina was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. He aimed to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic.[70] His views on Islamic theology and philosophy were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century.[71]

Avicenna wrote several short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets and messengers in Islam, whom he viewed as "inspired philosophers", and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his philosophical system. In general, these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.

There are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works, however, that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.[72]

Later interpretations of Avicenna's philosophy split into three different schools; those (such as al-Tusi) who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances; those (such as al-Razi) who considered Avicenna's theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns; and those (such as al-Ghazali) who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means. It was the theological interpretation championed by those such as al-Razi which eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs.[73]

Avicenna memorized the Quran by the age of ten, and as an adult, wrote five treatises commenting on surahs of the Quran. One of these texts included the Proof of Prophecies, in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.[74]

Avicenna is generally understood to have been aligned with the Hanafi school of Sunni thought.[75][76] Avicenna studied Hanafi law, many of his notable teachers were Hanafi jurists, and he served under the Hanafi court of Ali ibn Mamun.[77][75] Avicenna said at an early age that he remained "unconvinced" by Ismaili missionary attempts to convert him.[75]

Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) believed Avicenna to be a follower of the Brethren of Purity.[76]

### Thought experiments

[edit]

Main article: Floating man

While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous "floating man"—literally falling man—a thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul. Avicenna believed his "Floating Man" thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance, and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness, even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input. The thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argued that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. Because it is conceivable that a person, suspended in air while cut off from sense experience, would still be capable of determining his own existence, the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection, independent of the body, and an immaterial substance.[78] The conceivability of this "Floating Man" indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually, which entails the soul's separateness from the body. Avicenna referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Following is an English translation of the argument:

> One of us (i.e. a human being) should be imagined as having been created in a single stroke; created perfect and complete but with his vision obscured so that he cannot perceive external entities; created falling through air or a void, in such a manner that he is not struck by the firmness of the air in any way that compels him to feel it, and with his limbs separated so that they do not come in contact with or touch each other. Then contemplate the following: can he be assured of the existence of himself? He does not have any doubt in that his self exists, without thereby asserting that he has any exterior limbs, nor any internal organs, neither heart nor brain, nor any one of the exterior things at all; but rather he can affirm the existence of himself, without thereby asserting there that this self has any extension in space. Even if it were possible for him in that state to imagine a hand or any other limb, he would not imagine it as being a part of his self, nor as a condition for the existence of that self; for as you know that which is asserted is different from that which is not asserted and that which is inferred is different from that which is not inferred. Therefore the self, the existence of which has been asserted, is a unique characteristic, in as much that it is not as such the same as the body or the limbs, which have not been ascertained. Thus that which is ascertained (i.e. the self), does have a way of being sure of the existence of the soul as something other than the body, even something non-bodily; this he knows, this he should understand intuitively, if it is that he is ignorant of it and needs to be beaten with a stick [to realize it].

— Ibn Sina, Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul[61][79]

However, Avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation. Sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal Agent Intellect. The first knowledge of the flying person would be "I am," affirming his or her essence. That essence could not be the body, obviously, as the flying person has no sensation. Thus, the knowledge that "I am" is the core of a human being: the soul exists and is self-aware.[80] Avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. The body is unnecessary; in relation to it, the soul is its perfection.[81][82][83] In itself, the soul is an immaterial substance.[84]

## Principal works

[edit]

### The Canon of Medicine

[edit]

Main article: The Canon of Medicine

Canons of medicine book from Avicenna, Latin translation located at UT Health of San Antonio

Avicenna authored a five-volume medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine (Arabic: القانون في الطب, romanized: al-Qānūn fī l-ṭibb). It was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th century.[85][86] The Canon still plays an important role in Unani medicine.[87]

### Liber Primus Naturalium

[edit]

Avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes.[88] He used the example of polydactyly to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events. This view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the Enlightenment by seven centuries.[89]

### The Book of Healing

[edit]

Main article: The Book of Healing

This section should include only a brief summary of The Book of Healing. See Wikipedia:Summary style for information on how to properly incorporate it into this article's main text. (July 2016)

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#### Earth sciences

[edit]

Avicenna wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in The Book of Healing.[90] While discussing the formation of mountains, he explained:

> Either they are the effects of upheavals of the crust of the earth, such as might occur during a violent earthquake, or they are the effect of water, which, cutting itself a new route, has denuded the valleys, the strata being of different kinds, some soft, some hard ... It would require a long period of time for all such changes to be accomplished, during which the mountains themselves might be somewhat diminished in size.[90]

#### Philosophy of science

[edit]

In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty". Avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he developed a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."[91]

#### Logic

[edit]

An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna.[92] Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.[93] Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times.[94][95] Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus[96] and William of Ockham.[97][98] Avicenna endorsed the law of non-contradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of non-contradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."[99]

#### Physics

[edit]

In mechanics, Avicenna, in The Book of Healing, developed a theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease.[100] He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance.[101]

The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by Buridan in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.[102]

In optics, Avicenna was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that "if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."[103] He also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. Carl Benjamin Boyer described Avicenna's ("Ibn Sīnā") theory on the rainbow as follows:

> Independent observation had demonstrated to him that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the color formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye.[104]

In 1253, a Latin text entitled Speculum Tripartitum stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on heat:

> Avicenna says in his book of heaven and earth, that heat is generated from motion in external things.[105]

#### Psychology

[edit]

Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises "on the soul").[dubious - discuss] Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the Flying Man argument in the Psychology of The Cure I.1.7 as defence of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an "epoche").[81][82]

Avicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.[106]

The soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process requires a concrete particular (material) to be abstracted into the universal intelligible (immaterial). The material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a "divine light" containing the intelligible forms.[107] The Active Intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes colour available to our eyes.

## Other contributions

[edit]

### Astronomy and astrology

[edit]

Main article: Astrology in the medieval Islamic world

Skull of Avicenna, found in 1950 during construction of the new mausoleum

Avicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled Missive on the Champions of the Rule of the Stars (رسالة في ابطال احكم النجوم) in which he cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future.[108] He believed that each classical planet had some influence on the Earth but argued against current astrological practices.[109]

Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than that of ibn al-Haytham or al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy a separate discipline from astrology.[110] He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous.[111] He claimed to have observed the transit of Venus. This is possible as there was a transit on 24 May 1032, but ibn Sina did not give the date of his observation and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in the geocentric model,[110] i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth.[112][113]

He also wrote the Summary of the Almagest based on Ptolemy's Almagest with an appended treatise "to bring that which is stated in the Almagest and what is understood from Natural Science into conformity". For example, ibn Sina considers the motion of the solar apsis, which Ptolemy had taken to be fixed.[110]

### Chemistry

[edit]

Avicenna was first to derive the attar of flowers from distillation[114] and used steam distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence, which he used as aromatherapeutic treatments for heart conditions.[115][116]

Unlike al-Razi, Avicenna explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists:

> Those of the chemical craft know well that no change can be effected in the different species of substances, though they can produce the appearance of such change.[117]

Four works on alchemy attributed to Avicenna were translated into Latin as:[118]

* Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae
* Declaratio Lapis physici Avicennae filio sui Aboali
* Avicennae de congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum
* Avicennae ad Hasan Regem epistola de Re recta

Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However, Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy).[118] Avicenna classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir.[119] The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.[118]

### Poetry

[edit]

Almost half of Avicenna's works are versified.[120] His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to Omar Khayyám, and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā:[121]

از قعر گل سیاه تا اوج زحل
کردم همه مشکلات گیتی را حل
بیرون جستم زقید هر مکر و حیل
هر بند گشاده شد مگر بند اجل

From the depth of the black earth up to Saturn's apogee,
All the problems of the universe have been solved by me.
I have escaped from the coils of snares and deceits;
I have unraveled all knots except the knot of Death.[122]: 91

|

## Legacy

[edit]

### Classical Islamic civilization

[edit]

Robert Wisnovsky, a scholar of Avicenna attached to McGill University, says that "Avicenna was the central figure in the long history of the rational sciences in Islam, particularly in the fields of metaphysics, logic and medicine" but that his works did not only have an influence in these "secular" fields of knowledge alone, as "these works, or portions of them, were read, taught, copied, commented upon, quoted, paraphrased and cited by thousands of post-Avicennian scholars—not only philosophers, logicians, physicians and specialists in the mathematical or exact sciences, but also by those who specialized in the disciplines of ʿilm al-kalām (rational theology, but understood to include natural philosophy, epistemology and philosophy of mind) and usūl al-fiqh (jurisprudence, but understood to include philosophy of law, dialectic, and philosophy of language)."[123]

### Medieval and Renaissance Europe

[edit]

Inside view of the Avicenna Mausoleum, designed by Hooshang Seyhoun in 1945–1950

As early as the 14th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato and Saladin. Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West as one of the great figures in intellectual history. Johannes Kepler cites Avicenna's opinion when discussing the causes of planetary motions in Chapter 2 of Astronomia Nova.[124]

George Sarton, the author of The History of Science, described Avicenna as "one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history"[125] and called him "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times". He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine.

