Bacterial taxonomy

Rank based classification of bacteria

The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. Intermediate minor rankings are not shown.

Bacterial taxonomy is subfield of taxonomy devoted to the classification of bacteria specimens into taxonomic ranks. Archaeal taxonomy are governed by the same rules.

In the scientific classification established by Carl Linnaeus,[1] each species is assigned to a genus resulting in a two-part name. This name denotes the two lowest levels in a hierarchy of ranks, increasingly larger groupings of species based on common traits. Of these ranks, domains are the most general level of categorization. Presently, scientists classify all life into just three domains, Eukaryotes, Bacteria and Archaea.[2]

Bacterial taxonomy is the classification of strains within the domain Bacteria into hierarchies of similarity. This classification is similar to that of plants, mammals, and other taxonomies. However, biologists specializing in different areas have developed differing taxonomic conventions over time. For example, bacterial taxonomists name types based on descriptions of strains. Zoologists among others use a type specimen instead.

## Diversity

[edit]

Main article: Bacteria

Bacteria (prokaryotes, together with Archaea) share many common features. These commonalities include the lack of a nuclear membrane, unicellularity, division by binary-fission and generally small size. The various species can be differentiated through the comparison of several characteristics, allowing their identification and classification. Examples include:

* Phylogeny: All bacteria stem from a common ancestor and diversified since, and consequently possess different levels of evolutionary relatedness (see Bacterial phyla and Timeline of evolution)
* Metabolism: Different bacteria may have different metabolic abilities (see Microbial metabolism)
* Environment: Different bacteria thrive in different environments, such as high/low temperature and salt (see Extremophiles)
* Morphology: There are many structural differences between bacteria, such as cell shape, Gram stain (number of lipid bilayers) or bilayer composition (see Bacterial cellular morphologies, Bacterial cell structure)

## History

[edit]

Main article: Monera § History

### First descriptions

[edit]

Bacteria were first observed by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in 1676, using a single-lens microscope of his own design.[3] He did not distinguish bacteria as a separate type of microorganism, calling all microorganisms, including bacteria, protists, and microscopic animals, "animalcules". He published his observations in a series of letters to the Royal Society.[4][5][6]

Early described genera of bacteria include Vibrio and Monas, by O. F. Müller (1773, 1786), then classified as Infusoria (however, many species before included in those genera are regarded today as protists, which are eukaryotes); Polyangium, by H. F. Link (1809), the first bacterium still recognized today; Serratia, by Bizio (1823); and Spirillum, Spirochaeta and Bacterium, by Ehrenberg (1838).[7][8]

The term Bacterium, introduced as a genus by Ehrenberg in 1838,[9] became a catch-all for rod-shaped cells.[7]

### Early formal classifications

[edit]

Tree of Life in Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (1866)[10]

In 1857, bacteria were classified as plants constituting the class Schizomycetes, which along with the Schizophyceae (blue green algae/Cyanobacteria) formed the phylum Schizophyta.[11]

Haeckel in 1866 placed the group in the phylum Moneres (from μονήρης: simple) in the kingdom Protista and defines them as completely structureless and homogeneous organisms, consisting only of a piece of plasma.[10] He subdivided the phylum into two groups:[10]

* die Gymnomoneren (no envelope)
* Protogenes – such as Protogenes primordialis, now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium
* Protamaeba – now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium
* Vibrio – a genus of comma shaped bacteria first described in 1854[12]
* Bacterium – a genus of rod shaped bacteria first described in 1828, that later gave its name to the members of the Monera, formerly referred to as "a moneron" (plural "monera") in English and "eine Moneren"(fem. pl. "Moneres") in German
* Bacillus – a genus of spore-forming rod shaped bacteria first described in 1835[13]
* Spirochaeta – thin spiral shaped bacteria first described in 1835[13]
* Spirillum – spiral shaped bacteria first described in 1832[14]
* etc.
* die Lepomoneren (with envelope)
* Protomonas – now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium. The name was reused in 1984 for an unrelated genus of Bacteria[15]
* Vampyrella – now classed as a eukaryote and not a bacterium

The classification of Ferdinand Cohn (1872) was influential in the nineteenth century, and recognized six genera: Micrococcus, Bacterium, Bacillus, Vibrio, Spirillum, and Spirochaeta.[7]

The group was later reclassified as the Prokaryotes by Chatton in 1925.[16]

The classification of Cyanobacteria (colloquially "blue green algae") has been fought between being algae or bacteria (for example, Haeckel classified Nostoc in the phylum Archephyta of Algae[10]).

in 1905, Erwin F. Smith accepted 33 valid different names of bacterial genera and over 150 invalid names,[17] and Vuillemin, in a 1913 study,[18] concluded that all species of the Bacteria should fall into the genera Planococcus, Streptococcus, Klebsiella, Merista, Planomerista, Neisseria, Sarcina, Planosarcina, Metabacterium, Clostridium, Serratia, Bacterium, and Spirillum.

in 1875, Cohn[19] recognized four tribes: Spherobacteria, Microbacteria, Desmobacteria, and Spirobacteria. Stanier and van Neil in 1941[20] recognized the kingdom Monera with two phyla, Myxophyta and Schizomycetae, the latter comprising classes Eubacteriae (three orders), Myxobacteriae (one order), and Spirochetae (one order). In 1962, Bisset[21] distinguished 1 class and 4 orders: Eubacteriales, Actinomycetales, Streptomycetales, and Flexibacteriales. Walter Migula's system (1897),[22] which was the most widely accepted system of its time and included all then-known species but was based only on morphology, contained the three basic groups Coccaceae, Bacillaceae, and Spirillaceae, but also Trichobacterinae for filamentous bacteria. Orla-Jensen in 1909[23] established two orders: Cephalotrichinae (seven families) and Peritrichinae (presumably with only one family). Bergey et al. in 1925[24] presented a classification which generally followed the 1920 Final Report of the Society of American Bacteriologists Committee (Winslow et al.), which divided class Schizomycetes into four orders: Myxobacteriales, Thiobacteriales, Chlamydobacteriales, and Eubacteriales, with a fifth group being four genera considered intermediate between bacteria and protozoans: Spirocheta, Cristospira, Saprospira, and Treponema.

However, different authors often reclassified the genera due to the lack of visible traits to go by, resulting in a poor state which was summarised in 1915 by Robert Earle Buchanan.[25] By then, the whole group received different ranks and names by different authors, namely:

* Schizomycetes (Naegeli 1857)[11]
* Bacteriaceae (Cohn 1872 a)[26]
* Bacteria (Cohn 1872 b)[27]
* Schizomycetaceae (DeToni and Trevisan 1889)[28]

Furthermore, the families into which the class was subdivided changed from author to author and for some, such as Zipf (1917), the names were in German and not in Latin.[29]

The first edition of the Bacteriological Code in 1947 set a standardised system and authority for the classification of Bacteria.[30]

A. R. Prévot's system (1958)[31][32] had four subphyla and eight classes, as follows:

* Eubacteriales (classes Asporulales and Sporulales)
* Mycobacteriales (classes Actinomycetales, Myxobacteriales, and Azotobacteriales)
* Algobacteriales (classes Siderobacteriales and Thiobacteriales)
* Protozoobacteriales (class Spirochetales)

Linnaeus
1735[33] | Haeckel
1866[34] | Chatton
1925[35] | Copeland
1938[36] | Whittaker
1969[37] | Woese et al.
1990[38] | Cavalier-Smith
1998,[39] 2015[40]

|
|
|
|
|
|

2 kingdoms  | 3 kingdoms  | 2 empires | 4 kingdoms | 5 kingdoms  | 3 domains | 2 empires,
6/7 kingdoms
(not treated) | Protista | Prokaryota | Monera | Monera | Bacteria | Bacteria
Archaea | Archaea (2015)
Eukaryota | Protoctista | Protista | Eucarya | "Protozoa"
"Chromista"
Vegetabilia | Plantae | Plantae | Plantae | Plantae
Fungi | Fungi
Animalia | Animalia | Animalia | Animalia | Animalia

### Informal groups based on Gram staining

[edit]

Despite there being little agreement on the major subgroups of the Bacteria, Gram staining results were most commonly used as a classification tool. Consequently, until the advent of molecular phylogeny, the Kingdom Prokaryota was divided into four divisions,[41] A classification scheme still formally followed by Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology for tome order[42]

* Gracilicutes (gram-negative)
* Photobacteria (photosynthetic): class Oxyphotobacteriae (water as electron donor, includes the order Cyanobacteriales=blue-green algae, now phylum Cyanobacteria) and class Anoxyphotobacteriae (anaerobic phototrophs), orders: Rhodospirillales and Chlorobiales
* Scotobacteria (non-photosynthetic, now the Proteobacteria and other gram-negative nonphotosynthetic phyla)
* Firmacutes [sic] (gram-positive, subsequently corrected to Firmicutes[43])
* several orders such as Bacillales and Actinomycetales (now in the phylum Actinobacteria)
* Mollicutes (gram variable, e.g. Mycoplasma)
* Mendocutes (uneven gram stain, "methanogenic bacteria", now known as the Archaea)

### Molecular era

[edit]

#### "Archaic bacteria" and Woese's reclassification

[edit]

Main article: Archaea

See also: Last Universal Common Ancestor

Phylogenetic tree showing the relationship between the archaea and other forms of life. Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea green and bacteria blue. Adapted from Ciccarelli et al.[44]

Woese argued that the bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes represent separate lines of descent that diverged early on from an ancestral colony of organisms.[45][46] However, a few biologists argue that the Archaea and Eukaryota arose from a group of bacteria.[47] In any case, it is thought that viruses and archaea began relationships approximately two billion years ago, and that co-evolution may have been occurring between members of these groups.[48] It is possible that the last common ancestor of the bacteria and archaea was a thermophile, which raises the possibility that lower temperatures are "extreme environments" in archaeal terms, and organisms that live in cooler environments appeared only later.[49] Since the Archaea and Bacteria are no more related to each other than they are to eukaryotes, the term prokaryote's only surviving meaning is "not a eukaryote", limiting its value.[50]

