Bangladesh Liberation War

1971 Bangladesh–Pakistan armed conflict

Bangladesh Liberation War

Part of the independence of Bangladesh, the Indo-Pakistani conflicts, and the Cold War

Clockwise from top left: Martyred Intellectuals Memorial; Bangladesh Forces howitzer; A. A. K. Niazi signs the Pakistani Instrument of Surrender to the joint forces in the presence of Jagjit Singh Aurora;[1] and the PNS Ghazi
| Date|

* 26 March – 16 December 1971
* (8 months, 2 weeks and 6 days)

|

Location|

East Pakistan (present-day Bangladesh)

Spillovers:

* Eastern Front:
* India–East Pakistan border
* India–East Pakistan enclaves
* parts of East and Northeast India
* Western Front:
* India–West Pakistan border
* Line of Control (Kashmir)
* Zero Point
* Indian Ocean:
* Bay of Bengal (Eastern Front)
* Arabian Sea (Western Front)

Result|  Bangladeshi-Indian victory[2][3][4]

* Surrender of Pakistani forces
* Independence of Bangladesh

Territorial
changes|  East Pakistan secedes from Pakistan as the People's Republic of Bangladesh
Belligerents
Bangladesh
India (3–16 Dec.)|  Pakistan
Commanders and leaders
Political:
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
Tajuddin Ahmad
Indira Gandhi

Military:
M. A. G. Osmani
A. K. Khandker
Ziaur Rahman
K. M. Shafiullah
Khaled Mosharraf
Sam Manekshaw
Jagjit Singh Aurora|

Political:
Yahya Khan
Hamid Khan
Tikka Khan
Abdul Motaleb Malik

Military:
A. A. K. Niazi
Rao Farman Ali
Khadim Hussain Raja

* * *

Militias:
Ghulam Azam
Syed Khwaja Khairuddin
Motiur Rahman Nizami
Fazlul Chaudhry (POW)
Units involved
Mukti Bahini
Indian Armed Forces|

Pakistan Armed Forces

* * *

Paramilitary and Militias:

* Jamaat-e-Islami
* East Pakistan Central Peace Committee
* East Pakistan Civil Armed Force
* Razakars
* Al-Badr
* Al-Shams
* Mujahid Bahini
* Pakistan Democratic Party

Strength
175,000[5][6]
250,000[5]|  ~91,000 regular troops[note 1]
280,000 paramilitary forces[note 1]
~25,000 militiamen[8]
Casualties and losses
~30,000 killed[9]
1,426–1,525 killed[10]
3,611–4,061 wounded[10]|  5,866 killed[11]
~10,000 wounded
90,000–93,000 captured[12] (including 79,676 troops and 10,324–12,192 local militiamen)[10][13]
Civilian deaths:[14] Estimates range between 300,000 and 3,000,000.

* v
* t
* e

Bangladesh Liberation War

CPB-NAP-BSU resistance

Mukti Bahini resistance

* Searchlight
* Jackpot
* Barisal
* 1st Kamalpur
* 2nd Kamalpur
* Daruin
* Nakshi Border Outpost
* Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway
* Goalhati
* Dhalai Border Outpost
* Garibpur§
* Gazipur§

Sylhet§
* Kushtia
* Ghasipur
* Belonia Bulge

Shiromoni
* Bogra§

Indian intervention

* Cactus-Lilly
* Chengiz Khan
* Jackpot‡
* PNS Ghazi
* Trident
* Python
* Kamalpur
* Basantar
* Boyra

Chamb
* Dhalai
* Hilli‡
* Longewala
* Sylhet‡
* Meghna Heli Bridge
* Tangail
* Shiromoni
* Air War‡
* Naval War

* * *

Bangladesh genocide

* Dhaka University
* Shankharipara
* Jinjira
* Akhira
* Jathibhanga
* Demra
* Chuknagar
* Madhyapara
* Bakhrabad
* Burunga

Systematic events

* Agartala Conspiracy Case
* Killing of intellectuals
* Rape
* Provisional Government
* Refugees in India
* Pakistani Instrument of Surrender

* * *

§ indicates events in the internal resistance movement linked to the Indo-Pakistani War.
‡ indicates events in the Indo-Pakistani War linked to the internal resistance movement in Bangladesh.

Part of a series on the

Independence of Bangladesh
Events

* Partition of Bengal
* Bengali language movement
* Six point movement
* Agartala Conspiracy Case
* Eleven Points Programme
* East Pakistan mass uprising
* Pakistani general election
* Non-cooperation movement
* 7 March Speech
* Operation Searchlight
* Proclamation of Independence

Organisations

* East Pakistan Renaissance Society
* Awami League
* United Front
* East Pakistan Communist Party
* Sarbadaliya Chhatra Sangram Parishad
* Swadhin Bangla Biplobi Parishad
* Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra

Key persons

* Abul Kalam Shamsuddin
* Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury
* Mujibur Rahman Khan
* Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
* Serajul Alam Khan
* Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
* Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani
* Ataur Rahman Khan

Related

* Lahore Resolution
* United Bengal
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* International recognition

Bangladesh portal

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on the

History of Bengal

Ancient Kingdoms

* Pundravardhana
* Vanga
* Suhma
* Rarha
* Samatata
* Anga
* Harikela
* Pragjyotisha

Classical Dynasties

* Gangaridai
* Bhulua
* Nandas
* Mauryans
* Shungas
* Guptas
* Varmanas
* Gaudas
* Kamarupa
* Jaintia
* Gour
* Laur
* Mallabhum
* Bhadras
* Khadgas
* Palas
* Kamboja Palas
* Senas
* Chandras
* Devas
* Pratapgarh
* Taraf

Islamic Bengal

* Delhi Sultanate
* Khalji dynasty
* Mamluk dynasty
* Tughlaq dynasty
* House of Balban
* City states:
* Sonargaon
* Lakhnauti
* Satgaon
* Bengal Sultanate:
* Ilyas Shahi dynasty
* House of Ganesha
* Hussain Shahi dynasty
* Karrani dynasty
* Sur Empire
* Twelve Bhuyan Confederacy
* Kingdom of Mrauk U
* Jaintia Kingdom
* Pratapgarh Kingdom
* Koch dynasty
* Kingdom of Tripura
* Kingdom of Bhurshut
* Mughal Empire:
* Bengal Subah
* Burdwan Raj
* Rajshahi Raj
* Nadia Raj
* Bettiah Raj
* Nawabs of Bengal
* Zamindars
* Maratha expeditions in Bengal

Colonial Bengal

* Portuguese Chittagong
* Dutch Bengal
* French Bengal
* Danish Bengal
* Austrian Bengal

* British Bengal
* Battle of Plassey
* Bengal famine of 1770
* Santal Revolt
* Chuar rebellion
* Indian Mutiny of 1857
* Bihar famine of 1873–74
* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Eastern Bengal and Assam
* Bengali Renaissance
* Bengal famine of 1943
* Direct Action Day
* Radcliffe Line
* Partition of Bengal (1947)

Post-partition era

* East Bengal/East Pakistan(1947–1971)
* East Bengali refugees
* History of East Pakistan
* 1964 East Pakistan riots
* Bengali language movement
* Bangladesh Liberation War