Avicenna at the sickbed, miniature by Walenty z Pilzna, Kraków (c. 1479–1480)

Along with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis and al-Ibadi, Avicenna is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge.[126] Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the Canon of Medicine (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the Canon was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, princeps medicorum ("prince of physicians").[127]

### Modern reception

[edit]

A monument to Avicenna in Qakh (city), Azerbaijan Soviet Union in 1980 published a stamp entitled "1000th anniversary of the birth of Ibn Sina" Image of Avicenna on the Tajikistani somoni

Institutions in a variety of counties have been named after Avicenna in honour of his scientific accomplishments, including the Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum, Bu-Ali Sina University, Avicenna Research Institute and Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences.[128] There is also a crater on the Moon named Avicenna.

The Avicenna Prize, established in 2003, is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups for their achievements in the field of ethics in science.[129]

The statue of Avicenna in United Nations Office in Vienna as a part of the Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran

The Avicenna Directories (2008–2015; now the World Directory of Medical Schools) list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The original project team stated:

> Why Avicenna? Avicenna ... was ... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.[130]

In June 2009, Iran donated a "Persian Scholars Pavilion" to the United Nations Office in Vienna. It now sits in the Vienna International Center.[131]

#### In popular culture

[edit]

The 1982 Soviet film Youth of Genius (Russian: Юность гения, romanized: Yunost geniya) by Elyor Ishmukhamedov [ru] recounts Avicenna's younger years. The film is set in Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.[132]

In Louis L'Amour's 1985 historical novel The Walking Drum, Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.

In his book The Physician (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, The Physician, in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.

He appears in 2025's Civilization VII as a Great Person for the Abbasid civilization. When used, Avicenna creates a hospital with 2 extra food points.[133]

## List of works

[edit]

The treatises of Avicenna influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.[15] His most famous works are The Book of Healing, and The Canon of Medicine.

Avicenna wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine,[134] though Metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Avicenna's world; Arabic philosophers[who?][year needed] have hinted at the idea that Avicenna was attempting to "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.

The Logic and Metaphysics have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836).[135] Two encyclopedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a حكمت مشرقيه (hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin Philosophia Orientalis), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which was lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.[134]

Avicenna's works further include:[136][137]

* Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is (The Life of Avicenna), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Avicenna's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)[136]
* Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.[136]
* Al-Qanun fi'l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.)[136] manuscript,[138][139] Latin translation, Flores Avicenne,[140] Michael de Capella, 1508,[141] Modern text.[142] Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.[143]
* Risalah fi sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.[136]
* Danishnama "The Book of Scientific Knowledge", ed. and trans. P. Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.[136]
* The Book of Healing, Avicenna's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020. Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour.[136]
* Kitab al-Najat "The Book of Salvation", trans. F. Rahman, Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.) (Digital version of the Arabic text)
* Risala fi'l-Ishq "A Treatise on Love". Translated by Emil L. Fackenheim.

### Persian works

[edit]

Avicenna's most important Persian work is the Danishnama (دانشنامه علائی, "Book of Knowledge". Avicenna created a new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977.[144] The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.

Andar Dānish-i Rag (اندر دانش رگ, "On the Science of the Pulse") contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.

Persian poetry from Avicenna is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as Nozhat al-Majales.

## See also

[edit]

* Al-Qumri (possibly Avicenna's teacher)
* Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi (Iranian theologian)
* Mummia (Persian medicine)
* Eastern philosophy
* Iranian philosophy
* Islamic philosophy
* Contemporary Islamic philosophy
* Science in the medieval Islamic world
* List of scientists in medieval Islamic world
* Sufi philosophy
* Science and technology in Iran
* Ancient Iranian medicine
* List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars

### Namesakes of Ibn Sina

[edit]

* Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences in Aligarh
* Avicenna Bay in Antarctica
* Avicenna (crater) on the far side of the Moon
* Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation
* Avicenne Hospital in Paris, France
* Avicenna International College in Budapest, Hungary
* Avicenna Mausoleum (complex dedicated to Avicenna) in Hamadan, Iran
* Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran, Iran
* Avicenna Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Tajikistan
* Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan, Iran
* Ibn Sina Peak on the Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan border
* Ibn Sina Foundation in Houston, Texas[145]
* Ibn Sina Hospital, Baghdad, Iraq
* Ibn Sina Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey[146]
* Ibn Sina Medical College Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh
* Ibn Sina University Hospital of Rabat-Salé at Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
* Ibne Sina Hospital, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan[147]
* International Ibn Sina Clinic, Dushanbe, Tajikistan