With improved methodologies it became clear that the methanogenic bacteria were profoundly different and were (erroneously) believed to be relics of ancient bacteria[51] thus Carl Woese, regarded as the forerunner of the molecular phylogeny revolution, identified three primary lines of descent: the Archaebacteria, the Eubacteria, and the Urkaryotes, the latter now represented by the nucleocytoplasmic component of the Eukaryotes.[52] These lineages were formalised into the rank Domain (regio in Latin) which divided Life into 3 domains: the Eukaryota, the Archaea and the Bacteria.[2]

In 2023, the Prokaryotic Code added the ranks of domain and kingdom to the prokaryotic nomenclature. The names of Bacteria and Archaea are validly-published taxa following Oren and Goker's publication that use these new rules.[53]

#### Subdivisions

[edit]

Main article: Bacterial phyla

In 1987 Carl Woese divided the Eubacteria into 11 divisions based on 16S ribosomal RNA (SSU) sequences, which with several additions are still used today.[54][55]

Oren and Goker has also validly published a number of kingdoms as a layer higher than the division/phylum:[53]

* Domain Bacteria
* Kingdom Bacillati (= divisions Firmicutes and 'Tenericutes', 'Terrabacteria', 'Terrabacterida', monoderms pro parte, subkingdom 'Unibacteria' pro parte)
* Kingdom Fusobacteriati (= 'Fusobacterida')
* Kingdom Pseudomonadati (= division Gracilicutes, 'Hydrobacteria', 'Hydrobacterida' and 'Aquificida', diderms, subkingdom 'Negibacteria')
* Kingdom Thermotogati (= 'Thermotogida')
* Domain Archaea
* Kingdom Methanobacteriati (= phylum 'Euryarchaeota' sensu lato, 'Euryarchaeida')
* Kingdom Nanobdellati (= DPANN superphylum)
* Kingdom Thermoproteati (= TACK superphylum, 'Crenarchaeida')
* Kingdom Promethearchaeati (= Asgard, proposed by Imachi et al. later)

#### Opposition

[edit]

While the three domain system is widely accepted,[56] some authors have opposed it for various reasons.

One prominent scientist who opposed the three domain system was Thomas Cavalier-Smith, who proposed that the Archaea and the Eukaryotes (the Neomura) stem from Gram positive bacteria (Posibacteria), which in turn derive from gram negative bacteria (Negibacteria) based on several logical arguments,[57][58] which are highly controversial and generally disregarded by the molecular biology community (c.f. reviewers' comments on,[58] e.g. Eric Bapteste is "agnostic" regarding the conclusions) and are often not mentioned in reviews (e.g.[59]) due to the subjective nature of the assumptions made.[60]

However, despite there being a wealth of statistically supported studies towards the rooting of the tree of life between the Bacteria and the Neomura by means of a variety of methods,[61] including some that are impervious to accelerated evolution—which is claimed by Cavalier-Smith to be the source of the supposed fallacy in molecular methods[57]—there are a few studies which have drawn different conclusions, some of which place the root in the phylum Firmicutes with nested archaea.[62][63][64]

Radhey Gupta's molecular taxonomy, based on conserved signature sequences of proteins, includes a monophyletic Gram negative clade, a monophyletic Gram positive clade, and a polyphyletic Archeota derived from Gram positives.[65][66][67] Hori and Osawa's molecular analysis indicated a link between Metabacteria (=Archeota) and eukaryotes.[68] The only cladistic analyses for bacteria based on classical evidence largely corroborate Gupta's results (see comprehensive mega-taxonomy).

James Lake presented a 2 primary kingdom arrangement (Parkaryotae + eukaryotes and eocytes + Karyotae) and suggested a 5 primary kingdom scheme (Eukaryota, Eocyta, Methanobacteria, Halobacteria, and Eubacteria) based on ribosomal structure and a 4 primary kingdom scheme (Eukaryota, Eocyta, Methanobacteria, and Photocyta), bacteria being classified according to 3 major biochemical innovations: photosynthesis (Photocyta), methanogenesis (Methanobacteria), and sulfur respiration (Eocyta).[69][70][71] He has also discovered evidence that Gram-negative bacteria arose from a symbiosis between 2 Gram-positive bacteria.[72]

## Authorities

[edit]

Classification is the grouping of organisms into progressively more inclusive groups based on phylogeny and phenotype, while nomenclature is the application of formal rules for naming organisms.[73]

### Nomenclature authority

[edit]

Main article: Prokaryotic Code

Despite there being no official and complete classification of prokaryotes, the names (nomenclature) given to prokaryotes are regulated by the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes (Prokaryotic Code), a book which contains general considerations, principles, rules, and various notes, and advises[74] in a similar fashion to the nomenclature codes of other groups.

### Classification authorities

[edit]

As taxa proliferated, computer aided taxonomic systems were developed. Early non networked identification software entering widespread use was produced by Edwards 1978, Kellogg 1979, Schindler, Duben, and Lysenko 1979, Beers and Lockhard 1962, Gyllenberg 1965, Holmes and Hill 1985, Lapage et al 1970 and Lapage et al 1973.[75]: 63

Main article: Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology

Today the taxa which have been correctly described are reviewed in Bergey's manual of Systematic Bacteriology, which aims to aid in the identification of species and is considered the highest authority.[42] An online version of the taxonomic outline of bacteria and archaea (TOBA) is available [1].

Main article: LPSN

List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) is an online database based on the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes which currently contains over two thousand accepted names with their references, etymologies and various notes.[76]

### Description of new species

[edit]

Main article: International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology

The International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology/International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology (IJSB/IJSEM) is a peer reviewed journal which acts as the official international forum for the publication of new prokaryotic taxa. If a species is published in a different peer review journal, the author can submit a request to IJSEM with the appropriate description, which if correct, the new species will be featured in the Validation List of IJSEM.

### Distribution

[edit]

Main article: Culture collection

Microbial culture collections are depositories of strains which aim to safeguard them and to distribute them. The main ones being:[73]

Collection Initialism  | Name  | Location

|
|

ATCC | American Type Culture Collection | Manassas, Virginia
NCTC | National Collection of Type Cultures | Public Health England, United Kingdom
BCCM | Belgium Coordinated Collection of Microorganisms | Ghent, Belgium
CIP | Collection d'Institut Pasteur  | Paris, France
DSMZ | Deutsche Sammlung von Mikroorganismen und Zellkulturen | Braunschweig, Germany
JCM | Japan Collection of Microorganisms | Saitama, Japan
NCCB | Netherlands Culture Collection of Bacteria  | Utrecht, Netherlands
NCIMB | National Collection of Industrial, Food and Marine Bacteria | Aberdeen, Scotland
ICMP | International Collection of Microorganisms from Plants | Auckland, New Zealand
TBRC | Thailand Bioresource Research Center | Pathumthani, Thailand
CECT | Spanish Type Culture Collection | Valencia, Spain

### Alternative systems

[edit]

A few other nomenclatural systems have been proposed to correct for perceived shortcomings in the Prokaryotic Code system:

* SeqCode is a separate set of rules that govern prokaryotic nomenclature. Instead of using cultured strains as type material, it uses genome sequences. The SeqCode organization maintains its own database of names.[77]
* GTDB is a computer database that gives a prokaryotic nomenclature based on marker-gene phylogeny and its own rules. Some of its results have been adapted into the Prokaryotic Code and SeqCode systems.[78][79]

These following systems provide a taxonomy database under more ad hoc rules:

* The GenBank taxonomy browser includes all taxa that were used in GenBank submissions, with significant changes made by the curator. It's not limited to prokaryotes.[80]
* 'The All-Species Living Tree' Project (SILVA LTP) provides a database of 16S rRNA sequences annotated with its own type of taxonomy. Ribosomal database project (RDP) is a similar project.[81]
* Greengenes is a system that combines the Web of Life phylogeny with 16S data and names from GTDB and LTP, as of version 2. It offers the 16S V4 region sequences with their placement in the tree.[82]
* Open Tree of Life aims to be phylogenetic and is not limited to prokaryotes.

## Analyses

[edit]

Bacteria were at first classified based solely on their shape (vibrio, bacillus, coccus etc.), presence of endospores, gram stain, aerobic conditions and motility. This system changed with the study of metabolic phenotypes, where metabolic characteristics were used.[83] Recently, with the advent of molecular phylogeny, several genes are used to identify species, the most important of which is the 16S rRNA gene, followed by 23S, ITS region, gyrB and others to confirm a better resolution. The quickest way to identify to match an isolated strain to a species or genus today is done by amplifying its 16S gene with universal primers and sequence the 1.4kb amplicon and submit it to a specialised web-based identification database, namely either Ribosomal Database Project[2] Archived 19 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine, which align the sequence to other 16S sequences using infernal, a secondary structure bases global alignment,[84][85] or ARB SILVA, which aligns sequences via SINA (SILVA incremental aligner), which does a local alignment of a seed and extends it [3].[86]

Several identification methods exists:[73]

* Phenotypic analyses
* fatty acid analyses
* Growth conditions (agar plates, Biolog multiwell plates)
* Genetic analyses
* DNA–DNA hybridization
* DNA profiling
* Sequence
* GC ratios
* Phylogenetic analyses
* 16S-based phylogeny
* phylogeny based on other genes
* Multi-gene sequence analysis
* Whole-genome sequence based analysis

## New species

[edit]

The minimal standards for describing a new species depend on which group the species belongs to. c.f.[87]

## Candidatus

[edit]

Main article: candidatus

Candidatus is a component of the taxonomic name for a bacterium that cannot be maintained in a Bacteriology Culture Collection. It is an interim taxonomic status for noncultivable organisms. e.g. "Candidatus Pelagibacter ubique"

## Species concept

[edit]

Main article: Species problem

Bacteria divide asexually and for the most part do not show regionalisms ("Everything is everywhere"), therefore the concept of species, which works best for animals, becomes entirely a matter of judgment.