Modern period

* West Bengal 1947–present
* Bangladesh 1971–present

Related

* Architecture of Bengal
* History of Bengali literature
* Bangamata
* History of the taka
* Muslin trade in Bengal
* List of governors of Bengal Presidency
* Prime Minister of Bengal
* Maritime history of Bengal

* v
* t
* e

Part of a series on the

History of Bangladesh

* Etymology
* Timeline
* Traditional
* Urheimat

Ancient

|  Neolithic|  7600 - 3300 BCE

|

Bronze Age|  3300 – 1200 BCE
Pundra kingdom|  c.1280 – c. 300 BCE
Iron Age|  1200 – 200 BCE
Vanga kingdom|  c.1100 – c. 340 BCE
House of Vijaya|  543 BCE - 66 CE
Northern Culture|  700 – 200 BCE
Gangaridai|  c. 350 – c. 300 BCE
Nanda Dynasty|  c. 345 BCE– c. 322 BCE
Mauryan Empire|  325 – 185 BCE
Samatata kingdom|  c. 232 BCE – 800 AD
Shunga and Kushan|  c. 185 BCE – c. 75 CE
Southwestern Silk Road|  c. 114 BCE – c. 1450 CE
Indo-Roman trade relations|  c. 30 BCE – c. 600 CE
Gupta Empire|  240 – 550 CE
Kamarupa kingdom|  350 – 1140 CE

Medieval

|  Jaintia Kingdom|  500 – 1835 CE

|

Gauda Kingdom|  590 – 626 CE
Laur kingdom|  600 - 1565 CE
Harikela kingdom|  600 - 650 CE
Gour Kingdom|  600 – 1303 CE
Khadga dynasty|  650 – 750 CE
Bhadra dynasty|  c. 700s CE
Pala Empire|  750 – 1100 CE
Chandra dynasty|  900 – 1050 CE
Sena dynasty|  1070 – 1320 CE
Deva dynasty|  1100 – 1250 CE
Ghurid Conquest|  1202 CE
Khaljis of Bengal|  1204 - 1231 CE
Taraf Kingdom|  c. 1200s – c. 1600s CE
Bhulua Kingdom|  1203 – 1600s CE
Delhi Sultanate|  1204 – 1338 CE
Mamluk Dynasty|  1206 – 1290 CE
Khalji Dynasty|  1290 – 1320 CE
Tugluq Dynasty|  1320 – 1338,1342 CE
City State Sultanates|
Sonargaon|  1338 – 1352 CE
Lakhnauti/Gauda|  1342 – 1352 CE
Satagon/Saptagram|  1342 – 1352 CE
Twipra Kingdom|  c. 1400 – 1949 CE
Bengal Sultanate|  1352 – 1576 CE
Ilyas Shahi dynasty|  1342 – 1487 CE
House of Ganesha|  1414 – 1436 CE
Habshi dynasty|  1487 – 1494 CE
Hussein Shahi|  1494 – 1538 CE
Suri Interruption|  1539 – 1554 CE
Muhammad Shahi|  1554 – 1564 CE
Karrani dynasty|  1564 – 1576 CE
Pratapgarh Kingdom|  1489 – 1700s CE

Early Modern

|  Koch Kingdom|  1515 – 1956 CE

|

Suri Dynasty|  1540 – 1556 CE
Twelve Bhuyans|  1550 – 1620 CE
Porto Grande de Bengala|  1528 – 1666 CE
Kingdom of Mrauk U|  1530 – 1666 CE
Mughal Empire|  1576 – 1717 CE
Bengal Subah|  1576 – 1717 CE
Rajshahi Raj|  c. 1700s - 1950 CE
Zamindars|  1700s - 1900s CE
Pratapaditya Kingdom|  1602 – 1611 CE
Sitaram Ray Kingdom|  1688 – 1714 CE
Nawabs of Bengal|  1717 – 1757 CE
Maratha Invasions|  1742 - 1751 CE
Afghan insurrections|  1745 - 1750 CE
Siege of Calcutta|  1756 CE
Shamsher Gazi's Kingdom|  1748 – 1760 CE
Company Raj|  1757 – 1858 CE
Bengal famine of 1770|  1770 CE
Bengal Renaissance|  1772 - 1913 CE
Faraizi movement|  1818 – 1884 CE
The Great Rebellion|  1857 – 1858 CE
Tariqah-i-Muhammadiya|  1830 – 1831 CE
Titumir's rebellion|  1830s CE
British Raj|  1858 – 1947 CE
Partition of Bengal|  1905 CE
Bengal and Assam|  1905 - 1912 CE
Bengal Famine|  1943 CE
Bengali Prime Minister|  1937 - 1947 CE
Noakhali riots|  1946 CE

Modern

|  East Bengal|  1947 – 1955 CE

|

Partition of Bengal (1947)|  1947 CE
East Bengali refugees|  1947 CE
Bengali language movement|  1948 – 1956 CE
East Pakistan|  1955 – 1971 CE
1964 East Pakistan riots|  1964 CE
Indo-Pakistani war of 1965|  1965 CE
Six Point movement|  1966 CE
East Pakistan Uprising|  1969 CE
Pakistani general election|  1970 CE
Non-cooperation |  1971 CE
Bangladesh Liberation War|  1971 CE
Independence Declaration|  1971 CE
Provisional Government|  1971 – 1972 CE
Bangladesh genocide|  1971 CE
Surrender of Pakistan|  1971 CE

Contemporary

|  Bangladesh famine|  1974 CE

|

Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League|  1975 CE
Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman|  1975 CE
Jail Killing Day|  1975 CE
Military rule|  1975 – 1990 CE
Military coups in Bangladesh|  1975 - 2011 CE
Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict|  1977 - 1997 CE
Mass Uprising|  1990 CE
Transition to democracy|  1991 – 2008 CE
Caretaker government of Bangladesh|  1996 CE
Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord|  1997 CE
Bangladeshi political crisis|  2006–2008 CE
Hasina era|  2009–2024 CE
Vision 2021 and Digital Bangladesh|  2008 CE
Bangladesh Rifles revolt|  2009 CE
Shapla Square protests|  2013 CE
Bangladesh quota reform movement|  2013 CE
International Crimes Tribunal|  2009 CE
2015 Bangladeshi political crisis|  2015 CE
2018 Bangladesh road-safety protests|  2018 CE
2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement|  2018 CE
2021 Bangladesh Communal Violence|  2021 CE
Smart Bangladesh|
Bangladesh protests (2022–2024)|  2022- 2024 CE
July Revolution|  2024 CE
Aftermath of July Revolution|  2024–present CE
Yunus ministry|

Related articles

* Timeline of Bangladeshi history
* Bangladeshi art
* Bengali literature

Bangladesh portal

* v
* t
* e

The Bangladesh Liberation War[note 2] (Bengali: মুক্তিযুদ্ধ, pronounced [mukt̪iɟud̪d̪ʱo]), also known as the Bangladesh War of Independence, was an armed conflict sparked by the rise of the Bengali nationalist and self-determination movement in East Pakistan, which resulted in the independence of Bangladesh. The war began when the Pakistani military junta based in West Pakistan—under the orders of Yahya Khan—launched Operation Searchlight against East Pakistanis on the night of 25 March 1971, initiating the Bangladesh genocide.[17]