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Encyclopedia of Islam: Vol 1, p. 562, Edition I, 1964, Lahore, Pakistan
2. ^ "Avicenna (Ibn Sina)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
3. ^ "Ibn Sina [Avicenna]". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 15 September 2016.
4. ^ *Adamson 2016, pp. 113, 117, 206.
(page 113) "For one thing, it means that he[Avicenna] had a Persian cultural background...he spoke Persian natively and did use it to write philosophy."
(page 117) "But for the time being, it was a Persian from Khurasan who would have commentaries lavished upon him. Avicenna would be known by the honorific of "leading master" (al-shaykh al-raʾis)."
(page 206) "Persians like Avicenna"
* Bennison 2009, p. 195. "Avicenna was a Persian whose father served the Samanids of Khurasan and Transoxania as the administrator of a rural district outside Bukhara."
* Paul Strathern (2005). A brief history of medicine: from Hippocrates to gene therapy. Running Press. p. 58\. ISBN 978-0-7867-1525-1.
* Brian Duignan (2010). Medieval Philosophy. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 89\. ISBN 978-1-61530-244-4.
* Michael Kort (2004). Central Asian republics. Infobase Publishing. p. 24\. ISBN 978-0-8160-5074-1.
* Goichon 1986, p. 941\. "He was born in 370/980 in Afshana, his mother's home, near Bukhara. His native language was Persian."
* "Avicenna was the greatest of all Persian thinkers; as physician and metaphysician ..." (excerpt from A.J. Arberry, Avicenna on Theology, Kazi Publications Inc, 1995).
* Corbin 1998, p. 74. "Whereas the name of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) is generally listed as chronologically first among noteworthy Iranian philosophers, recent evidence has revealed previous existence of Ismaili philosophical systems with a structure no less complete than of Avicenna."
5. ^ a b "Avicenna | Biography, Books, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 20 June 2025. Retrieved 24 June 2025. "Avicenna did not burst upon an empty Islamic intellectual stage. It is believed that Muslim writer Ibn al-Muqaffaʿ, or possibly his son, had introduced Aristotelian logic to the Islamic world more than two centuries before Avicenna. Al-Kindī, the first Islamic Peripatetic (Aristotelian) philosopher, and Turkish polymath al-Fārābī, from whose book Avicenna would learn Aristotle's metaphysics, preceded him. Of these luminaries, however, Avicenna remains by far the greatest."
6. ^ "Did You Know?: Silk Roads Exchange and the Development of the Medical Sciences | Programme des Routes de la Soie". fr.unesco.org. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 14 January 2023. "Scholars from this period include Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE), who is often described as the father of early modern medicine, the polymath Al-Biruni (973–1050 CE), and the botanist and pharmacist Ibn al-Baitar (1197–1248 CE)."
7. ^ Saffari, Mohsen; Pakpour, Amir (1 December 2012). "Avicenna's Canon of Medicine: A Look at Health, Public Health, and Environmental Sanitation". Archives of Iranian Medicine. 15 (12): 785–9\. PMID 23199255. Archived from the original on 29 March 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2018. "Avicenna was a well-known Persian and a Muslim scientist who was considered to be the father of early modern medicine."
8. ^ Colgan, Richard (19 September 2009). Advice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 33\. ISBN 978-1-4419-1034-9. "Avicenna is known as the father of early modern medicine."
9. ^ Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (2007). "Avicenna". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 31 October 2007. Retrieved 5 November 2007.
10. ^ Edwin Clarke, Charles Donald O'Malley (1996), The human brain and spinal cord: a historical study illustrated by writings from antiquity to the twentieth century, Norman Publishing, p. 20 (ISBN 0-930405-25-0).
11. ^ Iris Bruijn (2009), Ship's Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the progress of medicine in the eighteenth century, Amsterdam University Press, p. 26 (ISBN 90-8728-051-3).
12. ^ "Avicenna 980–1037". Hcs.osu.edu. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
13. ^ e.g. at the universities of Montpellier and Leuven (see "Medicine: an exhibition of books relating to medicine and surgery from the collection formed by J.K. Lilly". Indiana.edu. 31 August 2004. Archived from the original on 14 December 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2010.).
14. ^ "Avicenna", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Version 2006". Iranica.com. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
15. ^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Avicenna", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
16. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2012), "Avicenna", Encyclopedia of the Black Death, Vol. I, Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, ISBN 978-1-59884-253-1.
17. ^ Van Gelder, Geert Jan, ed. (2013), "Introduction", Classical Arabic Literature, Library of Arabic Literature, New York: New York University Press, p. xxii, ISBN 978-0-8147-7120-4
18. ^ "Avicenna", Consortium of European Research Libraries, archived from the original on 19 August 2021, retrieved 19 August 2021
19. ^ Avicenna (1935), "Majmoo' rasaa'il al-sheikh al-ra'iis abi Ali al-Hussein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina al-Bukhari" مجموع رسائل الشيخ الرئيس اب علي الحسين ابن عبدالله ابن سينا البخاري [The Grand Sheikh Ibn Sina's Collection of Treatises], World Digital Library (first ed.), Haydarabad Al-Dakan: Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Press, archived from the original on 19 August 2021, retrieved 19 August 2021
20. ^ "Major periods of Muslim education and learning". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. Archived from the original on 12 December 2007. Retrieved 16 December 2007.
21. ^ Afary, Janet (2007). "Iran". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Archived from the original on 13 August 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2007.
22. ^ According to El-Bizri 2006, p. 369, Avicenna was "of Persian descent". According to Khalidi 2005, p. xviii, Avicenna was "born of Persian parentage". According to Copleston 1993, p. 190, Avicenna was "Persian by birth". Gutas 2014, pp. xi, 310, mentions Avicenna as an example for "Persian-born authors" and speaks of "presumed Persian origins" for Avicenna. Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005, p. 256, states "An ethnic Persian, he [Avicenna] was born in Kharmaithen, near Bukhara".
23. ^ Goichon 1986, p. 941.
24. ^ a b Gutas 2014, p. 11.
25. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Gutas 1987, pp. 67–70.
26. ^ a b c Gutas 2014, p. 12.
27. ^ a b c Adamson 2013, p. 8.
28. ^ Daftary 2017, p. 191.
29. ^ Daftary 2007, pp. 202–203.
30. ^ Gutas 1988, pp. 330–331.
31. ^ a b Gutas 2014, p. 13.
32. ^ Gutas 2014, p. 19 (see also note 28).
33. ^ Bosworth 1978, p. 1066.
34. ^ Bosworth 1984a, pp. 762–764.
35. ^ Madelung 1975, p. 215.
36. ^ Gutas 2014, pp. 19, 29.
37. ^ a b Adamson 2013, p. 14.
38. ^ a b Adamson 2013, pp. 15–16.
39. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 15.
40. ^ Adamson 2013, pp. 16–18.
41. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 17.
42. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 18.
43. ^ Madelung 1975, p. 293.
44. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 18 (see also note 45).
45. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 22.
46. ^ Bosworth 1984b, pp. 773–774.
47. ^ Adamson 2013, pp. 22–23.
48. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 23.
49. ^ a b Adamson 2013, p. 25.
50. ^ Lazard 1975, p. 630.
51. ^ Gutas 2014, p. 133.
52. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 26.
53. ^ Stroumsa, Sarah (1992). "Avicenna's Philosophical Stories: Aristotle's Poetics Reinterpreted". Arabica. 39 (2): 183–206\. doi:10.1163/157005892X00166. ISSN 0570-5398. JSTOR 4057059. Archived from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
54. ^ Nahyan A.G. Fancy (2006), pp. 80–81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame Archived 4 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine [page needed]
55. ^ cf. e.g. Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy, Routledge, 2014, p. 174. Henry Corbin, Avicenna and the Visionary Recital, Princeton University Press, 2014, p. 103.
56. ^ a b c "The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980–1037)". Iep.utm.edu. 6 January 2006. Archived from the original on 6 April 2009. Retrieved 19 January 2010.
57. ^ "Islam". Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2007. Archived from the original on 22 December 2007. Retrieved 27 November 2007.
58. ^ Avicenna, Kitab al-shifa', Metaphysics II, (eds.) G.C. Anawati, Ibrahim Madkour, Sa'id Zayed (Cairo, 1975), p. 36
59. ^ Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (2001), pp. 753–778
60. ^ Avicenna, Metaphysica of Avicenna, trans. Parviz Morewedge (New York, 1973), p. 43.
61. ^ a b Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)
62. ^ Avicenna, Kitab al-Hidaya, ed. Muhammad 'Abdu (Cairo, 1874), pp. 262–263
63. ^ Salem Mashran, al-Janib al-ilahi 'ind Ibn Sina (Damascus, 1992), p. 99
64. ^ Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), pp. 243–261
65. ^ Ibn al-Qayyim, Eghaathat al-Lahfaan, Published: Al Ashqar University (2003) Printed by International Islamic Publishing House: Riyadh.
66. ^ Ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī, Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad (1980). al-Munqidh min al-Dalal (PDF). Boston: American University of Beirut. p. 10\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
67. ^ a b Adamson 2013, p. 170.
68. ^ Adamson 2013, p. 171.
69. ^ Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, June 2003.
70. ^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, pp. 8–9, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-513580-6.
71. ^ James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, ISBN 978-0-932885-07-4, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [p. 156].
72. ^ James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [pp.  160–161].
73. ^ James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [pp. 156–158].
74. ^ Jules Janssens (2004), "Avicenna and the Qur'an: A Survey of his Qur'anic commentaries", MIDEO 25, p. 177–192.
75. ^ a b c Aisha Khan (2006). Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim physician and philosopher of the eleventh century. The Rosen Publishing Group. p. 38\. ISBN 978-1-4042-0509-3.
76. ^ a b Janssens, Jules L. (1991). An annotated bibliography on Ibn Sînâ (1970–1989): including Arabic and Persian publications and Turkish and Russian references. Leuven University Press. pp. 89–90\. ISBN 978-90-6186-476-9. excerpt: "... Dimitri Gutas's Avicenna's maḏhab convincingly demonstrates that I.S. was a sunnî-Ḥanafî."[1] Archived 27 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine
77. ^ DIMITRI GUTAS (1987), "Avicenna's "maḏhab" with an Appendix on the Question of His Date of Birth", Quaderni di Studi Arabi, 5/6, Istituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino: 323–336, JSTOR 25802612
78. ^ See a discussion of this in connection with an analytic take on the philosophy of mind in: Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna and the Problem of Consciousness', in Consciousness and the Great Philosophers, eds. S. Leach and J. Tartaglia (London: Routledge, 2016), 45–53
79. ^ Ibn Sina, الفن السادس من الطبيعيات من كتاب الشفاء القسم الأول (Beirut, Lebanon.: M.A.J.D Enterprise Universitaire d'Etude et de Publication S.A.R.L)

> يجب أن يتوهم الواحد منا كأنه خلق دفعةً وخلق كاملاً لكنه حجب بصره عن مشاهدة الخارجات وخلق يهوى في هواء أو خلاء هوياً لا يصدمه فيه قوام الهواء صدماً ما يحوج إلى أن يحس وفرق بين أعضائه فلم تتلاق ولم تتماس ثم يتأمل هل أنه يثبت وجود ذاته ولا يشكك في إثباته لذاته موجوداً ولا يثبت مع ذلك طرفاً من أعضائه ولا باطناً من أحشائه ولا قلباً ولا دماغاً ولا شيئاً من الأشياء من خارج بل كان يثبت ذاته ولا يثبت لها طولاً ولا عرضاً ولا عمقاً ولو أنه أمكنه في تلك الحالة أن يتخيل يداً أو عضواً آخر لم يتخيله جزء من ذاته ولا شرطاً في ذاته وأنت تعلم أن المثبت غير الذي لم يثبت والمقربه غير الذي لم يقربه فإذن للذات التي أثبت وجودها خاصية على أنها هو بعينه غير جسمه وأعضائه التي لم تثبت فإذن المثبت له سبيل إلى أن يثبته على وجود النفس شيئاً غير الجسم بل غير جسم وأنه عارف به مستشعر له وإن كان ذاهلاً عنه يحتاج إلى أن يقرع عصاه.