The number of named species of bacteria and archaea (approximately 21,000)[88] is surprisingly small considering their early evolution, genetic diversity and residence in all ecosystems. The reason for this is the differences in species concepts between the bacteria and macro-organisms, the difficulties in growing/characterising in pure culture (a prerequisite to naming new species, vide supra) and extensive horizontal gene transfer blurring the distinction of species.[89]

The most commonly accepted definition is the polyphasic species definition, which takes into account both phenotypic and genetic differences.[90] However, a quicker diagnostic ad hoc method to use a purely genetic approach, including any one of:

* Less than 97% 16S DNA sequence identity. 16S and the larger ribosomal DNA operon is routinely sequenced. There are relatively conserved parts from which broadly applicable PCR primers can be constructed.[91] The 97% threshold have proven too loose compared to DDH and ANI. A new suggested value is 98.65%.[92] More expensive comparisons such as DDH can be omitted if the 16S similarity is low enough for two strains to obviously not be the same species.[93] Several extreme cases where two very different genomes share 99.9% 16S identity has been reported.[94]
* DNA–DNA hybridisation (DDH), where less than 70% is considered different enough to be different species.[95] This method depends on the interaction between whole genomic DNA molecules and does not require sequencing. It is labor-intensive and error-prone, at least until a microplate method was introduced.[96] It is considered an important piece of taxonomic evidence as of 2013.[93]
* Average nucleotide identity (ANI) and alignment fraction (AF) describe the similarity between two genome sequences. In one definition that makes use of these metrics, two genomes are said to be in the same species if ANI ≥96.5% and AF ≥60%.[97] The ANI threshold is based on an observed discontinuity in ANI distributions among bacteria, where a large gap appears between intraspecific and interspecific comparisons. However, the gap does not necessarily appear at the same location for all combinations of bacterial genera and ANI methods.[98] ANI has been accepted as taxonomic evidence in place of DDH.[99]
* "Digital DDH" (dDDH) is similar to ANI and AF in principle, but it is tuned to produce a single value comparable to wet-lab DDH percentage.[93] The species threshold is, as in DDH, 70%. It has been accepted as taxonomic evidence in place of DDH.[99]

It has been noted that if the 70% DDH threshold were applied to animal classification, the order primates would be a single species.[100] For this reason, more stringent species definitions based on whole genome sequences have been proposed. Specifically, Wright et al. (2018) goes beyond ANI and AF to propose defining species as a group in which the maximum distance between any two members is greater than the minimum distance with any outsider. This criterion can be put on top of ANI+AF without introducing too many splits.[97]

## Pathology vs. phylogeny

[edit]

Ideally, taxonomic classification should reflect the evolutionary history of the taxa, i.e. the phylogeny. Although some exceptions are present when the phenotype differs amongst the group, especially from a medical standpoint. Some examples of problematic classifications follow.

### Escherichia coli: overly large and polyphyletic

[edit]

Main article: Escherichia coli

In the family Enterobacteriaceae of the class Gammaproteobacteria, the species in the genus Shigella (S. dysenteriae, S. flexneri, S. boydii, S. sonnei) from an evolutionary point of view are strains of the species Escherichia coli (polyphyletic), but due to genetic differences, cause different medical conditions in the case of the pathogenic strains.[101] Confusingly, there are also E. coli strains that produce Shiga toxin known as STEC.

The new average nucleotide identity (ANI) criterion, as used by GTDB, groups most samples (including Shigella) into one species, but spreads the rest in five species. A definition using the biological species concept (specifically, presence of recombination) found that all but 12 genomes tagged as E. coli in GenBank fall into one "species", with the lowest strain-to-strain ANI being 94%.[102]

### Bacillus cereus group: close and polyphyletic

[edit]

Main article: Bacillus cereus

In a similar way, the Bacillus species (=phylum Firmicutes) belonging to the "B. cereus group" (B. anthracis, B. cereus, B . thuringiensis, B. mycoides, B. pseudomycoides, B. weihenstephanensis and B. medusa) have 99-100% similar 16S rRNA sequence (97% is a commonly cited adequate species cut-off) and are polyphyletic, but for medical reasons (anthrax etc.) remain separate.[103]

The new ANI criterion provides some support for members of this group as separate species.[104]

### Yersinia pestis: extremely recent species

[edit]

Main article: Yersinia pestis

Yersinia pestis is in effect a strain of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis, but with a pathogenicity island that confers a drastically different pathology (Black plague and tuberculosis-like symptoms respectively) which arose 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.[105]

### Nested genera in Pseudomonas

[edit]

Main article: Azotobacter

In the gammaproteobacterial order Pseudomonadales, the genus Azotobacter and the species Azomonas macrocytogenes are actually members of the genus Pseudomonas, but were misclassified due to nitrogen fixing capabilities and the large size of the genus Pseudomonas which renders classification problematic.[83][106][107] This will probably rectified in the close future.

### Nested genera in Bacillus

[edit]

Main article: Bacillus

Another example of a large genus with nested genera is the genus Bacillus, in which the genera Paenibacillus and Brevibacillus are nested clades.[108]

By 2020 there was enough genomic data to resolve Bacillus and split out 23 genera. However, even this was insufficient to make Bacillus monophyletic, because microbiologists do not want to move the pathogenic Bacillus cereus group out of the genus yet. B. cereus is separated from the type species B. subtilis by many genus-sized clades, many of which have been made into formal genera.[109][110]

### Agrobacterium: resistance to name change

[edit]

Main article: Agrobacterium

Based on molecular data it was shown that the genus Agrobacterium is nested in Rhizobium and the Agrobacterium species transferred to the genus Rhizobium (resulting in the following comp. nov.: Rhizobium radiobacter (formerly known as A. tumefaciens), R. rhizogenes, R. rubi, R. undicola and R. vitis)[111] Given the plant pathogenic nature of Agrobacterium species, it was proposed to maintain the genus Agrobacterium[112] and the latter was counter-argued.[113]

The problem was resolved in the 2010s by the reinstatement of Agrobacterium via splitting genera, after Rhizobium was also split a few times.[114][115] The genus Agrobacterium is to only include the clade clustered around the type species Agrobacterium radiobacter, with a clear synapomorphy in the form of the protelomerase telA gene.[116][117]

### Other examples of name-change resistance

[edit]

* Gupta et al. 2018a proposed to split the largely monophyletic but arguably rather large Mycobacterium into five genera.[118] The medical community opposed this change.[119] Either taxonomic opinion can be considered valid, according to LPSN, as the Gupta names appeared in Validation List 181.[120] The LPSN/LoRN deems the most of the valid new mycobacterial names " (and not recommended for medical use)" in the website's taxonomic opinion.
* The heavily polyphyletic Mycoplasma was split into six genera in three families by Gupta et al. 2018b.[121] The changes were made valid in Validation List 184.[122] Medical researchers firmly opposed the renaming and seek to have the ICSP reject the new names,[123] but the ICSP Judicial Commission did not grant this request. (As with the above case, the older names remain validly published, so it is still acceptable to use these names under the Prokaryotic Code.)[124] The LPSN/LoRN deems the most of the valid new mycoplasmal names "correct name (and explicitly explicit for medical use)" in the website's own taxonomic opinion.

### Efforts to mitigate impact on medicine

[edit]

#### Lists of taxonomic changes in pathogenic bacteria

[edit]

There are lists of changes to taxonomic bacteria that medical practitioners can use.

* The journal Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease published five lists of taxonomic changes in bacteria of medical importance spanning the period 2013-2020.[125]
* The Journal of Clinical Microbiology publishes a series of regular updates for isolates derived from human clinical specimens (mainly for human medicine) and another series for isolates derived from domestic animals (mainly for animal medicine). These lists include new taxa as well as revisions in taxonomy. A list for the previous year is usually published near the end of the current year; for example, the December 2024 updates covered changes in 2023.[126][127]

#### Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature

[edit]

A number of bacteriologists involved in the ICSP have formed an Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature. Among other initiatives, the committee produces a List of Recommended Names for bacteria of medical importance (LoRN), which delays the acceptance of name changes as "correct" for the medical world to adjust and catch up. A description of the mechanism can be found in LPSN[128] and so is the list itself. As of June 2025[update], the oldest suspended names on the list are from 2020: Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus and Niallia circulans.[129]

The ad hoc committee claims to take a "parataxonomic" approach, an approach that is fully compatible with the Prokaryotic Code and balanced between "antitaxonomic" (overly conservative) and "hypertaxonomic" (overly phylogenetic and splitting) views. The ad hoc committee and its LoRN decides the choice of correct name on LPSN, some of which is marked "specifically recommended for medical use". Besides suspending a new name or changing the taxonomic opinion of LPSN in some other way, the ad hoc committee can also petition the ICSP Judicial Committee to permanently decline a proposal by marking the names within as rejected names.[130] The ad hoc committee technically has no direct influence on the validation of names or the decisions of the Judicial Committee, but many of its members sit on the editorial board of IJSEM, have participated in authoring a Validation List, or have written a Judicial Opinion.

An example of a valid name being set aside is Borreliella Adeolu and Gupta 2015, which is extremely unpopular among Borrelia researchers.[131] A request to reject Borreliella from 2015 was declined by the Judicial Committee.[132]

## Nomenclature

[edit]

Main article: Binomial Nomenclature

See also: Latin grammar and Ancient Greek grammar

Taxonomic names are written in italics (or underlined when handwritten) with a majuscule first letter with the exception of epithets for species and subspecies. Despite it being common in zoology, tautonyms (e.g. Bison bison) are not acceptable and names of taxa used in zoology, botany or mycology cannot be reused for Bacteria (Botany and Zoology do share names).

Nomenclature is the set of rules and conventions which govern the names of taxa. The difference in nomenclature between the various kingdoms/domains is reviewed in.[133]

For Bacteria, valid names must have a Latin or Neolatin name and can only use basic latin letters (w and j inclusive, see History of the Latin alphabet for these), consequently hyphens, accents and other letters are not accepted and should be transliterated correctly (e.g. ß=ss).[134] Ancient Greek being written in the Greek alphabet, needs to be transliterated into the Latin alphabet.

When compound words are created, a connecting vowel is needed depending on the origin of the preceding word, regardless of the word that follows, unless the latter starts with a vowel in which case no connecting vowel is added. If the first compound is Latin then the connecting vowel is an -i-, whereas if the first compound is Greek, the connecting vowel is an -o-.[135]

For etymologies of names consult LPSN.

### Rules for higher taxa

[edit]

For a comparison with other nomenclature codes, see Taxonomic rank § Terminations of names.