In response to the violence, members of the Mukti Bahini—a guerrilla resistance movement formed by Bengali military, paramilitary and civilians—launched a mass guerrilla war against the Pakistani military, liberating numerous towns and cities in the war's initial months. At first, the Pakistan Army regained momentum during the monsoon, but Bengali guerrillas counterattacked by carrying out widespread sabotage, including through Operation Jackpot against the Pakistan Navy, while the nascent Bangladesh Air Force flew sorties against Pakistani military bases.[18] India joined the war on 3 December 1971, after Pakistan launched preemptive air strikes on northern India. The subsequent Indo-Pakistani War involved fighting on two fronts; with air supremacy achieved in the eastern theater and the rapid advance of the Allied Forces of Mukti Bahini and the Indian military, Pakistan surrendered in Dhaka on 16 December 1971, in what remains to date the largest surrender of armed personnel since the Second World War.[19]

Rural and urban areas across East Pakistan saw extensive military operations and air strikes to suppress the tide of civil disobedience that formed after the 1970 election stalemate. The Pakistan Army, backed by Islamists, created radical religious militias—the Razakars, Al-Badr and Al-Shams—to assist it during raids on the local populace.[20][21][22][23][24] Members of the Pakistani military and supporting militias engaged in mass murder, deportation and genocidal rape, pursuing a systematic campaign of annihilation against nationalist Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia, religious minorities and armed personnel. The capital, Dhaka, was the scene of numerous massacres, including the Dhaka University massacre. Sectarian violence also broke out between Bengalis and Urdu-speaking Biharis. An estimated 10 million Bengali refugees fled to neighboring India, while 30 million were internally displaced.[25]

The war changed the geopolitical landscape of South Asia, with the emergence of Bangladesh as the world's seventh-most populous country. Due to complex regional alliances, the war was a major episode in Cold War tensions involving the United States, the Soviet Union and China. The majority of member states in the United Nations recognized Bangladesh as a sovereign nation in 1972.

## Background

[edit]

A map of the British Raj in 1909 showing Muslim majority areas in green, including modern-day Bangladesh in the east and Pakistan in the west

Before the Partition of British India, the Lahore Resolution initially envisaged separate Muslim-majority states in British India's eastern and northwestern zones. A proposal for an independent United Bengal was mooted by Prime Minister Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy in 1946 but opposed by the colonial authorities. The East Pakistan Renaissance Society advocated the creation of a sovereign state in eastern British India.[26]

Political negotiations led, in August 1947, to the official birth of two states, Pakistan and India,[27] giving presumably permanent homes for Muslims and Hindus, respectively, after the British departed. The Dominion of Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west, with India in between.[28]

The western zone was popularly (and, for a period, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern-day Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later East Pakistan. Although the two zones' population was close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan, and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also seen as a challenge.[29]

On 25 March 1971, after an election won by an East Pakistani political party (the Awami League) was ignored by the ruling (West Pakistani) establishment, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal[30] and suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation Searchlight.[31] The Pakistan Army's violent crackdown[32] led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring East Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971.[33] Most Bengalis supported this move, although some Islamists and Biharis opposed it and sided with the Pakistan Army instead.[34]

Pakistani President Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war.[33] The war led a substantial number of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million)[35][36] to flood India's eastern provinces.[37] Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India actively aided and organized the Bangladeshi resistance army, the Mukti Bahini.[citation needed]

### Language controversy

[edit]

Main article: Bengali language movement

In 1948, Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" would be Pakistan's federal language.[38][39] But Urdu was historically prevalent only in the north, central, and western subcontinent; in East Bengal, the native language was Bengali, one of the two most easterly branches of the Indo-European languages.[40] Bengali speakers constituted over 56% of Pakistan's population.[41][42]

The government stand was widely viewed as an attempt to suppress the culture of the eastern wing. The people of East Bengal demanded that their language be given federal status alongside Urdu and English. The Language Movement began in 1948, as civil society protested the removal of Bengali script from currency and stamps, which were in place since the British Raj.[43]

The movement reached its climax in 1952, when on 21 February, the police fired on protesting students and civilians, causing several deaths. The day is revered in Bangladesh as the Language Movement Day. In memory of the deaths, UNESCO declared 21 February International Mother Language Day in November 1999.[43]

### Disparities

[edit]

Although, East Pakistan had the larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and received more money from the common budget.[citation needed]

Year  | Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees)  | Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of Pakistani rupees)  | Amount spent on East as percentage of West

|
|
|

1950–55 | 11,290 | 5,240 | 46.4
1955–60 | 16,550 | 5,240 | 31.7
1960–65 | 33,550 | 14,040 | 41.8
1965–70 | 51,950 | 21,410 | 41.2
Total | 113,340 | 45,930 | 40.5
Source: Reports of the Advisory Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970–75, Vol. I,
published by the planning commission of Pakistan.

East Pakistan was already economically disadvantaged at the time of Pakistan's creation yet this economic disparity only increased under Pakistani rule. Factors included not only the deliberate state discrimination in developmental policies but also the fact that the presence of the country's capital and more immigrant businessmen in the Western Wing directed greater government allocations there. Due to low numbers of native businessmen in East Pakistan, substantial labor unrest and a tense political environment, there were also much lower foreign investments in the eastern wing. The Pakistani state's economic outlook was geared towards urban industry, which was not compatible with East Pakistan's mainly agrarian economy.[44]

Also, Bengalis were underrepresented in the Pakistani military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the armed forces made up just 5% of the overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the majority in technical or administrative posts.[45] West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined", unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; Bengalis dismissed the "martial races" notion as ridiculous and humiliating.[45]

Moreover, despite huge defense spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing and military support jobs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under-strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support were in East Pakistan to repulse any Indian retaliations during the conflict.[46][47]

### Ideological and cultural differences

[edit]

Language movement memorial

In 1947, the Bengali Muslims had identified themselves with Pakistan's Islamic project, but by the 1970s, the people of East Pakistan had given priority to their Bengali ethnicity over their religious identity, desiring a society in accordance with Western principles such as secularism, democracy and socialism.[48] Many Bengali Muslims strongly objected to the Islamist paradigm the Pakistani state imposed.[49]

Most members of West Pakistan's ruling elite shared a vision of a liberal society, but nevertheless viewed a common faith as an essential mobilizing factor behind Pakistan's creation and the subsuming of Pakistan's multiple regional identities into one national identity.[49] West Pakistanis were substantially more supportive than East Pakistanis of an Islamic state, a tendency that persisted after 1971.[50]

Cultural and linguistic differences between the two wings gradually outweighed any sense of religious unity. The Bengalis took great pride in their culture and language which, with its Bengali script and vocabulary, was unacceptable to the West Pakistani elite, who believed that it had assimilated considerable Hindu cultural influences.[48][51] West Pakistanis, in an attempt to "Islamise" the East, wanted the Bengalis to adopt Urdu.[48] The activities of the language movement nurtured a sentiment among Bengalis in favor of discarding Pakistan's communalism in favor of secular politics.[52] The Awami League began propagating its secular message through its newspaper to the Bengali readership.[53]

The Awami League's emphasis on secularism differentiated it from the Muslim League.[54] In 1971, the Bangladeshi liberation struggle against Pakistan was led by secular leaders[55] and secularists hailed the Bangladeshi victory as the triumph of secular Bengali nationalism over religion-centred Pakistani nationalism.[56] While Pakistan's government strives for an Islamic state, Bangladesh was established secular.[50] After the liberation victory, the Awami League attempted to build a secular order[57] and the pro-Pakistan Islamist parties were barred from political participation.[58] The majority of East Pakistani ulama had either remained neutral or supported the Pakistani state, since they felt that the breakup of Pakistan would be detrimental for Islam.[59]