— Ibn Sina, Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul

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101. ^ A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), pp. 477–482: "It was a permanent force whose effect got dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance. He is apparently the first to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non-natural motion."
102. ^ Jack Zupko, "John Buridan" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014 (fn. 48 Archived 11 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine) "We do not know precisely where Buridan got the idea of impetus, but a less sophisticated notion of impressed forced can be found in Avicenna's doctrine of mayl (inclination). In this he was possibly influenced by Philoponus, who was developing the Stoic notion of hormé (impulse). For discussion, see Zupko (1997) ['What Is the Science of the Soul? A Case Study in the Evolution of Late Medieval Natural Philosophy,' Synthese, 110(2): 297–334]."
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114. ^ Essa, Ahmed; Ali, Othman (2010). Studies in Islamic Civilization: The Muslim Contribution to the Renaissance. International Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT). p. 70\. ISBN 978-1-56564-350-5.
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116. ^ Ghulam Moinuddin Chishti (1991). The Traditional Healer's Handbook: A Classic Guide to the Medicine of Avicenna. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. p. 239\. ISBN 978-0-89281-438-1.
117. ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p. 196–197.
118. ^ a b c Georges C. Anawati (1996), "Arabic alchemy", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, pp. 853–885 [875]. Routledge, London and New York.
119. ^ Leicester, Henry Marshall (1971), The Historical Background of Chemistry, Courier Dover Publications, p. 70, ISBN 978-0-486-61053-5, "There was one famous Arab physician who doubted even the reality of transmutation. This was 'Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (980–1037), called Avicenna in the West, the greatest physician of Islam. ... Many of his observations on chemistry are included in the Kitab al-Shifa, the "Book of the Remedy". In the physical section of this work he discusses the formation of minerals, which he classifies into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts. Mercury is classified with the fusible substances, metals"
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## Notes

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1. ^ Persian and Arabic: ابن سینا, romanized: Ibn Sīnā

### Sources

[edit]

* Adamson, Peter (2013). Interpreting Avicenna: Critical Essays. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-0-521-19073-2.
* Adamson, Peter (2016). Philosophy in the Islamic World: A history of philosophy without any gaps, Volume 3. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-957749-1.
* Bennison, Amira K. (2009). The great caliphs: the golden age of the 'Abbasid Empire. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-15227-2.
* Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1978). "K̲h̲wārazm-S̲h̲āhs". In van Donzel, E.; Lewis, B.; Pellat, Ch. & Bosworth, C. E. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume IV: Iran–Kha. Leiden: E. J. Brill. OCLC 758278456.
* Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1984a). "Āl-e Maʾmūn". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 762–764\. Archived from the original on 19 October 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
* Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (1984b). "ʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad". Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7. pp. 773–774\. Archived from the original on 3 September 2021. Retrieved 18 September 2021.
* Copleston, Frederick (1993). A History of Philosophy, Volume 2: Medieval Philosophy – From Augustine to Duns Scotus. Image Books. ISBN 978-0-385-46844-2.
* Corbin, Henry (1998). The Voyage and the messenger: Iran and philosophy. North Atlantic Books. ISBN 9781556432699.
* Corbin, Henry (19 April 2016). Avicenna and the Visionary Recital. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-63054-0. Archived from the original on 24 May 2019. Retrieved 12 August 2018.
* Daftary, Farhad (2007). Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions. The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. ISBN 978-0-521-85084-1.
* Daftary, Farhad (2017). Ismaili History and Intellectual Traditions. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-138-28810-2.
* Daly, Jonathan (19 December 2013). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization. A&C Black. ISBN 978-1-4411-1851-6.
* El-Bizri, Nader (2006). "Ibn Sina, or Avicenna". In Meri, Josef W. (ed.). Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Vol. 1\. New York: Routledge. pp. 369–370\. ISBN 978-0-415-96691-7.
* Glick, Thomas F.; Livesey, Steven John; Wallis, Faith (2005). Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-1-138-05670-1.
* Goichon, A.M (1986). "Ibn Sīnā". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. OCLC 495469525.
* Gutas, Dimitri (1987). "Avicenna ii. Biography". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III/1: Ātaš–Awāʾel al-Maqālāt. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 67–70\. ISBN 978-0-71009-113-0.
* Gutas, Dimitri (1988). "Avicenna's Maḏhab with an appendix on the question of his date of Birth". Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 6: 323–336\. JSTOR 25802612. (registration required)
* Gutas, Dimitri (2014). Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works. Second, Revised and Enlarged Edition, Including an Inventory of Avicenna's Authentic Works. Leiden: Brill. ISBN 978-9004201729.
* Khalidi, Muhammad Ali (2005). Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-82243-5.
* Lazard, G. (1975). "The Rise of the New Persian Language". In Frye, Richard N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–633\. ISBN 0-521-20093-8.
* Madelung, Wilferd (1975). "The Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran". In Frye, Richard N. (ed.). The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 4: From the Arab Invasion to the Saljuqs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 595–633\. ISBN 0-521-20093-8.
* Pasnau, Robert; Dyke, Christina Van (2010). Cambridge History of Medieval Philosophy, Volume 1. Cambridge University Press.

## Further reading

[edit]

### Encyclopedic articles

[edit]

* Syed Iqbal, Zaheer (2010). An Educational Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Bangalore: Iqra Publishers. p. 1280\. ISBN 978-603-90004-4-0.
* Flannery, Michael. "Avicenna". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 2 June 2022.
* Goichon, A.-M. (1999). "Ibn Sina, Abu 'Ali al-Husayn b. 'Abd Allah b. Sina, known in the West as Avicenna". Encyclopedia of Islam. Brill Publishers. Archived from the original on 28 February 2007. Retrieved 15 February 2007.
* Mahdi, M.; Gutas, D; Abed, Sh.B.; Marmura, M.E.; Rahman, F.; Saliba, G.; Wright, O.; Musallam, B.; Achena, M.; Van Riet, S.; Weisser, U. (1987). "Avicenna". Encyclopædia Iranica. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2012.
* Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Avicenna" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
* O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna)", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews
* Ragep, Sally P. (2007). "Ibn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā". In Hockey, Thomas; et al. (eds.). The Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers. New York: Springer. pp. 570–572\. ISBN 978-0-387-31022-0. Archived from the original on 21 September 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2011. (PDF version)
* Avicenna Archived 3 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* M. Alper, Ömer; Durusoy, Ali; Terzioğlu, Arslan; H.Turabi, Ahmet; Karliğa, H.Bekir; Görgün, Tahsin (1999). İBN SÎNÂ – An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam (in Turkish). Vol. 20 (Ibn Haldun - Ibnu'l Cezeri). TDV Encyclopedia of Islam. pp. 319–358\. ISBN 978-97-53-89447-0. Archived from the original on 26 February 2021. Retrieved 20 May 2022.

### Primary literature

[edit]

* For an old list of other extant works, C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar 1898), vol. i. pp. 452–458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)
* For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section "Philosophy".
* Avicenna (2005). The Metaphysics of The Healing. A parallel English-Arabic text translation. Michael E. Marmura (trans.) (1 ed.). Brigham Young University. ISBN 978-0-934893-77-0.
* Avicenna (1999). The Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 1. Laleh Bakhtiar (ed.), Oskar Cameron Gruner (trans.), Mazhar H. Shah (trans.). Great Books of the Islamic World. ISBN 978-1-871031-67-6.
* Avicenne: Réfutation de l'astrologie. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) ISBN 2-84161-304-6.
* William E. Gohlam (ed.), The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation, Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.
* For Ibn Sina's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by de Slane (1842); F. Wüstenfeld's Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher (Göttingen, 1840).
* Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics. A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of Shahrastani's Kitab al-Musara'a.

### Secondary literature

[edit]

* Afnan, Soheil M. (1958). Avicenna: His Life and Works. London: G. Allen & Unwin. OCLC 31478971.