For the Prokaryotes (Bacteria and Archaea) the rank kingdom has not been used till 2024[136] (although some authors referred to phyla as kingdoms[73]). The category of kingdom was included into the Bacteriological Code in November 2023,[137] the first four proposals (Bacillati, Fusobacteriati, Pseudomonadati, Thermotogati) were validly published in January 2024.[53]

If a new or amended species is placed in new ranks, according to Rule 9 of the Bacteriological Code the name is formed by the addition of an appropriate suffix to the stem of the name of the type genus.[74] For subclass and class the recommendation from[138] is generally followed, resulting in a neutral plural, however a few names do not follow this and instead keep into account graeco-latin grammar (e.g. the female plurals Thermotogae, Aquificae and Chlamydiae, the male plurals Chloroflexi, Bacilli and Deinococci and the greek plurals Spirochaetes, Gemmatimonadetes and Chrysiogenetes).[139]

Rank  | Suffix  | Example

|
|

Genus  |  | Elusimicrobium
Subtribe (disused)  | -inae  | (Elusimicrobiinae)
Tribe (disused)  | -eae  | (Elusimicrobiieae)
Subfamily  | -oideae  | (Elusimicrobioideae)
Family  | -aceae  | Elusimicrobiaceae
Suborder  | -ineae  | (Elusimicrobineae)
Order  | -ales  | Elusimicrobiales
Subclass  | -idae  | (Elusimicrobidae)
Class  | -ia  | Elusimicrobia
Phylum  | -ota  | Elusimicrobiota
Kingdom  | -ati[137] | Elusimicrobiati

### Phyla endings

[edit]

See also: Bacterial phyla

Until 2021, phyla were not covered by the Bacteriological code, so they were named informally.[139] This resulted in a variety of approaches to naming phyla. Some phyla, like Firmicutes, were named according to features shared across the phylum. Others, like Chlamydiae, were named using a class name or genus name as the stem (e.g., Chlamydia). In 2021, the decision was made to include names under the Bacteriological Code. Consequently, many phylum names were updated according to the new nomenclatural rules.[140] The higher taxa proposed by Cavalier-Smith[57] are generally disregarded by the molecular phylogeny community (e.g.[59]) (vide supra).

Under the new rules, the name of a phylum is derived from the type genus:

* Acidobacteriota (from Acidobacterium)
* Actinomycetota (from Actinomyces)
* Aquificota (from Aquifex)
* Armatimonadota (from Armatimonas)
* Atribacterota (from Atribacter)
* Bacillota (from Bacillus)
* Bacteroidota (from Bacteroides)
* Balneolota (from Balneola)
* Bdellovibrionota (from Bdellovibrio)
* Caldisericota (from Caldisericum)
* Calditrichota (from Caldithrix)
* Campylobacterota (from Campylobacter)
* Chlamydiota (from Chlamydia)
* Chlorobiota (from Chlorobium)
* Chloroflexota (from Chloroflexus)
* Chrysiogenota (from Chrysiogenes)
* Coprothermobacterota (from Coprothermobacter)
* Deferribacterota (from Deferribacter)
* Deinococcota (from Deinococcus)
* Dictyoglomota (from Dictyoglomus)
* Elusimicrobiota (from Elusimicrobium)
* Fibrobacterota (from Fibrobacterota)
* Fusobacteriota (from Fusobacterium)
* Gemmatimonadota (from Gemmatimonas)
* Ignavibacteriota (from Ignavibacterium)
* Kiritimatiellota (from Kiritimatiella)
* Lentisphaerota (from Lentisphaera)
* Mycoplasmatota (from Mycoplasma)
* Myxococcota (from Myxococcus)
* Nitrospinota (from Nitrospina)
* Nitrospirota (from Nitrospira)
* Planctomycetota (from Planctomyces)
* Pseudomonadota (from Pseudomonas)
* Rhodothermota (from Rhodothermus)
* Spirochaetota (from Spirochaeta)
* Synergistota (from Synergistes)
* Thermodesulfobacteriota (from Thermodesulfobacterium)
* Thermomicrobiota (from Thermomicrobium)
* Thermotogota (from Thermotoga)
* Verrucomicrobiota (from Verrucomicrobium)

### Names after people

[edit]

Main articles: List of bacterial genera named after personal names and List of bacterial genera named after mythological figures

Several species are named after people, either the discoverer or a famous person in the field of microbiology, for example Salmonella is after D.E. Salmon, who discovered it (albeit as "Bacillus typhi"[141]).[142]

For the generic epithet, all names derived from people must be in the female nominative case, either by changing the ending to -a or to the diminutive -ella, depending on the name.[135]

For the specific epithet, the names can be converted into either adjectival form (adding -nus (m.), -na (f.), -num (n.) according to the gender of the genus name) or the genitive of the Latinised name.[135]

### Names after places

[edit]

Main articles: List of bacterial genera named after geographical names and List of bacterial genera named after institutions

Many species (the specific epithet) are named after the place they are present or found (e.g. Thiospirillum jenense). Their names are created by forming an adjective by joining the locality's name with the ending -ensis (m. or f.) or ense (n.) in agreement with the gender of the genus name, unless a classical Latin adjective exists for the place. However, names of places should not be used as nouns in the genitive case.[135]

## Vernacular names

[edit]

See also: Common name

Despite the fact that some hetero/homogeneus colonies or biofilms of bacteria have names in English (e.g. dental plaque or star jelly), no bacterial species has a vernacular/trivial/common name in English.

For names in the singular form, plurals cannot be made (singulare tantum) as would imply multiple groups with the same label and not multiple members of that group (by analogy, in English, chairs and tables are types of furniture, which cannot be used in the plural form "furnitures" to describe both members), conversely names plural form are pluralia tantum. However, a partial exception to this is made by the use of vernacular names. However, to avoid repetition of taxonomic names which break the flow of prose, vernacular names of members of a genus or higher taxa are often used and recommended, these are formed by writing the name of the taxa in sentence case roman ("standard" in MS Office) type, therefore treating the proper noun as an English common noun (e.g. the salmonellas), although there is some debate about the grammar of plurals, which can either be regular plural by adding -(e)s (the salmonellas) or using the ancient Greek or Latin plural form (irregular plurals) of the noun (the salmonellae); the latter is problematic as the plural of \- bacter would be -bacteres, while the plural of myces (N.L. masc. n. from Gr. masc. n. mukes) is mycetes.[143]

Customs are present for certain names, such as those ending in -monas are converted into -monad (one pseudomonad, two aeromonads and not -monades).

Bacteria which are the etiological cause for a disease are often referred to by the disease name followed by a describing noun (bacterium, bacillus, coccus, agent or the name of their phylum) e.g. cholera bacterium (Vibrio cholerae) or Lyme disease spirochete (Borrelia burgdorferi), note also rickettsialpox (Rickettsia akari) (for more see[144]).

Treponema is converted into treponeme and the plural is treponemes and not treponemata.

Some unusual bacteria and archaea have special names such as Quin's oval (Quinella ovalis) and Walsby's square (Haloquadratum walsbyi).

Before the advent of molecular phylogeny, many higher taxonomic groupings had only trivial names, which are still used today, some of which are polyphyletic, such as Rhizobacteria. Some higher taxonomic trivial names are:

* Blue-green algae are members of the phylum "Cyanobacteria"
* Green non-sulfur bacteria are members of the phylum Chloroflexota
* Green sulfur bacteria are members of the Chlorobiota
* Purple bacteria are some, but not all, members of the phylum Pseudomonadota
* Purple sulfur bacteria are members of the order Chromatiales
* low G+C Gram-positive bacteria are members of the phylum Bacillota, regardless of GC content
* high G+C Gram-positive bacteria are members of the phylum Actinomycetota, regardless of GC content
* Rhizobia are members of various genera of Pseudomonadota
* Lactic acid bacteria are members of the order Lactobacillales
* Coryneform bacteria are members of the family Corynebacteriaceae
* Fruiting gliding bacteria or myxobacteria are members of the phylum Myxococcota
* Enterics are members of the order Enterobacteriales (although the term is avoided if they do not live in the intestines, such as Pectobacterium)
* Acetic acid bacteria are members of the family Acetobacteraceae

## Terminology

[edit]

* The abbreviation for species is sp. (plural spp.) and is used after a generic epithet to indicate a species of that genus. Often used to denote a strain of a genus for which the species is not known either because the organism has not been described yet as a species or insufficient tests were conducted to identify it. For example Halomonas sp. GFAJ-1 - see also open nomenclature
* If a bacterium is known and well-studied but not culturable, it is given the term Candidatus in its name
* A basonym is original name of a new combination, namely the first name given to a taxon before it was reclassified
* A synonym is an alternative name for a taxon, i.e. a taxon was erroneously described twice
* When a taxon is transferred it becomes a new combination (comb. nov.) or new name (nom. nov.)
* paraphyly, monophyly, and polyphyly

## See also

[edit]

* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Woese, 1987)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Gupta, 2001)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Cavalier-Smith, 2002)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Rappe and Giovanoni, 2003)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Battistuzzi et al.,2004)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Ciccarelli et al., 2006)
* Branching order of bacterial phyla after ARB Silva Living Tree
* Branching order of bacterial phyla (Genome Taxonomy Database, 2018)
* Bacterial phyla, a complicated classification
* List of archaea genera
* List of bacteria genera
* List of bacterial orders
* List of Latin and Greek words commonly used in systematic names
* List of sequenced archaeal genomes
* List of sequenced prokaryotic genomes
* List of clinically important bacteria
* Species problem
* Evolutionary grade
* Cryptic species complex
* Synonym (taxonomy)
* Taxonomy
* LPSN, list of accepted bacterial and archaeal names
* Cyanobacteria, a phylum of common bacteria but poorly classified at present
* Human Microbiome Project
* Microbial ecology