### Political differences

[edit]

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the leader of East Pakistan, and later Bangladesh

Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population,[60] political power remained in the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit" scheme, whereby all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's votes.[citation needed]

After the 1951 assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister, political power began to devolve to the new position of President of Pakistan, which replaced the office of Governor General when Pakistan became a republic, and, eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister, was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.[citation needed]

The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment swiftly deposed any East Pakistanis elected leader of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Mohammad Ali Bogra, Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, and Iskander Mirza. Their suspicions were further aggravated by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 – 25 March 1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 – 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax in 1970, when the Bangladesh Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a former Foreign Minister), the leader of the Pakistan People's Party, refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan.[61]

Instead, he proposed the idea of having two Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other constitutional innovation, the "One Unit scheme". Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's Six Points. On 3 March 1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dacca to decide the fate of the country.[61]

After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Mubashir Hassan.[61] A message was conveyed, and Rahman decided to meet Bhutto.[61] Upon his arrival, Rahman met with Bhutto and both agreed to form a coalition government with Rahman as premier and Bhutto as president,[61] but Sheikh Mujib later ruled out such a possibility.[62] Meanwhile, the military was unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Rahman to reach a decision.[61]

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse Ground (now the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:[citation needed]

* The immediate lifting of martial law.
* Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks.
* An inquiry into the loss of life.
* Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March.

He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered[by whom?] the main event that inspired the nation to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown into Dacca to become Governor of East Bengal. East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.[citation needed]

Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines canceled all its international routes to urgently fly "government passengers" to Dacca. These "government passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harbored in Chittagong Port, but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.[63][64][65]

### Response to the 1970 cyclone

[edit]

Main article: 1970 Bhola cyclone

The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the same time as a local high tide,[66] killing an estimated 300,000 people. A 2017 World Meteorological Organization panel considers it the deadliest tropical cyclone since at least 1873.[67] A week after the landfall, President Khan conceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.[68]

A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down the magnitude of the problem in news coverage.[69] On 19 November, students held a march in Dacca protesting the slowness of the government's response.[70] Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.[citation needed]

As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dacca offices of the two government organizations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning was curtailed.[71] This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the creation of Bangladesh. This was one of the first times that a natural event helped trigger a civil war.[72]

### Operation Searchlight

[edit]

Main article: Operation Searchlight

The location of Bengali and Pakistani military units during Operation Searchlight, March 1971

A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army—codenamed Operation Searchlight—started on 25 March 1971 to curb the Bengali independence movement[31] by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then eliminating all opposition, political or military,[73] within one month. The Pakistani state used anti-Bihari violence by Bengalis in early March to justify Operation Searchlight.[74]

Before the beginning of the operation, all foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.[75]

The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May. The operation also began the Bangladesh genocide. These systematic killings served only to enrage the Bengalis, resulting in East Pakistan's secession later that year. Bangladeshi media and reference books in English have published casualty figures that vary greatly, from 5,000 to 35,000 in Dacca, and 300,000 to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole.[76] Independent researchers, including the British Medical Journal, have put forward figures ranging from 125,000 to 505,000.[77] American political scientist Rudolph Rummel puts total deaths at 1.5 million.[78] The atrocities have been called acts of genocide.[79]

According to the Asia Times:[80]

> At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat out of our hands". Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation Searchlight to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males just picked up and gunned down.

Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dacca, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential halls of the University of Dacca were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall—Jagannath Hall—was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The Pakistani army denied any cold-blooded killings at the university, but the Hamoodur Rahman Commission in Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used. This fact, and the massacre at Jagannath Hall and nearby student dormitories of Dacca University, are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Professor Nurul Ula of the East Pakistan University of Engineering and Technology, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.[81]

The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West, when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favorable to Pakistan, instead fled to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in The Sunday Times describing the systematic killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi saying that Mascarenhas' article led her "to prepare the ground for India's armed intervention".[82]

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General) Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Rahman with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentence was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dacca to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General Yahya Khan.[83]

### Declaration of independence

[edit]

See also: Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence and 7 March Speech of Bangabandhu

Independence proclamation messages by Rahman

The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971 proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a settlement. Following these incidents, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:[citation needed]

> Today, Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in Dacca. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh. Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla [May Bangladesh be victorious].

Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Rahman was arrested on the night of 25–26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).[citation needed]

An iconic Bengali nationalist propaganda poster by Quamrul Hassan on General Yahya Khan, representing the Pakistani military junta as demons[84]

A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The message was translated into Bengali by Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Pakistan Broadcasting Corporation, but the message was read several times by the independent Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendro Radio established by rebel Bangali Radio workers in Kalurghat. Major Ziaur Rahman was requested to provide security for the station and also read the Declaration on 27 March 1971.[85] He broadcast the announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman:

> This is Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that Independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been established. At his direction, I have taken the command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalees to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani Army. We shall fight to the last to free our motherland. Victory is, by the Grace of Allah, ours. Joy Bangla.[86]

The Kalurghat Radio Station's transmission capability was limited, but the message was picked up by a Japanese ship in the Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia[86] and later by the BBC.

M. A. Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971.[87]

26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as Bangladesh.[88] Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December 1971.[citation needed]

## Liberation War

[edit]

Main articles: Mukti Bahini and Timeline of the Bangladesh Liberation War

### March–June

[edit]

At first, resistance was spontaneous and disorganized, and was not expected to be prolonged.[89] But when the Pakistani Army cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell them, but increasingly many Bengali soldiers defected to this underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and reorganizing their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of Razakars, Al-Badrs and Al-Shams (mostly members of the Muslim League and other Islamist groups), as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.[citation needed]

On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur District in western Bangladesh bordering India with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as president, Syed Nazrul Islam as acting president, Tajuddin Ahmad as prime minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief, Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10 million Bengalis sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.[citation needed]

### June–September

[edit]

See also: List of sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War and Military plans of the Bangladesh Liberation War

The eleven sectors during the Bangladesh Liberation War An advertisement for former Beatle George Harrison's "Bangla Desh" single, released in July 1971 to raise international awareness and funds for the millions of Bangladeshi refugees

Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M. A. G. Osmani as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of Cabinet Minister, Lt. Col. Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain A. K. Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A. R. Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).[citation needed]

Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership about the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership initially envisioned a well trained force of 8,000 guerrillas, operating in small cells around Bangladesh to facilitate eventual conventional combat.[90] With the Bangladesh government in exile, Osmani favored a different strategy:[91][92]

* Bengali conventional forces would occupy lodgments inside Bangladesh and the Bangladesh government would request international diplomatic recognition and intervention. Initially Mymensingh was picked for this operation, but Osmani later settled on Sylhet.
* Sending the maximum number of guerrillas into Bangladesh as soon as possible with the following objectives:[93][94]
* Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush.
* Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication networks.
* Destroy Pakistan Army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts.
* The strategic objective was to make the Pakistanis spread their forces inside the province, so attacks could be made on isolated Pakistani detachments.

Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July,[95] each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to lead guerrilla operations.[citation needed] The Mukti Bahini forces were given two to five weeks of training by the Indian army on guerrilla warfare.[96] Most of their training camps were near the border area and operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was placed under Osmani's command and included the Naval Commandos and C-in-C's special force.[97] Three brigades (eventually 8 battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force (estimated at 100,000) was trained.[98]

Five infantry battalions were reformed and positioned along the northern and eastern borders of Bangladesh. Three more battalions were raised, and artillery batteries were formed.[99] During June and July, Mukti Bahini regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and began sending 2,000–5,000 guerrillas across the border,[100] the so-called Monsoon Offensive, which for various reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh) failed to achieve its objectives.[101][102] Bengali regular forces also attacked border outposts in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive, which proved a near-accurate observation.[103]

Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military targets in Dacca were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong, Mongla, Narayanganj and Chandpur on 15 August 1971.[104][105]

### October–December

[edit]

See also: Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971; Pakistan Army order of battle, December 1971; Evolution of Pakistan Eastern Command plan; and Operation Jackpot

Major battles

* Battle of Boyra
* Battle of Garibpur
* Battle of Dhalai
* Battle of Hilli
* Battle of Kushtia

Bangladeshi conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few examples. 90 out of 370 border outposts fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar.[5] Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another five battalions from West Pakistan as reinforcements.[citation needed]

## Indian involvement

[edit]

See also: Indo-Pakistani war of 1971

Illustration showing military units and troop movements during the war

> All unprejudiced persons objectively surveying the grim events in Bangladesh since March 25 have recognised the revolt of 75 million people, a people who were forced to the conclusion that neither their life, nor their liberty, to say nothing of the possibility of the pursuit of happiness, was available to them.

> — Indira Gandhi, Letter to Richard Nixon, 15 December 1971[citation needed]

Indira Gandhi

Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi concluded that instead of taking in millions of refugees, India would be economically better off going to war against Pakistan.[106] As early as 28 April 1971, the Indian Cabinet had asked General Manekshaw (Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee) to "Go into East Pakistan".[107] Hostile relations in the past between India and Pakistan added to India's decision to intervene in Pakistan's civil war.[106]

As a result, the Indian government decided to support the creation of a separate state for ethnic Bengalis by supporting the Mukti Bahini.[108] RAW helped to organize, train and arm these insurgents. Consequently, the Mukti Bahini succeeded in harassing Pakistani military in East Pakistan, creating conditions conducive to a full-scale Indian military intervention in early December.[106]

The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a preemptive strike on Indian Air Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modeled on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during the Six-Day War and intended to neutralize the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. India saw the strike as an open act of unprovoked aggression, which marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War. In response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between the two countries" even though neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.[109]

Allied Indian T-55 tanks on their way to Dacca

Three Indian corps were involved in the liberation of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more who were fighting irregularly. That was far superior to the Pakistani army of three divisions.[110] The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been deployed in small units around the border to counter the guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini.[111] Unable to defend Dacca, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.[citation needed]

### Air and naval war

[edit]

The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies of East Pakistan. It achieved near-total air supremacy by the end of the first week, as the entire Pakistani air contingent in the east, PAF No.14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian and Bangladeshi airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitola, Lalmonirhat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from the carrier INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox's Bazar, destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, cutting off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most notably Operation Jackpot.[112][better source needed]

## Surrender and aftermath

[edit]

Further information: Pakistani Instrument of Surrender

See also: Delhi Agreement

Pakistani Instrument of Surrender Signing of Pakistani Instrument of Surrender by Pakistan's Lt.Gen. A. A. K. Niazi and Jagjit Singh Aurora on behalf of Indian and Bangladesh Forces in Dhaka on 16 Dec. 1971

On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, Chief Martial Law Administrator of East Pakistan and Commander of Pakistan Army forces in East Pakistan signed the Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces and Bangladesh Liberation forces, making it the largest surrender since World War II.[12][113]

Bangladesh sought admission to the UN with most voting in its favor. China vetoed this as Pakistan was its key ally.[114] The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord Bangladesh recognition.[115] To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognized the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani PoWs.[116]

India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925.[116] It released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.[12] Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were pardoned by India.[117] The accord also gave back 13,000 km2 (5,019 sq mi) of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas,[118] most notably Kargil (which was in turn the focal point of a war between the two nations in 1999). This was done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by India. But some in India[119] felt the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if Pakistanis perceived the accord as overly harsh.[citation needed]

### Reaction in West Pakistan to the war

[edit]

Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike. Few had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power.[120][121]

General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops, was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan".[120][121]

## Atrocities

[edit]

Main articles: 1971 Bangladesh genocide, 1971 killing of Bengali intellectuals, and Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War

Rayerbazar killing field photographed immediately after the war, showing dead bodies of intellectuals (image courtesy: Rashid Talukder, 1971)

During the war, there were widespread killings and other atrocities—including the displacement of civilians in Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights beginning with Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971. Members of the Pakistani military and supporting paramilitary forces killed an estimated 300,000[82] to 3,000,000 people[122] and raped between 200,000 and 400,000 Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape.[123][124] Pakistan's religious leaders openly supported the crime by labeling Bengali freedom fighters "Hindus" and Bengali women "the booty of war".[125] In fact, more than 80 percent of the Bengali people were Muslims at that time.[126]

A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badr forces,[127] at the instruction of the Pakistani Army.[128] Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971, Pakistan Army and the Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and engineers in Dacca, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave.[129]

Memorial for freedom fighters

Many mass graves have been discovered in Bangladesh.[130] The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dacca to the U.S. State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dacca University and other civilians.[131] Numerous women were tortured, raped, and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are debated. The widespread rape of Bangladeshi women led to birth of thousands of war babies.[132][133][134]

The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex slaves inside the Dacca Cantonment. Most were captured from Dacca University and private homes.[135] There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army,[136] but also by Bengali nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis.[137] In June 1971, Bihari representatives said that 500,000 Biharis were killed by Bengalis.[138] R. J. Rummel gives a prudent estimate of 150,000 killed.[139]

On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between U.S. embassy officials and United States Information Service centers in Dacca and India, and officials in Washington, D.C.[131] These documents show that U.S. officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide"[140] and "genocide" (see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time. Genocide is the term still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh,[141][142] although in Pakistan, the accusations against Pakistani forces continue to be disputed.[citation needed]

## International reactions

[edit]

Former French minister André Malraux vowed to fight alongside the Mukti Bahini in the Liberation War.[143][144]

Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, a worldwide campaign was undertaken by the Provisional Government of Bangladesh to drum up political support for the independence of East Pakistan as well as humanitarian support for the Bengali people.[citation needed]

Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi provided extensive diplomatic and political support to the Bangladesh movement. She toured many countries in a bid to create awareness of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world's context of the war and to justify military action by India.[145] Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensured prompt recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.[citation needed]

### United Nations

[edit]

Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.[citation needed]

After India entered the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to intervene and force India to agree to a ceasefire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution for "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on the resolution.[109][146]

On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be reconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York City to make the case for a resolution on the ceasefire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the time proposals were finalized, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations, ripped up his speech and left the council.[146]

Most UN member nations were quick to recognize Bangladesh within months of its independence.[145]

### Bhutan

[edit]

As the Bangladesh Liberation War approached the defeat of the Pakistan Army, the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan became the first state in the world to recognize the newly independent country on 6 December 1971.[147] Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the first President of Bangladesh, visited Bhutan to attend the coronation of Jigme Singye Wangchuck, the fourth King of Bhutan in June 1974.[citation needed]

### US and USSR

[edit]

Senator Ted Kennedy led US congressional support for Bangladeshi independence.