This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western. ... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A.M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp. 255–259)

* Goodman, Lenn E. (2006). Avicenna (Updated ed.). Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-415-01929-3.

This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) (980–1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author. ... (Ian Richard Netton, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp. 263–264)

* Gutas, Dimitri (1987). "Avicenna's maḏhab, with an Appendix on the question of his date of birth". Quaderni di Studi Arabi. 5–6: 323–336.
* Y.T. Langermann (ed.), Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy, Brepols Publishers, 2010, ISBN 978-2-503-52753-6
* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd. Editio princeps d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) ISBN 2-84161-150-7.
* Strohmaier, Gotthard (2006). Avicenna (in German). C.H. Beck. ISBN 978-3-406-54134-6.

This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies. ... (Amos Bertolacci, Isis, Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p. 649)

* Rahman, Hakim Syed Zillur. Resalah Judiya of Ibn Sina (First edition 1971), Literary Research Unit, CCRIH, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; (Second edition 1981) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi; (Fourth edition 1999), Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi.
* Rahman, Hakim Syed Zillur (1996). AI-Advia al-Qalbia of Ibn Sina. Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
* Rahman, Hakim Syed Zillur. Ilmul Amraz of Ibn Sina (First edition 1969), Tibbi Academy, Delhi (Second edition 1990), (Third edition 1994), Tibbi Academy, Aligarh.
* Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (1986). Qanoon lbn Sina Aur Uskey Shareheen wa Mutarjemeen. Publication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh.
* Rahman, Hakim Syed Zillur (1986), Qānūn-i ibn-i Sīnā aur us ke shārḥīn va mutarajimīn, ʻAlīgaṛh: Pablīkeshan Dīvīzan, Muslim Yūnīvarsiṭī, OL 1374509M
* Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman (2004). Qanun Ibn Sina and its Translation and Commentators (Persian Translation; 203pp). Society for the Appreciation of Cultural Works and Dignitaries, Tehran, Iran.
* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958–59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.

### Medicine

[edit]

* Browne, Edward G. Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919–1920, reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2001. ISBN 81-87570-19-9
* Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. Medieval Islamic Medicine, Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.
* Prioreschi, Plinio. Byzantine and Islamic Medicine, A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.
* Syed Ziaur Rahman. Pharmacology of Avicennian Cardiac Drugs (Metaanalysis of researches and studies in Avicennian Cardiac Drugs along with English translation of Risalah al Adwiya al Qalbiyah), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, Aligarh, India, 2020 ISBN 978-93-80610-43-6

### Philosophy

[edit]

* Amos Bertolacci, The Reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought, Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order).
* Dimitri Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.
* Andreas Lammer: The Elements of Avicenna's Physics. Greek Sources and Arabic Innovations. Scientia graeco-arabica 20. Berlin / Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2018.
* Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2004.
* (in French) Michot, Jean R., La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne, Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, ISBN 978-90-6831-071-9.
* Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger, Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753–778.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp. 67–89.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp. 243–261.
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn Sīnā's Ontology and the Question of Being', Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook 2 (2011), 222–237
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Philosophising at the Margins of 'Sh'i Studies': Reflections on Ibn Sīnā's Ontology', in The Study of Sh'i Islam. History, Theology and Law, eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), pp. 585–597.
* Reisman, David C. (ed.), Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2003.

## External links

[edit]

Avicenna at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource

* "Avicenna" at Encyclopædia Iranica
* Works by Avicenna at Project Gutenberg
* Works by Avicenna at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
* Gutas, Dimitri. "Ibn Sina [Avicenna]". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Lizzini, Olga. "Ibn Sina's Metaphysics". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Strobino, Riccardo. "Ibn Sina's Logic". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* McGinnis, Jon. "Ibn Sina's Natural Philosophy". In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Rizvi, Sajjad H. "Avicenna (Ibn Sina)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Chatti, Saloua. "Avicenna (Ibn Sina): Logic". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography
* Avicenna on In Our Time at the BBC

* v
* t
* e

Avicenna

Works|

* The Canon of Medicine
* The Book of Healing
* Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat
* Alai Encyclopedia
* Book of science
* Al-Nijat
* Five Treatises
* On the Science of the Pulse
* The Book of the Mi'raj

* Category
* Commons

Associated subjects

* v
* t
* e

Alchemy in the medieval Islamic world

Alchemists|

| 8th century|

* pseudo-Khālid ibn Yazīd (Calid)
* pseudo-Apollonius of Tyana

|

9th century|

* Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (Geber)

10th century|

* Abū Bakr al-Rāzī (Rhazes)
* Ibn Umayl (Senior Zadith)
* Ibn Waḥshiyya
* Maslama al-Qurṭubī
* Abū Manṣūr al-Muwaffaq
* al-Zahrāwī (Abulcasis)

11th century|

* pseudo-Avicenna
* al-Khawārizmī al-Kāthī
* al-Muʿizz ibn Bādīs
* Aḥmad ibn ʿImād al-Dīn
* Ibn al-Wāfid (pharmacist)

12th century|

* al-Ṭughrāʾī
* Ibn Arfaʿ Raʾs
* Artephius

13th century|

* al-Simāwī
* Ibn al-Bayṭār (pharmacist)
* Abū l-ʿAbbās al-Nabātī (pharmacist)
* Ḥasan al-Rammāḥ (engineer)

14th century|

* al-Jildakī
* Ibn al-Rassām
* Abū l-Ashbā ibn Tammām

Concepts|

* Takwin
* Philosopher's stone
* al-iksīr
* Alembic
* Athanor

Works|

* Book of Mercy
* Books of the Balances
* al-Burhān fī asrār ʿilm al-mīzān
* Masāʾil Khālid li-Maryānus al-rāhib
* Emerald Tablet
* Five Hundred Books
* al-ʿIlm al-muktasab fī zirāʿat al-dhahab
* Mifthāḥ al-ḥikma (Clavis sapientiae)
* al-Miṣbāḥ fī ʿilm al-miftāḥ
* Nabataean Agriculture
* One Hundred and Twelve Books
* Seventy Books
* Sirr al-asrār (pseudo-Aristotle)
* Sirr al-asrār (al-Rāzī)
* Sirr al-khalīqa (Secret of Creation)
* Turba Philosophorum
* Nihāyat al-rutba fī ṭalab al-ḥisba (al-Nabarawi)

* v
* t
* e

Islamic medicine

Physicians|

| 7th century|

* Abu Hafsa Yazid
* Al-Harith ibn Kalada
* Bukhtishu
* Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi
* Ibn Uthal
* Masarjawaih
* Nafi ibn al-Harith
* Rufaida Al-Aslamia
* Zaynab al-Awadiya

|

8th century|

* Bukhtishu
* Ja'ar al-Sadiq

9th century|

* Al-Kindi
* Al-Ruhawi
* Albubather
* Ali al-Ridha
* Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari
* Bukhtishu
* Hunayn ibn Ishaq
* Ishaq ibn Hunayn
* Jabir ibn Hayyan
* Jabril ibn Bukhtishu
* Masawaiyh
* Salmawaih ibn Bunan
* Shapur ibn Sahl
* Yahya ibn Sarafyun
* Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu
* Yusuf al-Khuri

10th century|

* 'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi
* Aayon Ibn Aayon
* Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari
* Abu Bakr al-Razi
* Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi
* Abu Zayd al-Balkhi
* Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari
* Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i
* Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi
* Abu ul-Ala Shirazi
* Al-Kaŝkarī
* Al-Natili
* Al-Tamimi, the physician
* Eutychius of Alexandria
* Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath
* Ibn Juljul
* Ibn al-Jazzar
* Ibrahim ibn Baks
* Isaac Israeli ben Solomon
* Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali
* Muvaffak
* Qumri
* Qusta ibn Luqa

11th century|

* Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu
* Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani
* Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani
* Al-Biruni
* Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal
* Ali ibn Ridwan
* Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi
* Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili
* Avicenna
* Badi' al-Asturlabi
* Ibn Abi Sadiq
* Ibn Al-Thahabi
* Ibn Butlan
* Ibn Hindu
* Ibn Jazla
* Ibn al-Haytham
* Ibn al-Kattani
* Ibn al-Wafid
* Jonah ibn Janah
* Masawaih