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Linnaeus, Carl (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species. Archived from the original on 30 June 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
2. ^ a b Woese, C. R.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. L. (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 87 (12): 4576–4579\. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744.
3. ^ Porter JR (1976). "Antony van Leeuwenhoek: tercentenary of his discovery of bacteria". Bacteriological Reviews. 40 (2): 260–9\. doi:10.1128/mmbr.40.2.260-269.1976. PMC 413956. PMID 786250.
4. ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1684). "An abstract of a letter from Mr. Anthony Leevvenhoek at Delft, dated Sep. 17, 1683, Containing Some Microscopical Observations, about Animals in the Scurf of the Teeth, the Substance Call'd Worms in the Nose, the Cuticula Consisting of Scales" (PDF). Philosophical Transactions. 14 (155–166): 568–574\. Bibcode:1684RSPT...14..568L. doi:10.1098/rstl.1684.0030.155–166&rft.pages=568-574&rft.date=1684&rft_id=info:doi/10.1098/rstl.1684.0030&rft_id=info:bibcode/1684RSPT...14..568L&rft.au=van+Leeuwenhoek+A&rft_id=https://zenodo.org/records/1432130/files/article.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Bacterial+taxonomy" class="Z3988">
5. ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1700). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, concerning the Worms in Sheeps Livers, Gnats, and Animalcula in the Excrements of Frogs". Philosophical Transactions. 22 (260–276): 509–518\. Bibcode:1700RSPT...22..509V. doi:10.1098/rstl.1700.0013.260–276&rft.pages=509-518&rft.date=1700&rft_id=info:doi/10.1098/rstl.1700.0013&rft_id=info:bibcode/1700RSPT...22..509V&rft.au=van+Leeuwenhoek+A&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1700.0013&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Bacterial+taxonomy" class="Z3988">
6. ^ van Leeuwenhoek A (1702). "Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning Green Weeds Growing in Water, and Some Animalcula Found about Them". Philosophical Transactions. 23 (277–288): 1304–11\. Bibcode:1702RSPT...23.1304V. doi:10.1098/rstl.1702.0042. S2CID 186209549.277–288&rft.pages=1304-11&rft.date=1702&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186209549#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1098/rstl.1702.0042&rft_id=info:bibcode/1702RSPT...23.1304V&rft.au=van+Leeuwenhoek+A&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Bacterial+taxonomy" class="Z3988">
7. ^ a b c Murray, R.G.E., Holt, J.G. (2005). The history of Bergey's Manual. In: Garrity, G.M., Boone, D.R. & Castenholz, R.W. (eds., 2001). Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, 2nd ed., Vol. 1, Springer-Verlag, New York, p. 1-14. link. [See p. 2.]
8. ^ Pot, B., Gillis, M., and De Ley, J., The genus Aquaspirillum. In: Balows, A., Trüper, H.G., Dworkin, M., Harder, W., Schleifer, K.-H. (Eds.). The prokaryotes, 2nd ed, Vol. 3. Springer-Verlag. New York. 1991
9. ^ "Etymology of the word "bacteria"". Online Etymology dictionary. Archived from the original on 18 November 2006. Retrieved 23 November 2006.
10. ^ a b c d Haeckel, Ernst (1867). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen (in German). Berlin: Reimer. ISBN 978-1-144-00186-3 - via Internet Archive. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
11. ^ a b Von Nägeli, C. (1857). Caspary, R. (ed.). "Bericht über die Verhandlungen der 33. Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aerzte, gehalten in Bonn von 18 bis 24 September 1857" [Report on the negotiations on the 33rd Meeting of German Natural Scientists and Physicians, held in Bonn, 18 to 24 September 1857]. Botanische Zeitung (in German). 15: 749–776 - via Internet Archive.
12. ^ Pacini, F.: Osservazione microscopiche e deduzioni patologiche sul cholera asiatico. Gazette Medicale de Italiana Toscano Firenze, 1854, 6, 405-412.
13. ^ a b Ehrenberg, C. G. (1835). "Dritter Beitrag zur Erkenntniss grosser Organisation in der Richtung des kleinsten Raumes". Physikalische Abhandlungen der Koeniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin aus den Jahren 1833-1835, pp. 143-336.
14. ^ Ehrenberg, C. G. (1830). "Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Organization der Infusorien und ihrer geographischen Verbreitung besonders in Sibirien". Abhandlungen der Koniglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin 1832, pp. 1–88.
15. ^ Protomonas in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
16. ^ Chatton, É. (1925). "Pansporella perplexa: Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". Annales des Sciences Naturelles. 10 (VII): 1–84.
17. ^ Smith, Erwin F. (1905). Nomenclature and Classification in Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases, Vol. 1.
18. ^ Vuillemin (1913). "Genera Schizomycetum". Annales Mycologici, Vol. 11, pp. 512–527.
19. ^ Cohn, Ferdinand (1875). "Untersuchungen uber Bakterien, II". Beitrage zur Biologie der Pfanzen, Vol. 1: pp. 141–207
20. ^ Stanier and van Neil (1941). "The main outlines of bacterial classification". Journal of Bacteriology, Vol. 42, pp. 437– 466
21. ^ Bisset (1962). Bacteria, 2nd ed.; London: Livingston.
22. ^ Migula, Walter (1897). System der Bakterien. Jena, Germany: Gustav Fischer.
23. ^ Orla-Jensen (1909). "Die Hauptlinien des naturalischen Bakteriensystems nebst einer Ubersicht der Garungsphenomene". Zentr. Bakt. Parasitenk., Vol. II, No. 22, pp. 305–346
24. ^ Bergey's Manual of Determinative Bacteriology (1925). Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins Co. (with many subsequent editions).
25. ^ Buchanan, R. E. (1916). "Studies in the Nomenclature and Classification of Bacteria: The Problem of Bacterial Nomenclature". Journal of Bacteriology. 1 (6): 591–596\. doi:10.1128/jb.1.6.591-596.1916. PMC 378679. PMID 16558720 - via National Center for Biotechnology Information.
26. ^ Cohn, Ferdinand (1872 a). "Organismen in der Pockenlymphe". Virchow (ed.), Archiv, Vol. 55, p. 237.
27. ^ Cohn, Ferdinand (1872 b) "Untersuchungen ilber Bakterien". Beitrage zur Biologie der Pflanzen Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 136.
28. ^ Detoni, J. B.; Trevisan, V. (1889). "Schizomycetaceae". Saccardo (ed.), Sylloge Fungorum, Vol. 8, p. 923.
29. ^ Buchanan, R. E. (March 1917). "Studies in the Nomenclature and Classification of the Bacteria: II. The Primary Subdivisions of the Schizomycetes". Journal of Bacteriology. 2 (2): 155–64\. doi:10.1128/JB.2.2.155-164.1917. PMC 378699. PMID 16558735.
30. ^ "International Bacteriological Code of Nomenclature". Journal of Bacteriology. 55 (3): 287–306\. March 1948. doi:10.1128/JB.55.3.287-306.1948. PMC 518444. PMID 16561459.
31. ^ Prévot, A. R. (1958). Manuel de classification et détermination des bactéries anaérobies. Paris: Masson.
32. ^ Prévot, A. R. (1963). Bactéries in Précis de Botanique. Paris: Masson.
33. ^ Linnaeus, C. (1735). Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species.
34. ^ Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. Reimer, Berlin.
35. ^ Chatton, É. (1925). "Pansporella perplexa. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires". Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale. 10-VII: 1–84.
36. ^ Copeland, H. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms". Quarterly Review of Biology. 13 (4): 383–420\. doi:10.1086/394568. S2CID 84634277.
37. ^ Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms". Science. 163 (3863): 150–60\. Bibcode:1969Sci...163..150W. doi:10.1126/science.163.3863.150. PMID 5762760.
38. ^ Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990). "Towards a natural system of organisms:proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 87 (12): 4576–9\. Bibcode:1990PNAS...87.4576W. doi:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576. PMC 54159. PMID 2112744.
39. ^ Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998). "A revised six-kingdom system of life". Biological Reviews. 73 (3): 203–66\. doi:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x. PMID 9809012. S2CID 6557779.
40. ^ Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M.; Thuesen, Erik V. (2015). "A higher level classification of all living organisms". PLOS ONE. 10 (4): e0119248. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1019248R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248. PMC 4418965. PMID 25923521.
41. ^ GIBBONS N.E.; MURRAY R.G.E. (1978). "Proposals concerning the higher taxa of bacteria". International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology. 28: 1–6\. doi:10.1099/00207713-28-1-1.
42. ^ a b George M. Garrity: Bergey's manual of systematic bacteriology. 2. Auflage. Springer, New York, 2005, Volume 2: The Proteobacteria, Part B: The Gammaproteobacteria
43. ^ MURRAY (R.G.E.): The higher taxa, or, a place for everything...? In: N.R. KRIEG and J.G. HOLT (ed.) Bergey's Manual of Systematic Bacteriology, Vol. 1, The Williams & Wilkins Co., Baltimore, 1984, p. 31-34
44. ^ Ciccarelli FD, Doerks T, von Mering C, Creevey CJ, Snel B, Bork P (2006). "Toward automatic reconstruction of a highly resolved tree of life". Science. 311 (5765): 1283–7\. Bibcode:2006Sci...311.1283C. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.381.9514. doi:10.1126/science.1123061. PMID 16513982. S2CID 1615592.
45. ^ Woese CR, Gupta R (1981). "Are archaebacteria merely derived 'prokaryotes'?". Nature. 289 (5793): 95–6\. Bibcode:1981Natur.289...95W. doi:10.1038/289095a0. PMID 6161309. S2CID 4343245.
46. ^ Woese C (1998). "The universal ancestor". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 95 (12): 6854–9\. Bibcode:1998PNAS...95.6854W. doi:10.1073/pnas.95.12.6854. PMC 22660. PMID 9618502.
47. ^ Gupta RS (2000). "The natural evolutionary relationships among prokaryotes". Crit. Rev. Microbiol. 26 (2): 111–31\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.1356. doi:10.1080/10408410091154219. PMID 10890353. S2CID 30541897.
48. ^ C. Michael Hogan. 2010. Virus. Encyclopedia of Earth. Editors: Cutler Cleveland and Sidney Draggan
49. ^ Gribaldo S, Brochier-Armanet C (2006). "The origin and evolution of Archaea: a state of the art". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 361 (1470): 1007–22\. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1841. PMC 1578729. PMID 16754611.
50. ^ Woese CR (1 March 1994). "There must be a prokaryote somewhere: microbiology's search for itself". Microbiol. Rev. 58 (1): 1–9\. doi:10.1128/MMBR.58.1.1-9.1994. PMC 372949. PMID 8177167.
51. ^ Balch, W.; Magrum, L.; Fox, G.; Wolfe, R.; Woese, C. (1977). "An ancient divergence among the bacteria". Journal of Molecular Evolution. 9 (4): 305–311\. Bibcode:1977JMolE...9..305B. doi:10.1007/BF01796092. PMID 408502. S2CID 27788891.