The US government stood by its old ally Pakistan in terms of diplomacy and military threats.[148] US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic of China, with which Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and the regional position of United States new tacit ally, China.[149][150]

To demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran,[149] while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan, most notably the Blood telegram.[150]

The Nixon administration was widely criticized for its close ties with the military junta led by General Yahya Khan. American diplomats in East Pakistan expressed profound dissent in the Blood Telegram.

Nixon denied getting involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain, he sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal,[151] a move the Indians deemed a nuclear threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed US Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean from 18 December until 7 January 1972.[152][153]

The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals—the United States and the People's Republic of China. It gave assurances to India that if a confrontation with the U.S. or China developed, the USSR would take countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.[154]

At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The Soviet Union accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972.[155] The United States delayed recognition for some months, before according it on 8 April 1972.[156]

### China

[edit]

As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. On 10 December 1971, Nixon instructed Kissinger to ask the Chinese to move some forces toward the frontier with India. Nixon said, "Threaten to move forces or move them, Henry, that's what they must do now". Kissinger met with Huang Hua, China's Permanent Representative to the United Nations, later that evening.[157][158][159]

The Chinese did not respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962 Sino-Indian War, when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality.[109] China instead threw its weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.[citation needed]

When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed its application[160] because two U.N. resolutions about the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been implemented.[161] China was also among the last countries to recognize independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so until 31 August 1975.[145][160]

### Sri Lanka

[edit]

Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) saw the partition of Pakistan as an example for itself and feared India might use its enhanced power against it in the future.[162]: 7  Despite the left-wing government of Sirimavo Bandaranaike following a neutral non-aligned foreign policy, Sri Lanka decided to help Pakistan in the war.[163][164] As Pakistani aircraft could not fly over Indian territory, they would have to take a longer route around India and so they stopped at Bandaranaike Airport in Sri Lanka where they were refueled before flying to East Pakistan.[165]

### Arab world

[edit]

As many Arab countries were allied with both the United States and Pakistan, it was easy for Kissinger to encourage them to participate. He sent letters to both, the King of Jordan and the King of Saudi Arabia. Nixon gave permission for Jordan to send ten F-104s and promised to provide replacements.[149] According to author Martin Bowman, "Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha AFB, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia."[166]

Libyan dictator Gaddafi also personally directed a strongly worded letter to Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi accusing her of aggression against Pakistan, which endeared him to all Pakistanis.[167] In addition to these three countries, an unidentified Middle Eastern ally also supplied Pakistan with Mirage IIIs.[citation needed]

## In popular culture

[edit]

Main article: Artistic depictions of the Bangladesh Liberation War

## See also

[edit]

* Bangladesh portal

* Bangladesh Liberation War and Islam
* Awards and decorations of the Bangladesh Liberation War
* Liberation War Museum
* Movement demanding trial of war criminals (Bangladesh)
* NAP-Communist Party-Students Union Special Guerrilla Forces
* Kader Bahini
* Irregular military

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b Cooper and Ali's figures of 365,000 Pakistan Army and 280,000 paramilitary are for the entire Pakistan force, on the west and east fronts combined, when the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 broke out.[5] Cloughley clarifies that only a quarter of the 365,000 Pakistan Army, roughly 91,000, was in East Pakistan.[7]
2. ^ This war is known as the Liberation War or the War of Independence in Bangladesh.[15] This war is also called the Civil War in Pakistan.[16]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Instrument of Surrender of Pakistan forces in Dacca". mea.gov.in. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 14 July 2017. "The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding-in –chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the eastern theatre."
2. ^ Rizwana Shamshad (3 October 2017). Bangladeshi Migrants in India: Foreigners, Refugees, or Infiltrators?. OUP India. pp. 119–. ISBN 978-0-19-909159-1. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
3. ^ Jing Lu (30 October 2018). On State Secession from International Law Perspectives. Springer. pp. 211–. ISBN 978-3-319-97448-4. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
4. ^ J.L. Kaul; Anupam Jha (8 January 2018). Shifting Horizons of Public International Law: A South Asian Perspective. Springer. pp. 241–. ISBN 978-81-322-3724-2. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2020.
5. ^ a b c d "India – Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction By Tom Cooper, with Khan Syed Shaiz Ali". Acig.org. Archived from the original on 6 June 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2011.
6. ^ Pakistan & the Karakoram Highway By Owen Bennett-Jones, Lindsay Brown, John Mock, Sarina Singh, Pg 30
7. ^ Cloughley, Brian (2016) [First published 1999]. A History of the Pakistan Army: Wars and Insurrections (4th ed.). Simon and Schuster. pp. 149, 222. ISBN 978-1-63144-039-7.
8. ^ Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 442\. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
9. ^ Thiranagama, Sharika; Kelly, Tobias, eds. (2012). Traitors : suspicion, intimacy, and the ethics of state-building. Philadelphia, Pa.: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN 978-0812222371.
10. ^ a b c Figures from The Fall of Dacca by Jagjit Singh Aurora in The Illustrated Weekly of India dated 23 December 1973 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 486\. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
11. ^ Matinuddin, Kamal (1994). Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971. Wajidalis. p. 429\. ISBN 978-969-8031-19-0.
12. ^ a b c Khan, Shahnawaz (19 January 2005). "54 Indian PoWs of 1971 war still in Pakistan". Daily Times (Pakistan). Lahore. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 11 October 2011.
13. ^ Figure from Pakistani Prisoners of War in India by Col S. P. Salunke p. 10 quoted in Praval, K. C. (1987). Indian Army after Independence. Lancer International. p. 485\. ISBN 81-7062-014-7.
14. ^ "Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged". BBC News. 13 May 2012. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
15. ^ Historical Dictionary of Bangladesh, Page 289
16. ^ Moss, Peter (2005). Secondary Social Studies For Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. p. 93\. ISBN 9780195977042. OCLC 651126824.
17. ^ Paul, Priyam Pritim (26 March 2024). "Administrative dynamics in 1971's War of Liberation". The Daily Star. Retrieved 19 June 2024.
18. ^ Jamal, Ahmed (5–17 October 2008). "Mukti Bahini and the liberation war of Bangladesh: A review of conflicting views" (PDF). Asian Affairs. 30. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 January 2015. Retrieved 29 April 2015.
19. ^ Srinivasaraju, Sugata (21 December 2021). "The Bangladeshi liberation has lessons for India today". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 22 December 2021. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
20. ^ Schneider, B.; Post, J.; Kindt, M. (2009). The World's Most Threatening Terrorist Networks and Criminal Gangs. Springer. p. 57\. ISBN 9780230623293. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
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### Sources

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* This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain. Country Studies. Federal Research Division.
* Ali, Rao Farman (1992). How Pakistan Got Divided. Jang Publishers. ISBN 984-05-0157-7.
* Baxter, Craig (1997). Bangladesh: From A Nation To A State. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-813-33632-9. Archived from the original on 7 February 2023. Retrieved 6 December 2018.
* Bose, Sarmila (8 October 2005). "Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971" (PDF). Economic and Political Weekly. 40 (41). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 December 2020. Retrieved 7 March 2017.
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* Khan, Fazal Mukeem (1973). Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership. National Book Foundation. OCLC 976643179.
* Safiullah, K. M. (1989). Bangladesh at War. Academic Publishers. OCLC 24300969.
* Sajjad, Tazreena (2012). "The Post-Genocidal Period and its Impact on Women". In Samuel Totten (ed.). Plight and Fate of Women During and Following Genocide (Reprint ed.). Transaction. pp. 219–248\. ISBN 978-1412847599.
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## Further reading

[edit]

For a more comprehensive list, see List of books on Liberation War of Bangladesh.