12th century|

* Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali
* Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar
* Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam
* Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī
* Ahmad ibn Farrokh
* Al-Samawal al-Maghribi
* Avempace
* Averroes
* Ibn Habal
* Ibn Jumay‘
* Ibn Tufayl
* Ibn Zuhr
* Ibn al-Tilmīdh
* Moshe ben Maimon
* Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi
* Serapion the Younger
* Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili
* Zayn al-Din Gorgani

13th century|

* Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi
* Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon
* Al-Dakhwar
* Al-Shahrazuri
* Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat
* As-Suwaydi
* Da'ud Abu al-Fadl
* Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi
* Ibn Abi Usaibia
* Ibn Tumlus
* Ibn al-Baitar
* Ibn al-Nafis
* Ibn al-Quff
* Ibn al‐Raqqam
* Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta
* Najib ad-Din Samarqandi
* Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
* Rashidun al-Suri
* Sa'ad al-Dawla
* Zakariya al-Qazwini

14th century|

* Al-Nagawri
* Aqsara'i
* Ibn Shuayb
* Ibn al-Akfani
* Ibn al-Khatib
* Jaghmini
* Mansur ibn Ilyas
* Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad Sijzi
* Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli
* Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi
* Nakhshabi
* Rashid-al-Din Hamadani
* Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni
* Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi
* Zayn-e-Attar

15th century|

* Abu Sa'id al-Afif
* Burhan-ud-din Kermani
* Husayni Isfahani
* Muhammad Ali Astarabadi
* Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi
* Nurbakhshi
* Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb
* Şerafeddin Kadir

16th century|

* Rostam Gorgani
* ʽImad Shirazi
* Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani
* Dawud al-Antaki
* Hakim-e-Gilani
* Sultan Ali Khorasani
* Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf

17th century|

* Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani
* Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri
* Qurayshi al-Shirazi
* Tunakabuni
* Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi

18th century|

* Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi

Concepts|

* Ophthalmology
* Psychology

Works|

* Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah
* The Canon of Medicine
* Tacuinum Sanitatis
* Anatomy Charts of the Arabs
* The Book of Healing
* Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye
* De Gradibus
* Al-Tasrif
* Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi
* Adab al-Tabib
* Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya
* Al-Hawi
* Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon
* Lives of the Physicians

Centers|

* Al-'Adudi Hospital
* Bimarestan
* Nur al-Din Bimaristan

Influences|

* Ancient Greek medicine
* Ancient Iranian medicine
* Ayurveda

Influenced|

* Ibn Sina Academy
* Learned medicine
* Medical Renaissance
* Medieval medicine

* v
* t
* e

Islamic philosophy

| Fields|

* Alchemy
* Aqidah (theology)
* 'Aql (intellect)
* Cosmology
* astrology
* medieval astronomy
* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Kalam (dialectic)
* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Logic
* Metaphysics
* Natural philosophy (physics)
* Peace
* Madrasah (education)
* Medieval science
* Medieval psychology
* Sufism (mysticism)

|

Schools|

* Early
* Farabism
* Avicennism
* Averroism
* Illuminationism
* Sufi
* cosmology
* metaphysics
* psychology
* Transcendent theosophy
* Traditionalist
* Contemporary

Concepts|

* ʻAṣabīya
* Ḥāl
* Iʻjaz
* ʼIjtihād
* ʻIlm
* ʻIrfān
* Ijmāʿ
* Maslaha
* Nafs
* Qadar
* Qalb
* Qiyās
* Shūrā
* Tawḥīd
* Ummah

Philosophers by century (CE)

| 9th–10th|

* Al-Kindi
* Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari
* Abu al-Abbas Iranshahri
* Abu Bakr al-Razi
* Apharabius
* Abu Hatim al-Razi
* Al Amiri
* Ikhwan al-Safa
* Abu Sulayman Sijistani
* Ibn Masarrah
* Abu Ya'qub al-Sijistani

|

11th|

* Al-Ghazali
* Ibn Miskawayh
* Avicenna
* Ibn Hazm
* Bahmanyār
* Mu'ayyad fi'l-Din al-Shirazi
* Nasir Khusraw
* Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani

12th|

* Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Ahi Evren
* Ahmad Yasavi
* Ayn-al-Quzat
* Averroes
* Ibn Tufail
* Omar Khayyám
* Suhrawardi
* Shams Tabrizi

13th|

* Hajji Bektash Wali
* Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi
* Ibn Sab’in
* Ibn Arabi
* al-Abharī
* Nasir al-Din Tusi
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi
* Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
* Sadr al-Din al-Qunawi
* Ibn Taymiyya

14th–16th|

* Ibn Khaldun
* Yunus Emre
* Hajji Bayram
* Jalaladdin Davani
* Sadr ad-Din Dashtaki
* Aziz Mahmud Hudayi
* Qadi Mir Husayn al-Maybudi
* Mahmud Shabistari
* Sayyid Haydar Amuli
* Dawūd al-Qayṣarī
* Jami

17th–19th|

* Mir Damad
* Mir Fendereski
* Mulla Sadra
* Mohsen Fayz Kashani
* Abd al-Razzaq Lahiji
* Mujaddid Alf-i-Sani
* Rajab Ali Tabrizi
* Qazi Sa’id Qumi
* Shah Waliullah Dehlawi
* Hādī Sabzavārī

20th–present|

* Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaei
* Muhammad Iqbal
* Gohar Shahi
* Mohammad Baqir al-Sadr
* René Guénon
* Frithjof Schuon
* Martin Lings
* Fazlur Rahman
* Ismail al-Faruqi
* Seyyed Hossein Nasr
* Syed Muhammad Naquib al-Attas
* Abdolkarim Soroush
* Gholamhossein Ebrahimi Dinani
* Taha Abdurrahman
* Mohammed Abed al-Jabri
* Mohammed Arkoun
* Fouad Zakariyya
* Reza Davari Ardakani
* Ahmad Fardid
* Mostafa Malekian
* Hasanzadeh Amoli
* Javadi Amoli
* Partawi Shah

* v
* t
* e

Persian literature

Old

* Behistun Inscription
* Old Persian inscriptions
* Ganjnameh
* Inscription of Xerxes the Great in Van Fortress
* Achaemenid inscription in the Kharg Island

Middle

* Ayadgar-i Zariran
* Counsels of Adurbad-e Mahrspandan
* Dēnkard
* Book of Jamasp
* Book of Arda Viraf
* Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan
* Cube of Zoroaster
* Dana-i Menog Khrat
* Shabuhragan of Mani
* Shahrestanha-ye Eranshahr
* Bundahishn
* Menog-i Khrad
* Jamasp Namag
* Dadestan-i Denig
* Anthology of Zadspram
* Warshtmansr
* Zand-i Wahman yasn
* Drakht-i Asurig
* Shikand-gumanig Vizar

Classical

| 800s|

* Muhammad ibn Wasif

|

900s|

* Rudaki
* Daqiqi
* Ferdowsi (Shahnameh)
* Abu Shakur Balkhi
* Abu Tahir Khosrovani
* Shahid Balkhi
* Bal'ami
* Rabia Balkhi
* Abusaeid Abolkheir (967–1049)
* Avicenna (980–1037)
* Unsuri
* Asjadi
* Kisai Marvazi
* Ayyuqi

1000s|

* Bābā Tāher
* Nasir Khusraw (1004–1088)
* Al-Ghazali (1058–1111)
* Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (1006–1088)
* Asadi Tusi
* Qatran Tabrizi (1009–1072)
* Nizam al-Mulk (1018–1092)
* Masud Sa'd Salman (1046–1121)
* Omar Khayyam (1048–1131)
* Fakhruddin As'ad Gurgani
* Ahmad Ghazali
* Hujwiri
* Manuchehri
* Ayn-al-Quzat Hamadani (1098–1131)
* Uthman Mukhtari
* Abu-al-Faraj Runi
* Sanai
* Banu Goshasp
* Borzu-Nama
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Abu'l Hasan Mihyar al-Daylami
* Mu'izzi
* Mahsati Ganjavi

1100s|

* Athir al-Din Akhsikati
* Iranshah
* Suzani Samarqandi
* Hassan Ghaznavi
* Faramarz Nama
* Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155–1191)
* Adib Sabir
* Falaki Shirvani
* Am'aq
* Najm al-Din Razi
* Attar (1142–c.1220)
* Khaqani (1120–1190)
* Anvari (1126–1189)
* Faramarz-e Khodadad
* Nizami Ganjavi (1141–1209)
* Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209)
* Kamal al-Din Esfahani
* Shams Tabrizi (d.1248)