52. ^ Francolini, C.; Egeth, H. (1979). "Perceptual selectivity is task dependent: The pop-out effect poops out". Perception & Psychophysics. 25 (2): 99–110\. doi:10.3758/bf03198793. PMID 432104.
53. ^ a b c Göker, Markus; Oren, Aharon (22 January 2024). "Valid publication of names of two domains and seven kingdoms of prokaryotes". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 74 (1). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.006242. PMID 38252124.
54. ^ Holland L. (22 May 1990). "Woese, Carl in the forefront of bacterial evolution revolution". Scientist. 4 (10).
55. ^ Woese, C. R. (1987). "Bacterial evolution". Microbiological Reviews. 51 (2): 221–271\. doi:10.1128/MMBR.51.2.221-271.1987. PMC 373105. PMID 2439888.
56. ^ Ward, B. B. (2002). "How many species of prokaryotes are there?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 99 (16): 10234–10236\. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9910234W. doi:10.1073/pnas.162359199. PMC 124894. PMID 12149517.
57. ^ a b c Cavalier-Smith, T (2002). "The neomuran origin of archaebacteria, the negibacterial root of the universal tree and bacterial megaclassification". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 52 (Pt 1): 7–76\. doi:10.1099/00207713-52-1-7. PMID 11837318.
58. ^ a b Cavalier-Smith, T. (2006). "Rooting the tree of life by transition analyses". Biology Direct. 1: 19. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-1-19. PMC 1586193. PMID 16834776.
59. ^ a b Pace, N. R. (2009). "Mapping the Tree of Life: Progress and Prospects". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 73 (4): 565–576\. doi:10.1128/MMBR.00033-09. PMC 2786576. PMID 19946133.
60. ^ Fournier, G. P.; Gogarten, J. P. (2010). "Rooting the Ribosomal Tree of Life". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (8): 1792–1801\. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq057. PMID 20194428.
61. ^ Fournier, G. P.; Gogarten, J. P. (2010). "Rooting the Ribosomal Tree of Life". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (8): 1792–1801\. doi:10.1093/molbev/msq057. PMID 20194428.
62. ^ Lake, J.; Servin, J.; Herbold, C.; Skophammer, R. (2008). "Evidence for a New Root of the Tree of Life". Systematic Biology. 57 (6): 835–843\. doi:10.1080/10635150802555933. PMID 19085327.
63. ^ Skophammer, R. G.; Servin, J. A.; Herbold, C. W.; Lake, J. A. (2007). "Evidence for a Gram-positive, Eubacterial Root of the Tree of Life". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 24 (8): 1761–1768\. doi:10.1093/molbev/msm096. PMID 17513883.
64. ^ Valas, R. E.; Bourne, P. E. (2011). "The origin of a derived superkingdom: How a gram-positive bacterium crossed the desert to become an archaeon". Biology Direct. 6: 16. doi:10.1186/1745-6150-6-16. PMC 3056875. PMID 21356104.
65. ^ Gupta, R. S. (1998). "Protein phylogenies and signature sequences: A reappraisal of evolutionary relationships among archaebacteria, eubacteria, and eukaryotes". Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 62 (4): 1435–1491\. doi:10.1128/MMBR.62.4.1435-1491.1998. PMC 98952. PMID 9841678.
66. ^ Gupta, R. S. (1998). "Life's third domain (Archaea): An established fact or an endangered paradigm?". Theoretical Population Biology. 54 (2): 91–104\. doi:10.1006/tpbi.1998.1376. PMID 9733652.
67. ^ Gupta, R. S. (2000). "The Natural Evolutionary Relationships among Prokaryotes". Critical Reviews in Microbiology. 26 (2): 111–131\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.1356. doi:10.1080/10408410091154219. PMID 10890353. S2CID 30541897.
68. ^ Hori, H.; Osawa, S. (1987). "Origin and evolution of organisms as deduced from 5S ribosomal RNA sequences". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 4 (5): 445–472\. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a040455. PMID 2452957.
69. ^ Lake, J. A. (1986). "An alternative to archaebacterial dogma". Nature. 319 (6055): 626. Bibcode:1986Natur.319..626L. doi:10.1038/319626b0. S2CID 4273843.
70. ^ Lake, JA; Henderson, E; Oakes, M; Clark, MW (1984). "Eocytes: A new ribosome structure indicates a kingdom with a close relationship to eukaryotes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 81 (12): 3786–3790\. Bibcode:1984PNAS...81.3786L. doi:10.1073/pnas.81.12.3786. PMC 345305. PMID 6587394.
71. ^ Lake, J. A.; Henderson, E.; Clark, M. W.; Scheinman, A.; Oakes, M. I. (1986). "Mapping evolution with three dimensional ribosome structure". Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 7 (1): 131–136\. Bibcode:1986SyApM...7..131L. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(86)80135-7.
72. ^ Lake, J. (2009). "Evidence for an early prokaryotic endosymbiosis". Nature. 460 (7258): 967–971\. Bibcode:2009Natur.460..967L. doi:10.1038/nature08183. PMID 19693078. S2CID 4413304.
73. ^ a b c d Madigan, Michael (2009). Brock Biology of Microorganisms. San Francisco: Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. ISBN 978-0-13-232460-1.
74. ^ a b Lapage, S.; Sneath, P.; Lessel, E.; Skerman, V.; Seeliger, H.; Clark, W. (1992). International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria: Bacteriological Code, 1990 Revision. Washington, D.C.: ASM Press. PMID 21089234.
75. ^ Dworkin, Martin; Falkow, Stanley; Rosenberg, Eugene; Schleifer, Karl-Heinz; Stackebrandt, Erko, eds. (2006). The Prokaryotes: A Handbook on the Biology of Bacteria: Symbiotic Associations, Biotechnology, Applied Microbiology. Vol. 1 (3 ed.). New York City: Springer. pp. li+959. ISBN 978-0-387-25476-0. OCLC 262687428.
76. ^ Introductory in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
77. ^ Whitman, William B.; Chuvochina, Maria; Hedlund, Brian P.; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T.; Palmer, Marike; Rodriguez-R, Luis M.; Sutcliffe, Iain; Wang, Fengping (March 2024). "Why and how to use the SeqCode". mLife. 3 (1): 1–13\. doi:10.1002/mlf2.12092. PMC 11139209. PMID 38827511.
78. ^ Gupta, Radhey S.; Patel, Sudip; Saini, Navneet; Chen, Shu (1 November 2020). "Robust demarcation of 17 distinct Bacillus species clades, proposed as novel Bacillaceae genera, by phylogenomics and comparative genomic analyses: description of Robertmurraya kyonggiensis sp. nov. and proposal for an emended genus Bacillus limiting it only to the members of the Subtilis and Cereus clades of species". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5753–5798\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004475. PMID 33112222.
79. ^ Chuvochina, M; Mussig, AJ; Chaumeil, PA; Skarshewski, A; Rinke, C; Parks, DH; Hugenholtz, P (17 January 2023). "Proposal of names for 329 higher rank taxa defined in the Genome Taxonomy Database under two prokaryotic codes". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 370. doi:10.1093/femsle/fnad071. PMC 10408702. PMID 37480240.
80. ^ Schoch, Conrad (21 February 2020). "Frequently Asked Questions". Taxonomy Help [Internet]. National Center for Biotechnology Information (US).
81. ^ Balvočiūtė, Monika; Huson, Daniel H. (March 2017). "SILVA, RDP, Greengenes, NCBI and OTT—how do these taxonomies compare?". BMC Genomics. 18 (S2): 114. doi:10.1186/s12864-017-3501-4. PMC 5374703. PMID 28361695.
82. ^ McDonald, Daniel; Jiang, Yueyu; Balaban, Metin; Cantrell, Kalen; Zhu, Qiyun; Gonzalez, Antonio; Morton, James T.; Nicolaou, Giorgia; Parks, Donovan H.; Karst, Søren M.; Albertsen, Mads; Hugenholtz, Philip; DeSantis, Todd; Song, Se Jin; Bartko, Andrew; Havulinna, Aki S.; Jousilahti, Pekka; Cheng, Susan; Inouye, Michael; Niiranen, Teemu; Jain, Mohit; Salomaa, Veikko; Lahti, Leo; Mirarab, Siavash; Knight, Rob (May 2024). "Greengenes2 unifies microbial data in a single reference tree". Nature Biotechnology. 42 (5): 715–718\. doi:10.1038/s41587-023-01845-1. PMC 10818020. PMID 37500913.
83. ^ a b Palleroni, N. J. (2010). "The Pseudomonas Story". Environmental Microbiology. 12 (6): 1377–1383\. Bibcode:2010EnvMi..12.1377P. doi:10.1111/j.1462-2920.2009.02041.x. PMID 20553550.
84. ^ Olsen, G.; Larsen, N.; Woese, C. (1991). "The ribosomal RNA database project". Nucleic Acids Research. 19 Suppl (Suppl): 2017–2021\. doi:10.1093/nar/19.suppl.2017. PMC 331344. PMID 2041798.
85. ^ Cole, J. R.; Wang, Q.; Cardenas, E.; Fish, J.; Chai, B.; Farris, R. J.; Kulam-Syed-Mohideen, A. S.; McGarrell, D. M.; Marsh, T.; Garrity, G. M.; Tiedje, J. M. (2009). "The Ribosomal Database Project: Improved alignments and new tools for rRNA analysis". Nucleic Acids Research. 37 (Database issue): D141 – D145. doi:10.1093/nar/gkn879. PMC 2686447. PMID 19004872.
86. ^ Pruesse, E.; Quast, C.; Knittel, K.; Fuchs, B. M.; Ludwig, W.; Peplies, J.; Glockner, F. O. (2007). "SILVA: A comprehensive online resource for quality checked and aligned ribosomal RNA sequence data compatible with ARB". Nucleic Acids Research. 35 (21): 7188–7196\. doi:10.1093/nar/gkm864. PMC 2175337. PMID 17947321.
87. ^ minimal standards in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
88. ^ "Number of published names".
89. ^ Staley, J. T. (2006). "The bacterial species dilemma and the genomic-phylogenetic species concept". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361 (1475): 1899–1909\. doi:10.1098/rstb.2006.1914. PMC 1857736. PMID 17062409.
90. ^ Gevers, D.; Cohan, F. M.; Lawrence, J. G.; Spratt, B. G.; Coenye, T.; Feil, E. J.; Stackebrandt, E.; Van De Peer, Y. V.; Vandamme, P.; Thompson, F. L.; Swings, J. (2005). "Opinion: Re-evaluating prokaryotic species". Nature Reviews Microbiology. 3 (9): 733–739\. doi:10.1038/nrmicro1236. PMID 16138101. S2CID 41706247.
91. ^ Stackebrandt, E; Goebel, B.M. (1994). "Taxonomic note: a place for DNA–DNA reassociation and 16S rDNA sequence analysis in the present species definition in bacteriology". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 44 (4): 846–849\. doi:10.1099/00207713-44-4-846.
92. ^ Kim, Mincheol; Oh, Hyun-Seok; Park, Sang-Cheol; Chun, Jongsik (1 February 2014). "Towards a taxonomic coherence between average nucleotide identity and 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity for species demarcation of prokaryotes". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 64 (Pt_2): 346–351\. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.059774-0. PMID 24505072.
93. ^ a b c Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P; Auch, Alexander F; Klenk, Hans-Peter; Göker, Markus (December 2013). "Genome sequence-based species delimitation with confidence intervals and improved distance functions". BMC Bioinformatics. 14 (1): 60. doi:10.1186/1471-2105-14-60. PMC 3665452. PMID 23432962.
94. ^ Bartoš, Oldřich; Chmel, Martin; Swierczková, Iva (20 April 2024). "The overlooked evolutionary dynamics of 16S rRNA revises its role as the "gold standard" for bacterial species identification". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 9067. Bibcode:2024NatSR..14.9067B. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-59667-3. PMC 11032355. PMID 38643216.