* Ayoob, Mohammed and Subrahmanyam, K., The Liberation War, S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972.
* Bass, Gary J. The Blood Telegram: Nixon, Kissinger, and a Forgotten Genocide. Vintage, 2014. ISBN 0307744620
* Bhargava, G.S., Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish, ISSD, New Delhi, 1972.
* Bhattacharyya, S. K., Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story, A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988.
* Blood, A. K. (2005). The cruel birth of Bangladesh: Memoirs of an American diplomat. Dhaka: University Press.
* Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1993.
* Choudhury, G. W. (April 1972). "Bangladesh: Why It Happened". International Affairs. 48 (2). Royal Institute of International Affairs: 242–249\. doi:10.2307/2613440. ISSN 0020-5850. JSTOR 2613440.
* Choudhury, G. W. (1994) [First published 1974]. The Last Days of United Pakistan. Dhaka: University Press. ISBN 978-984-05-1242-3.
* Govt. of Bangladesh, Documents of the war of Independence, Vol 01–16, Ministry of Information.
* Hitchens, Christopher, The Trials of Henry Kissinger, Verso (2001). ISBN 1-85984-631-9
* Kanjilal, Kalidas, The Perishing Humanity, Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976
* Johnson, Rob, 'A Region in Turmoil' (New York and London, 2005)
* Malik, Amita, The Year of the Vulture, Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972.
* Matinuddin, General Kamal, Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968–1971, Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan, 1994.
* Mookherjee, Nayanika, A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, D.Phil. thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002.
* National Security Archive, The Tilt: the U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 Archived 20 April 2005 at the Wayback Machine
* Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative, Oxford University Press, 2002.
* Raghavan, Srinath, 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh, Harvard Univ. Press, 2013.
* Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh, University of California Press (Berkeley), 1990.
* Stephen, Pierre, and Payne, Robert, Massacre, Macmillan, New York, (1973). ISBN 0-02-595240-4
* Totten, Samuel et al., eds., Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, Garland Reference Library, 1997
* US Department of State Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971 Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
* Zaheer, Hasan: The separation of East Pakistan: The rise and realisation of Bengali Muslim nationalism, Oxford University Press, 1994.
* Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O General My General (Life and Works of General M. A. G. Osmani). The Osmani Memorial Trust, Dacca, Bangladesh. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bangladesh Liberation War.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Bangladesh Liberation War.

* The Liberation war of Bangladesh at Banglapedia
* Handwritten Constitution of Bangladesh

* 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive
* Freedom In the Air, The Daily Star
* Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh
* The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army
* 1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan
* Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996
* Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, 7 July 2005
* Page containing copies of the surrender documents
* Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery Archived 26 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine Graphic images, viewer discretion advised
* Rashid Askari:Liberation War facts Archived 2 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine
* 1971 War: How Russia sank Nixon's gunboat diplomacy
* PM reiterated her vow to declare March 25 as Genocide Day
* Call for international recognition and observance of genocide day
* Genocide Day: As it was in March 1971 Archived 25 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine
* The case for UN recognition of Bangladesh genocide

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Bangladesh Liberation War

* Ministry of Liberation War Affairs
* Timeline

Origins of the Bangladeshi Revolution

| Philosophy|

* Bengali Renaissance
* Muslim nationalism in South Asia
* Two-nation theory
* Bengali nationalism
* Bengal studies
* Bangamata
* Joy Bangla

|

Pakistan Movement|

* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Eastern Bengal and Assam
* All-India Muslim League
* Indian independence movement
* Pakistan Movement
* Lahore Resolution
* United Bengal
* Muslim National Guard
* Direct Action Day
* Noakhali riots
* Partition of India
* Partition of Bengal (1947)

East Pakistan|

* Dominion of Pakistan
* East Bengal
* Pakistan Muslim League
* Objectives Resolution
* All Pakistan Awami Muslim League
* Awami League
* United Front
* Bengali language movement
* One Unit
* East Pakistan
* Constitution of Pakistan of 1956
* 1958 Pakistani coup d'état
* Constitution of Pakistan of 1962

Bengali self-determination|

* Swadhin Bangla Biplobi Parishad
* Six point movement
* Agartala Conspiracy Case
* 1969 uprising in East Pakistan
* 1970 Bhola cyclone
* 1970 Pakistani general election

Declaration of war|

* Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's speech of 7 March
* Non-cooperation movement
* Rodionov message
* Admiral Ahsan Mission
* Operation Searchlight
* Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence

* Combatants
* Campaigns
* Theaters
* Battles
* Events
* Massacres

| Combatants|

| Bangladesh|

* Provisional Government of Bangladesh
* Mukti Bahini
* Bangladesh Army
* K Force
* S Force
* Z Force
* Bangladesh Navy
* Bangladesh Air Force
* Bangladesh Rifles
* Bangladesh Ansar
* Bangladesh Police

* Special Guerrilla Forces
* Gono Bahini
* Mujib Bahini
* Kader Bahini
* Baten Bahini
* Afsar Bahini
* Hemayet Bahini
* Crack Platoon

|

Pakistan|

* Pakistan Armed Forces
* Army, Navy, Air Force, Marines
* Jamaat-e-Islami
* Central Peace Committee
* Razakars
* Al-Badr
* Al-Shams

Indian allies|

* Parliament of India
* Indian Armed Forces
* Army, Navy, Air Force
* Mitro Bahini (Indo-Bangali group)

Campaigns and
theaters

* Pakistan Eastern Command
* Operation Searchlight
* Order of Battle
* Operation Barisal
* Cable 1971
* Sectors in the Bangladesh Liberation War
* Military plans of the Bangladesh Liberation War
* Eastern Command (India)
* Meghna Heli Bridge
* Operation Jackpot
* Mutiny on PNS Mangro in Toulon
* Operation Python
* Operation Trident
* Pakistan Army order of battle, December 1971
* Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971
* Sinking of PNS Ghazi
* East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971
* Operation Chengiz Khan
* Operation Cactus-Lilly

Major battles|

* Battle of Daruin
* Battle of Rangamati-Mahalchari waterway
* Battle of Goalhati
* Battle of Dhalai Outpost
* Battle of Dhalai
* Battle of Ajmiriganj
* Battle of Garibpur
* Battle of Hilli
* Battle of Longewala
* Battle of Basantar
* Battle of Kushtia
* Battle of Boyra
* Battle of Atgram

Other events|

* Blood Telegram
* Bangladesh genocide
* 1971 killing of Bengali intellectuals
* Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War
* Refugees in India
* Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra
* Shadhin Bangla Football Team
* The Concert for Bangladesh
* Album
* Film