1200s|

* Abu Tahir Tarsusi
* Awhadi Maraghai
* Shams al-Din Qays Razi
* Sultan Walad
* Nasīr al-Dīn al-Tūsī
* Afdal al-Din Kashani
* Fakhr-al-Din Iraqi
* Mahmud Shabistari (1288–1320s)
* Abu'l Majd Tabrizi
* Amir Khusrau (1253–1325)
* Saadi (Bustan / Golestān)
* Bahram-e-Pazhdo
* Pur-Baha Jami
* Zartosht Bahram e Pazhdo
* Rumi
* Homam Tabrizi (1238–1314)
* Nozhat al-Majales
* Khwaju Kermani
* Badr Shirvani
* Zu'l-Fiqar Shirvani

1300s|

* Ibn Yamin
* Shah Ni'matullah Wali
* Hafez
* Abu Ali Qalandar
* Fazlallah Astarabadi
* Nasimi
* Emad al-Din Faqih Kermani

1400s|

* Ubayd Zakani
* Salman Savaji
* Hatefi
* Jami
* Kamal Khujandi
* Ahli Shirazi (1454–1535)
* Fuzuli (1483–1556)
* Ismail I (1487–1524)
* Baba Faghani

1500s|

* Vahshi Bafqi (1523–1583)
* Mohtasham Kashani (1500–1588)
* 'Orfi Shirazi

1600s|

* Taleb Amoli
* Saib Tabrizi (1607–1670)
* Asir-e Esfahani (c. 1620–1648)
* Kalim Kashani
* Hazin Lāhiji (1692–1766)
* Saba Kashani
* Abdul-Qādir Bēdil (1642–1720)
* Naw'i Khabushani
* Mohammad Qoli Salim Tehrani
* Rasa Salim Tehrani

1700s|

* Hatef Esfahani
* Azar Bigdeli (1722–1781)
* Neshat Esfahani
* Abbas Foroughi Bastami (1798–1857)

1800s|

* Yaghma Jandaqi (1782–1859)
* Mirza Ghalib (1797–1869)
* Zayn al-Abidin Shirvani (1779–1837)
* Reza-Qoli Khan Hedayat (1800–1871)
* Mirza Mohammad Taqi Sepehr (1801–1880)
* Qaani (1808–1854)
* Mahmud Khan Malek al-Sho'ara (1813–1893)

Contemporary

| Poetry|

| Iran|

* Ahmadreza Ahmadi
* Mehdi Akhavan-Sales
* Hormoz Alipour
* Qeysar Aminpour
* Mohammad Reza Aslani
* Aref Qazvini
* Ahmad NikTalab
* Aminollah Rezaei
* Manouchehr Atashi
* Mahmoud Mosharraf Azad Tehrani
* Mohammad-Taqi Bahar
* Reza Baraheni
* Simin Behbahani
* Dehkhoda
* Hushang Ebtehaj
* Bijan Elahi
* Parviz Eslampour
* Parvin E'tesami
* Forugh Farrokhzad
* Hossein Monzavi
* Hushang Irani
* Iraj Mirza
* Bijan Jalali
* Siavash Kasraie
* Esmail Khoi
* Shams Langeroodi
* Mohammad Mokhtari
* Nosrat Rahmani
* Yadollah Royaee
* Tahereh Saffarzadeh
* Sohrab Sepehri
* Mohammad-Reza Shafiei Kadkani
* Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar
* Ahmad Shamlou
* Manouchehr Sheybani
* Nima Yooshij (She'r-e Nimaa'i)
* Fereydoon Moshiri

|

Armenia|

* Edward Haghverdian

Afghanistan|

* Nadia Anjuman
* Wasef Bakhtari
* Raziq Faani
* Khalilullah Khalili
* Youssof Kohzad
* Massoud Nawabi
* Abdul Ali Mustaghni

Tajikistan|

* Sadriddin Ayni
* Farzona
* Iskandar Khatloni
* Abolqasem Lahouti
* Gulrukhsor Safieva
* Loiq Sher-Ali
* Payrav Sulaymoni
* Mirzo Tursunzoda
* Satim Ulugzade

Uzbekistan|

* Asad Gulzoda

Pakistan|

* Muhammad Iqbal

Novels|

* Ali Mohammad Afghani
* Ghazaleh Alizadeh
* Bozorg Alavi
* Reza Amirkhani
* Mahshid Amirshahi
* Ghassem Hashemi Nezhad
* Reza Baraheni
* Simin Daneshvar
* Mahmoud Dowlatabadi
* Soudabeh Fazaeli
* Reza Ghassemi
* Mohammad Hanif (Iranian writer)
* Houshang Golshiri
* Aboutorab Khosravi
* Zeyn al-Abedin Maraghei
* Ahmad Mahmoud
* Shahriyar Mandanipour
* Abbas Maroufi
* Mansour Koushan
* Iraj Pezeshkzad

Short stories|

* Jalal Al-e-Ahmad
* Shamim Bahar
* Sadeq Chubak
* Abolhassan Etessami
* Javad Mojabi
* Simin Daneshvar
* Nader Ebrahimi
* Ebrahim Golestan
* Houshang Golshiri
* Sadegh Hedayat
* Mohammad-Ali Jamalzadeh
* Aboutorab Khosravi
* Mostafa Mastoor
* Jaafar Modarres-Sadeghi
* Houshang Moradi Kermani
* Bijan Najdi
* Shahrnush Parsipur
* Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi
* Bahram Sadeghi
* Goli Taraqqi

Plays|

* Reza Abdoh
* Mirza Fatali Akhundzadeh
* Mohsen Yalfani
* Bahram Beyzai
* Bahman Forsi
* Amir Reza Koohestani
* Alireza Koushk Jalali
* Gholam-Hossein Sa'edi
* Bijan Mofid
* Hengameh Mofid
* Abbas Nalbandian
* Akbar Radi
* Pari Saberi
* Mirza Aqa Tabrizi
* Mohammad Yaghoubi

Screenplays|

* Saeed Aghighi
* Mohammad Reza Aslani
* Rakhshan Bani-E'temad
* Bahram Beyzai
* Hajir Darioush
* Pouran Derakhshandeh
* Asghar Farhadi
* Bahman Farmanara
* Farrokh Ghaffari
* Behrouz Gharibpour
* Bahman Ghobadi
* Fereydun Gole
* Ebrahim Golestan
* Ali Hatami
* Abolfazl Jalili
* Ebrahim Hatamikia
* Abdolreza Kahani
* Varuzh Karim-Masihi
* Samuel Khachikian
* Abbas Kiarostami
* Majid Majidi
* Mohsen Makhmalbaf
* Dariush Mehrjui
* Reza Mirkarimi
* Rasoul Mollagholipour
* Amir Naderi
* Jafar Panahi
* Kambuzia Partovi
* Fereydoun Rahnema
* Rasul Sadr Ameli
* Mohammad Sadri
* Parviz Shahbazi
* Sohrab Shahid-Saless

Translators|

* Amrollah Abjadian
* Jaleh Amouzgar
* Najaf Daryabandari
* Mohammad Ghazi
* Lili Golestan
* Sadegh Hedayat
* Ramak NikTalab
* Saleh Hosseini
* Ahmad Kamyabi Mask
* Ahmad Shamlou
* Mohammad Moin
* Ebrahim Pourdavoud
* Hamid Samandarian
* Jalal Sattari
* Jafar Shahidi
* Ahmad Tafazzoli
* Abbas Zaryab

Children's literature|

* Samad Behrangi
* Houshang Moradi Kermani
* Babak NikTalab
* Hengameh Mofid
* Poopak NikTalab
* Farhad Hasanzadeh
* Ramak NikTalab

Essayists|

* Aydin Aghdashloo
* Ali Latifiyan
* Mohammad Ebrahim Bastani Parizi
* Ehsan Yarshater
* Ahmad Kasravi

Contemporary Persian and Classical Persian are the same language, but writers since 1900 are classified as contemporary. At one time, Persian was a common cultural language of much of the non-Arabic Islamic world. Today it is the official language of Iran, Tajikistan and one of the two official languages of Afghanistan.