95. ^ Wayne, L. (1988). "International Committee on Systematic Bacteriology: Announcement of the report of the ad hoc Committee on Reconciliation of Approaches to Bacterial Systematics". Zentralblatt für Bakteriologie, Mikrobiologie und Hygiene. Series A: Medical Microbiology, Infectious Diseases, Virology, Parasitology. 268 (4): 433–434\. doi:10.1016/s0176-6724(88)80120-2. PMID 3213314.
96. ^ Mehlen, André; Goeldner, Marcia; Ried, Sabine; Stindl, Sibylle; Ludwig, Wolfgang; Schleifer, Karl-Heinz (November 2004). "Development of a fast DNA–DNA hybridization method based on melting profiles in microplates". Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 27 (6): 689–695\. Bibcode:2004SyApM..27..689M. doi:10.1078/0723202042369875. ISSN 0723-2020. PMID 15612626.
97. ^ a b Wright, E.; Baum, D. (2018). "Exclusivity offers a sound yet practical species criterion for bacteria despite abundant gene flow". BMC Genomics. 19 (724): 724. doi:10.1186/s12864-018-5099-6. PMC 6171291. PMID 30285620.
98. ^ Palmer, Marike; Steenkamp, Emma T.; Blom, Jochen; Hedlund, Brian P.; Venter, Stephanus N. (1 April 2020). "All ANIs are not created equal: implications for prokaryotic species boundaries and integration of ANIs into polyphasic taxonomy". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (4): 2937–2948\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004124. hdl:2263/81615. PMID 32242793.
99. ^ a b Arahal, David R.; Bull, Carolee T.; Busse, Hans-Jürgen; Christensen, Henrik; Chuvochina, Maria; Dedysh, Svetlana N.; Fournier, Pierre-Edouard; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T.; Parker, Charles T.; Rossello-Mora, Ramon; Ventosa, Antonio; Göker, Markus (27 April 2023). "Judicial Opinions 123–127". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 72 (12). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005708. hdl:10261/295959. PMID 36748499.
100. ^ Staley, J. (1997). "Biodiversity: Are microbial species threatened?". Current Opinion in Biotechnology. 8 (3): 340–345\. doi:10.1016/s0958-1669(97)80014-6. PMID 9206017.
101. ^ Lan, R; Reeves, PR (2002). "Escherichia coli in disguise: molecular origins of Shigella". Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur. 4 (11): 1125–32\. doi:10.1016/S1286-4579(02)01637-4. PMID 12361912.
102. ^ Cobo-Simón, M; Hart, R; Ochman, H (4 January 2023). "Escherichia Coli: What Is and Which Are?". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 40 (1). doi:10.1093/molbev/msac273. PMC 9830988. PMID 36585846.
103. ^ Bavykin, S. G.; Lysov, Y. P.; Zakhariev, V.; Kelly, J. J.; Jackman, J.; Stahl, D. A.; Cherni, A. (2004). "Use of 16S rRNA, 23S rRNA, and gyrB Gene Sequence Analysis to Determine Phylogenetic Relationships of Bacillus cereus Group Microorganisms". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 42 (8): 3711–30\. doi:10.1128/JCM.42.8.3711-3730.2004. PMC 497648. PMID 15297521.
104. ^ Nikolaidis M, Hesketh A, Mossialos D, Iliopoulos I, Oliver SG, Amoutzias GD (August 2022). "A Comparative Analysis of the Core Proteomes within and among the Bacillus subtilis and Bacillus cereus Evolutionary Groups Reveals the Patterns of Lineage- and Species-Specific Adaptations". Microorganisms. 10 (9): 1720. doi:10.3390/microorganisms10091720. PMC 9505155. PMID 36144322.
105. ^ Achtman, M.; Zurth, K.; Morelli, G.; Torrea, G.; Guiyoule, A.; Carniel, E. (1999). "Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague, is a recently emerged clone of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 96 (24): 14043–14048\. Bibcode:1999PNAS...9614043A. doi:10.1073/pnas.96.24.14043. PMC 24187. PMID 10570195.
106. ^ Young, J. M.; Park, D. -C. (2007). "Probable synonymy of the nitrogen-fixing genus Azotobacter and the genus Pseudomonas". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 57 (12): 2894–2901\. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.64969-0. PMID 18048745.
107. ^ Rediers, H; Vanderleyden, J; De Mot, R (2004). "Azotobacter vinelandii: a Pseudomonas in disguise?". Microbiology. 150 (Pt 5): 1117–9\. doi:10.1099/mic.0.27096-0. PMID 15133068.
108. ^ Xu, D; Côté, JC (2003). "Phylogenetic relationships between Bacillus species and related genera inferred from comparison of 3' end 16S rDNA and 5' end 16S-23S ITS nucleotide sequences". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (Pt 3): 695–704\. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02346-0. PMID 12807189.
109. ^ Gupta, Radhey S.; Patel, Sudip; Saini, Navneet; Chen, Shu (1 November 2020). "Robust demarcation of 17 distinct Bacillus species clades, proposed as novel Bacillaceae genera, by phylogenomics and comparative genomic analyses: description of Robertmurraya kyonggiensis sp. nov. and proposal for an emended genus Bacillus limiting it only to the members of the subtilis and cereus clades of species". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5753–5798\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004475. ISSN 1466-5026. PMID 33112222.
110. ^ Patel, Sudip; Gupta, Radhey S. (1 January 2020). "A phylogenomic and comparative genomic framework for resolving the polyphyly of the genus Bacillus: Proposal for six new genera of Bacillus species, Peribacillus gen. nov., Cytobacillus gen. nov., Mesobacillus gen. nov., Neobacillus gen. nov., Metabacillus gen. nov. and Alkalihalobacillus gen. nov". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (1): 406–438\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.003775. ISSN 1466-5026. PMID 31617837.
111. ^ Young, J.; Kuykendall, L.; Martínez-Romero, E.; Kerr, A.; Sawada, H. (2001). "A revision of Rhizobium Frank 1889, with an emended description of the genus, and the inclusion of all species of Agrobacterium Conn 1942 and Allorhizobium undicola de Lajudie et al. 1998 as new combinations: Rhizobium radiobacter, R. Rhizogenes, R. Rubi, R. Undicola and R. Vitis". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 51 (Pt 1): 89–103\. doi:10.1099/00207713-51-1-89. PMID 11211278.
112. ^ Farrand, S.; Van Berkum, P.; Oger, P. (2003). "Agrobacterium is a definable genus of the family Rhizobiaceae". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (Pt 5): 1681–1687\. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02445-0. PMID 13130068.
113. ^ Young, J.; Kuykendall, L.; Martínez-Romero, E.; Kerr, A.; Sawada, H. (2003). "Classification and nomenclature of Agrobacterium and Rhizobium". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 53 (Pt 5): 1689–1695\. doi:10.1099/ijs.0.02762-0. PMID 13130069.
114. ^ Mousavi SA, Österman J, Wahlberg N, Nesme X, Lavire C, Vial L, Paulin L, de Lajudie P, Lindström K (2014). "Phylogeny of the Rhizobium-Allorhizobium-Agrobacterium clade supports the delineation of Neorhizobium gen. nov". Syst Appl Microbiol. 37 (3): 208–215\. Bibcode:2014SyApM..37..208M. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2013.12.007. PMID 24581678.
115. ^ Mousavi SA, Willems A, Nesme X, de Lajudie P, Lindström K (2015). "Revised phylogeny of Rhizobiaceae: Proposal of the delineation of Pararhizobium gen. nov., and 13 new species combinations". Syst Appl Microbiol. 38 (2): 84–90\. Bibcode:2015SyApM..38...84M. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2014.12.003. PMID 25595870.
116. ^ Ramírez-Bahena MH, Vial L, Lassalle F, Diel B, Chapulliot D, Daubin V, Nesme X, Muller D (2014). "Single acquisition of protelomerase gave rise to speciation of a large and diverse clade within the Agrobacterium/Rhizobium supercluster characterized by the presence of a linear chromid". Mol Phylogenet Evol. 73: 202–207\. Bibcode:2014MolPE..73..202R. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.01.005. PMID 24440816.
117. ^ Flores-Félix JD, Menéndez E, Peix A, García-Fraile P, Velázquez E (2020). "History and current taxonomic status of genus Agrobacterium". Syst Appl Microbiol. 43 (1): 126046. Bibcode:2020SyApM..4326046F. doi:10.1016/j.syapm.2019.126046. hdl:10174/28328. PMID 31818496. S2CID 209164436.
118. ^ Gupta RS, Lo B, Son J (2018). "Phylogenomics and Comparative Genomic Studies Robustly Support Division of the Genus Mycobacterium into an Emended Genus Mycobacterium and Four Novel Genera". Frontiers in Microbiology. 9: 67. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2018.00067. PMC 5819568. PMID 29497402.
119. ^ Tortoli E, Brown-Elliott BA, Chalmers JD, Cirillo DM, Daley CL, Emler S, et al. (July 2019). "Same meat, different gravy: ignore the new names of mycobacteria". The European Respiratory Journal. 54 (1): 1900795. doi:10.1183/13993003.00795-2019. PMID 31296783.
120. ^ "Genus: Mycobacteroides". lpsn.dsmz.de. "Mycobacteroides is the correct name instead if this genus is regarded as a separate genus (i.e., if its nomenclatural type is not assigned to another genus whose name is validly published, legitimate and not rejected and has priority)."
121. ^ Gupta, R.S.; Sawnani, S.; Adeolu, M.; Alnajar, S.; Oren, A. (2018). "Phylogenetic framework for the phylum Tenericutes based on genome sequence data: proposal for the creation of a new order Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., containing two new families Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov. and Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov. harbouring Eperythrozoon, Ureaplasma and five novel genera". Antonie van Leeuwenhoek. 111 (9): 1583–1630\. doi:10.1007/s10482-018-1047-3. PMID 29556819. S2CID 254226604.
122. ^ "Genus: Mycoplasmoides". lpsn.dsmz.de.
123. ^ Balish, Mitchell; Bertaccini, Assunta; Blanchard, Alain; Brown, Daniel; Browning, Glenn; Chalker, Victoria; Frey, Joachim; Gasparich, Gail; Hoelzle, Ludwig; Knight, Tom; Knox, Christine; Kuo, Chih-Horng; Manso-Silván, Lucia; May, Meghan; Pollack, J. Dennis (2019). "Recommended rejection of the names Malacoplasma gen. nov., Mesomycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasma gen. nov., Metamycoplasmataceae fam. nov., Mycoplasmoidaceae fam. nov., Mycoplasmoidales ord. nov., Mycoplasmoides gen. nov., Mycoplasmopsis gen. nov. [Gupta, Sawnani, Adeolu, Alnajar and Oren 2018] and all proposed species comb. nov. placed therein". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 69 (11): 3650–3653\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.003632. hdl:11585/720151. ISSN 1466-5034. PMID 31385780.
124. ^ Arahal, David R.; Busse, Hans-Jürgen; Bull, Carolee T.; Christensen, Henrik; Chuvochina, Maria; Dedysh, Svetlana N.; Fournier, Pierre-Edouard; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T.; Parker, Charles T.; Rossello-Mora, Ramon; Ventosa, Antonio; Göker, Markus (10 August 2022). "Judicial Opinions 112–122". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 72 (8). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005481. PMID 35947640. S2CID 251470203.
125. ^