* v
* t
* e

Medieval Perso-Arab music

* Arab music
* Persian traditional music

Origins|

| Achaemenid|

* Karnay

|

Parthian|

* gōsān
* Rhoptron

|

Sasanian|

* Bamshad
* Barbad
* Nagisa

|

Umayyad|

* Ṭuways
* Nashit
* Sa'ib Khathir
* Ibn Misjaḥ
* al-Gharid
* Hunain al-Hiri
* Algharid
* Ibn Surayj
* Ma'bad
* Yunus al-Katib al-Mughanni
* Ibn Muhriz
* Malik al-Ta'i

| Qiyan|

* Atika bint Shuhda
* Azza al-Mayla
* Djamila/Jamila
* Hababah
* Ubayda

|

Abbasid|

* Siyat
* Ibn Jami
* Ibrahim al-Mawsili
* Ulayya bint al-Mahdi
* Yaḥya al-Makki
* Ibrahim ibn al-Mahdi
* Mansour Zalzal
* Mukhariq
* Ishaq al-Mawsili
* Allawayh al-Asar
* Amr ibn Banah
* Jahzah
* Ibn al-Tahhan

| Qiyan|

* Irfan
* Mahbubah
* Milh Al-Attara
* Inan bint Abdallah
* Shāriyah
* Faḍl al-Shāʻirah
* Arib al-Ma'muniyya
* Sarirah al-Ra’iqiyya

|

Andalusian-Arab|

* Ziryab
* Avempace
* Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam

|

Theorists‎|

* Al-Kindi
* Al-Sarakhsi
* Al-Farabi
* Ziryab
* Avicenna
* Abu al-Faraj al-Isfahani
* Avempace
* Safi al-Din al-Urmawi
* Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi
* Ibn Kurr
* Abu Ahmad Monajjem

Works|

* Kitab al-Aghani
* Kitab al-Musiqa al-Kabir

Related|

* Islamic Golden Age
* Hind bint Utba

* v
* t
* e

Ancient anaesthesia

Plants / animals|

* Aconitum (aconite)
* Atropa belladonna (belladonna)
* Cannabis
* medical use
* Castoreum
* Coca
* Conium (hemlock)
* Datura innoxia (thorn-apple)
* Datura metel (devil's trumpet)
* Hyoscyamus niger (henbane)
* Lactucarium
* Mandragora officinarum (mandrake)
* Opium
* Saussurea (saw-wort)
* Willow

Preparations|

* Beer
* Wine

Compounds|

* Ethanol (medical use)
* Aconitine
* Atropine
* Cocaine
* Coniine
* Hyoscine
* Δ9-THC
* Hyoscyamine
* Morphine
* Salicylate

People|

* Abulcasis
* Avenzoar
* Avicenna
* Celsus
* Dioscorides
* Galen
* Hippocrates
* Rhazes
* Sabuncuoğlu
* Sushrutha
* Theophrastus
* Zhang

* v
* t
* e

Aristotelianism

Overview|

* Aristotle
* Works
* Lyceum

Ideas and interests|

| Logic|

* Apodicticity
* Category of being
* Future contingents
* Genus–differentia
* Irrelevant conclusion
* Syllogism

|

Physics|

* accident
* Active intellect
* Antiperistasis
* Essence
* Eternity of the world
* Four causes
* Hexis
* Horror vacui
* Hylomorphism
* Hypokeimenon
* Minima naturalia
* Ousia
* Passive intellect
* Potentiality and actuality
* Substance theory
* Substantial form
* Sublunary sphere
* Theory of universals
* Unmoved mover

Biology|

* Rational animal

Ethics|

* Akrasia
* Arete
* Eudaimonia
* Eutrapelia
* Golden mean
* Magnanimity
* Nemesis
* Philia
* Phronesis
* Pleonexia
* Practical syllogism

Politics|

* Mixed government
* Natural slavery

Rhetoric|

* Lexis
* Paradeigma

Poetics|

* Anagnorisis
* Catharsis
* Classical unities
* Diegesis
* Hamartia
* Mimesis
* Mythos
* Opsis
* Peripeteia
* Telos
* Tragic hero

Works|

| Organon|

* Categories
* On Interpretation
* Prior Analytics
* Posterior Analytics
* Topics
* Sophistical Refutations

|

Physics|

* Physics
* On the Heavens
* On Generation and Corruption
* Meteorology
* On the Soul

On Animals|

* History
* Parts
* Movement
* Progression
* Generation

Metaphysics|

* Metaphysics

Ethics and politics|

* Nicomachean Ethics
* Eudemian Ethics
* Politics
* Constitution of the Athenians

Rhetoric and poetics|

* Rhetoric
* Poetics

Parva Naturalia|

* Sense and Sensibilia
* On Memory
* On Sleep
* On Dreams
* On Divination in Sleep
* On Length and Shortness of Life
* On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration

Lost|

* Protrepticus

Pseudepigrapha|

* On Breath
* On Colors
* On Plants
* On Indivisible Lines
* On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias
* On the Universe
* On Things Heard
* Physiognomonics
* On Marvellous Things Heard
* Mechanics
* Problems
* The Situations and Names of Winds
* On Virtues and Vices
* Economics
* Rhetoric to Alexander
* Magna Moralia

Related topics|

* Transmission of the Greek Classics
* Commentaries on Aristotle
* Conimbricenses
* Metabasis paradox
* Views on women
* Wheel paradox
* Mathematical realism
* List of writers influenced by Aristotle

* Category
* Philosophy portal

* v
* t
* e

People of Khorasan

Scientists|

* Abu Hatam Isfizari
* Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi
* Abu Wafa
* Abu Ubayd Juzjani
* Abu Zayd Balkhi
* Alfraganus
* Ali Qushji
* Avicenna
* Birjandi
* Biruni
* Hasib Marwazi
* Ibn Hayyan
* Abu Ja'far al-Khazin
* Khazini
* Khojandi
* Khwarizmi
* Nasawi
* Nasir al-Din al-Tusi
* Omar Khayyam
* Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi
* Sijzi

Philosophers|

* Algazel
* Amiri
* Avicenna
* Farabi
* Haji Bektash Veli
* Nasir Khusraw
* Sijistani
* Shahrastani

Islamic scholars|

* Abu Dawud al-Sijistani
* Abu Barakat Nasafi
* Abu Hanifa
* Abu Hafs Nasafi
* Abu Layth Samarqandi
* Abu Mu'in Nasafi
* Abu Qasim Samarqandi
* Ansari
* Baghavi
* Bayhaqi
* Bazdawi
* Bukhari
* Dabusi
* Fatima Samarqandi
* Ghazali
* Ghaznawi
* Hakim Tirmidhi
* Hakim Nishapuri
* Ibn Hibban
* Ibn Mubarak
* Ishaq ibn Rahwayh
* Ibn Tayfour Sajawandi
* Juwayni
* Kasani
* Kashifi
* Lamishi
* Marghinani
* Maturidi
* Mulla al-Qari
* Muqatil
* Muslim
* Nasa'i
* Qushayri
* Razi
* Sabuni
* Sajawandi
* Sarakhsi
* Shaykh Tusi
* Taftazani
* Tha'labi Nishapuri
* Tirmidhi
* Yahya ibn Adam
* Zamakhshari

Poets and artists|

* Abu Sa'id Abu'l-Khayr
* Anvari
* Aruzi Samarqandi
* Asadi Tusi
* Attar Nishapuri
* Behzad
* Daqiqi
* Farrukhi Sistani
* Ferdowsi
* Jami
* Kashifi
* Nasir Khusraw
* Rabia Balkhi
* Rudaki
* Rumi
* Sanā'ī

Historians and
political figures|

* Abu'l-Fadl Bayhaqi
* Abu'l-Hasan Isfarayini
* Abu'l-Ma'ali Nasrallah
* Abu Muslim Khorasani
* Gardizi
* Ali-Shir Nava'i
* Ata-Malik Juvayni
* Aufi
* Abu Ali Bal'ami
* Gawhar Shad
* Ibn Khordadbeh
* Khalid ibn Barmak
* Minhaj al-Siraj Juzjani
* Nizam al-Mulk
* Tahir ibn Husayn
* Yahya Barmaki
* Ahmad ibn Nizam al-Mulk
* Shihab al-Nasawi

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* 2
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Italy
* Australia
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Portugal
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Latvia
* Croatia
* Greece
* Sweden
* Poland
* Vatican
* Israel
* Catalonia
* Belgium

Academics|

* CiNii
* zbMATH
* MathSciNet

Artists|

* FID

People|

* Trove
* Deutsche Biographie
* DDB

Other|

* IdRef
* SNAC
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[r.]: reigned