* Janda, JM (September 2015). "Taxonomic update on proposed nomenclature and classification changes for bacteria of medical importance, 2013-2014". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 83 (1): 82–8\. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2015.04.013. PMID 26014276.
* Janda, JM (October 2016). "Taxonomic update on proposed nomenclature and classification changes for bacteria of medical importance, 2015". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 86 (2): 123–7\. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2016.06.021. PMID 27435755.
* Janda, JM (May 2017). "Taxonomic update on proposed nomenclature and classification changes for bacteria of medical importance, 2016". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 88 (1): 100–105\. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2017.02.003. PMID 28238386.
* Janda, JM (June 2019). "Proposed nomenclature or classification changes for bacteria of medical importance: Taxonomic Update 4". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 94 (2): 205–208\. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2018.12.009. PMID 30683468.
* Janda, JM (July 2020). "Proposed nomenclature or classification changes for bacteria of medical importance: taxonomic update 5". Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease. 97 (3): 115047. doi:10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2020.115047. PMID 32321664.

126. ^

* Munson, E; Carroll, KC (21 January 2021). "Summary of Novel Bacterial Isolates Derived from Human Clinical Specimens and Nomenclature Revisions Published in 2018 and 2019". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 59 (2). doi:10.1128/JCM.01309-20. PMC 8111135. PMID 32967902.
* Munson, E; Carroll, KC (26 January 2023). "Update on Accepted Novel Bacterial Isolates Derived from Human Clinical Specimens and Taxonomic Revisions Published in 2020 and 2021". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 61 (1): e0028222. doi:10.1128/jcm.00282-22. PMC 9879126. PMID 36533910.
* Munson, E; Carella, A; Carroll, KC (21 November 2023). "Valid and accepted novel bacterial taxa derived from human clinical specimens and taxonomic revisions published in 2022". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 61 (11): e0083823. doi:10.1128/jcm.00838-23. PMC 10662342. PMID 37889007.
* Carella, A; Carroll, KC; Munson, E (11 December 2024). "Update on novel validly published and included bacterial taxa derived from human clinical specimens and taxonomic revisions published in 2023". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 62 (12): e0100424. doi:10.1128/jcm.01004-24. PMC 11633100. PMID 39495305.

127. ^

* Munson, E; Lawhon, SD; Burbick, CR; Zapp, A; Villaflor, M; Thelen, E (22 February 2023). "An Update on Novel Taxa and Revised Taxonomic Status of Bacteria Isolated from Domestic Animals Described in 2018 to 2021". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 61 (2): e0028122. doi:10.1128/jcm.00281-22. PMC 9945509. PMID 36533907.
* Lawhon, SD; Burbick, CR; Munson, E; Thelen, E; Zapp, A; Wilson, A (19 December 2023). "Update on novel validly published taxa of bacteria isolated from domestic animals described in 2022". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 61 (12): e0083923. doi:10.1128/jcm.00839-23. PMC 10729710. PMID 37889054.
* Lawhon, SD; Burbick, CR; Krueger, T; Ruiz-Reyes, E; Munson, E (11 December 2024). "An update on novel taxa and revised taxonomic status of bacteria isolated from domestic companion and agricultural animals described in 2023". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 62 (12): e0104124. doi:10.1128/jcm.01041-24. PMC 11633096. PMID 39495011.

128. ^ "Glossary :: List of Recommended Names for bacteria of medical importance". lpsn.dsmz.de.
129. ^ "Taxonomic suspension". lpsn.dsmz.de.
130. ^ Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature (2025). "Workflow of the Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature for compiling a list of recommended names". doi:10.5281/zenodo.15320328. `{{cite web}}`: Missing or empty `|url=` (help)
131. ^ Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature (2025). "Guidelines of the Ad Hoc Committee on Mitigating Changes in Prokaryotic Nomenclature". doi:10.5281/zenodo.13871707. `{{cite web}}`: Missing or empty `|url=` (help)
132. ^ Arahal, David R.; Bull, Carolee T.; Busse, Hans-Jürgen; Christensen, Henrik; Chuvochina, Maria; Dedysh, Svetlana N.; Fournier, Pierre-Edouard; Konstantinidis, Konstantinos T.; Parker, Charles T.; Rossello-Mora, Ramon; Ventosa, Antonio; Göker, Markus (27 April 2023). "Judicial Opinions 123–127". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 72 (12). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005708. hdl:10261/295959. PMID 36748499.
133. ^ C. Jeffrey. 1989. Biological Nomenclature, 3rd ed. Edward Arnold, London, 86 pp.
134. ^ app. 9 of BC https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8808/
135. ^ a b c d "Help! Latin! How to avoid the most common mistakes while giving Latin names to newly discovered prokaryotes". List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature. Archived from the original on 7 October 2011. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
136. ^ Classification of Phyla in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
137. ^ a b Oren, Aharon (1 November 2023). "Emendation of Principle 8, Rules 5b, 8, 15, 33a, and Appendix 7 of the International Code of Nomenclature of Prokaryotes to include the categories of kingdom and domain". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 73 (11). doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.006123. PMID 37909283.
138. ^ STACKEBRANDT, E.; RAINEY; WARD-RAINEY, N.L. (1997). "Proposal for a new hierarchic classification system, Actinobacteria classis nov". Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 47 (2): 479–491\. doi:10.1099/00207713-47-2-479.
139. ^ a b Classification in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
140. ^ Oren A, Garrity GM (2021). "Valid publication of the names of forty-two phyla of prokaryotes". Int J Syst Evol Microbiol. 71 (10): 5056. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.005056. PMID 34694987. S2CID 239887308.
141. ^ SCHROETER (J.). In: F. COHN (ed.), Kryptogamenflora von Schlesien. Band 3, Heft 3, Pilze. J.U. Kern's Verlag, Breslau, 1885-1889, pp. 1-814.
142. ^ Salmonella in LPSN; Parte, Aidan C.; Sardà Carbasse, Joaquim; Meier-Kolthoff, Jan P.; Reimer, Lorenz C.; Göker, Markus (1 November 2020). "List of Prokaryotic names with Standing in Nomenclature (LPSN) moves to the DSMZ". International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. 70 (11): 5607–5612\. doi:10.1099/ijsem.0.004332.
143. ^ R. E. BUCHANAN, Taxonomy, Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 1955.9:1-20. http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev.mi.09.100155.000245
144. ^ "FTP link". ftp.ncbi.nih.gov.

* v
* t
* e

Taxonomy of ...

Life|

| Prokaryotes|

* Bacterial taxonomy

|

Eukaryotes|

* Protists
* Diatoms

| Plants|

* Plant taxonomy
* Cultivated plant taxonomy
* Allium
* Liliaceae
* Tulipa
* Narcissus
* Orchidaceae
* Triticum
* Adenanthos
* Banksia
* B. integrifolia
* Cactaceae
* Citrus
* Drosera
* Pachypodium

|

Animals|

* Animals (2003)

| Invertebrates|

* Invertebrates (2003)
* Commonly fossilised invertebrates
* Brachiopoda

| Gastropods|

* Gastropoda
* 2017
* 2005
* 1997
* Conoidea
* Bivalvia (2010)

|

Arthropods|

* Araneae
* Scorpiones
* Dermaptera
* Anopheles
* Lepidoptera
* Lucanidae

Vertebrates|

* Vertebrates (1962)
* Lemuridae
* Homo sapiens

Other|

* Virus classification

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template