List of massacres|

* 1971 Dhaka University massacre
* Shankharibazar massacre
* Ramna massacre
* Sutrapur massacre
* Jinjira massacre
* Akhira massacre
* Jathibhanga massacre
* Demra massacre
* Chuknagar massacre
* Madhyapara massacre
* Bakhrabad massacre
* Burunga massacre
* Sohagpur massacre
* more

Related conflicts|

* Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
* Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971

Leaders

| Bangladesh|

| Military|

* M. A. G. Osmani
* Ziaur Rahman
* Khaled Mosharraf
* K M Shafiullah
* Shafaat Jamil
* A. K. Khandker
* Muhammad Hamidullah Khan
* Matiur Rahman

|

Civilian|

* Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
* Syed Nazrul Islam
* Tajuddin Ahmad
* AHM Qamaruzzaman
* Muhammad Hamidullah Khan
* Serajul Alam Khan
* Dhirendranath Datta
* Kazi Nuruzzaman
* Chitta Ranjan Dutta
* Muhammad Mansur Ali
* Khondaker Mostaq Ahmad
* M. A. Hannan
* Abu Sayeed Chowdhury

Pakistan|

| Military|

* Yahya Khan
* Tikka Khan
* S.M. Ahsan
* A.K. Niazi
* Yaqub Ali Khan
* Mohammad Shariff
* Rao Farman Ali
* A.O. Mitha
* Khadim Hussain
* Mitty Masud
* Ahmad Zamir
* Inamul Haque
* Siddique Salik
* K.M. Arif

|

Civilian|

* Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
* Dr. Abdul Motaleb Malik
* Nurul Amin
* Shah Azizur Rahman
* Ghulam Azam
* Motiur Rahman Nizami
* J.A. Rahim
* Tridev Roy

Indian allies|

| Military|

* Sam Manekshaw
* S. M. Nanda
* P. C. Lal
* Jagjit Singh Aurora
* K. P. Candeth
* Gopal Gurunath Bewoor
* Sourendra Nath Kohli
* Nilakanta Krishnan
* Minoo Merwan Engineer
* Hari Chand Dewan
* Sagat Singh
* T. N. Raina
* Khem Karan Singh
* Sartaj Singh
* Inderjit Singh Gill
* J. F. R. Jacob
* E. C. Kuruvila
* S. H. Sarma

|

Civilian|

* Indira Gandhi
* V. V. Giri
* Gopal Swarup Pathak
* Rameshwar Kao
* Swaran Singh
* Jagjivan Ram
* Dilip Mahalanabis

Aftermath

* Pakistani Instrument of Surrender
* International recognition of Bangladesh
* Simla Agreement
* Delhi Agreement
* Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh
* Hamoodur Rahman Commission
* War Report
* 1971 Prisoners of War Investigation
* Bangladeshi nationalism
* Bangladesh–India relations
* Indira-Mujib Treaty
* 2001 Indo-Bangla skirmishes
* Deaths along the Bangladesh–India border
* Bangladesh–Pakistan relations
* 2013 Pakistan Embassy siege
* 2015 Expulsion of Pakistani diplomats from Dhaka

* Related topics
* Categories

| Commemoration|

| Monuments and memorials|

* National Martyrs' Memorial
* Martyred Intellectuals Memorial
* Swadhinata Stambha
* Liberation War Memorial Trust
* Liberation War Museum
* Bangladesh Police Liberation War Museum
* Aparajeyo Bangla
* Shabash Bangladesh

|

Anniversaries|

* Bengali Genocide Remembrance Day
* Independence Day (Bangladesh)
* Armed Forces Day (Bangladesh)
* Martyred Intellectuals Day
* Victory day of Bangladesh
* Vijay Diwas (India)

Decorations and depictions|

* Muktijuddho e-Archive
* Artistic depictions
* Awards and decorations

Trials|

* 2013 Shahbag protests
* Movement demanding trial of war criminals
* International Crimes Tribunal
* timeline
* War Crimes Fact Finding Committee

Categories|

* Liberation War
* Genocide
* Aftermath
* Films
* Causes and prelude
* Battles
* Peoples
* Military personnel

* v
* t
* e

Bangladesh–Pakistan relations

Diplomatic posts|

* High Commission of Bangladesh, Islamabad
* High Commissioners of Bangladesh to Pakistan
* Deputy High Commission of Bangladesh, Karachi

Bangladesh Liberation War|

* 1971 Bangladesh genocide
* Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War
* Persecution of Biharis in Bangladesh
* Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
* Prisoners of war
* Admiral Ahsan Mission
* Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh
* Delhi Agreement

Incidents|

* 2013 siege of the Pakistani embassy in Dhaka

Related|

* East Pakistan
* Bengalis in Pakistan
* Stranded Pakistanis in Bangladesh
* Indian reunification

Category:Bangladesh–Pakistan relations

* v
* t
* e

Bangladesh Armed Forces

Bangladesh Army    Bangladesh Navy    Bangladesh Air Force

Organization|

* Armed Forces Division
* Bangladesh Forces
* Ministry of Defence
* Directorate General of Forces Intelligence
* Inter-Service Public Relations
* Army formations
* Military installations
* East Bengal Regiment
* 1st East Bengal Regiment
* Bangladesh Infantry Regiment
* UN Peacekeeping Force
* Armed Forces Day

Leadership|

* Commander-in-chief: President of Bangladesh
* Chief of Air Staff
* Chief of Army Staff
* Chief of Naval Staff
* serving Generals
* serving Marshals
* serving Admirals

History and wars|

* Military history
* Bengal Army
* Bengal Regiment
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* Gulf War
* Chattogram Hill Tracts conflict
* 2001 Bangladesh–India border clashes

War leaders|

* M.A.G. Osmani
* Ziaur Rahman
* K. M. Shafiullah
* Khaled Mosharraf
* Khademul Bashar
* Muhammed Abul Manzur
* Shafaat Jamil
* Kazi Nuruzzaman
* Abu Osman Chowdhury
* Muhammad Hamidullah Khan
* Abu Taher
* Mohammad Abdul Jalil

Decorations|

* Bir Shreshtho
* Bir Uttom
* Bir Bikrom
* Bir Protik

Personnel and
equipment|

| Ranks|

* Military ranks of Bangladesh

|

Training|

* ARTDOC
* National Defence College
* Defence Services Command and Staff College
* School of Infantry and Tactics
* BUP
* BAIUST
* BAUET
* BAUST
* BIPSOT
* Military Academy
* Air Force Academy
* Naval Academy
* AFMC
* AFMI
* MIST
* National Cadet Corps
* Cadet Colleges

Equipment|

* Army equipment
* Active Military aircraft
* Historic Military aircraft
* Navy ships
* active
* historic

Special ops|

* President Guard Regiment
* SSF
* Para-Commandos
* SWADS
* Counter Terrorism and Intelligence Bureau

* v
* t
* e

Armed conflict involving the Pakistan Armed Forces

Domestic|

* Martial law
* Civil unrest in Eastern Pakistan
* Civil unrest in Southern Pakistan
* 1970s
* Taliban insurgency in Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa

India and Pakistan|

* 1947
* 1965
* 1971
* Siachen conflict
* 1999

Afghanistan|

* Waziristan 1948
* Bajaur Campaign
* Panjshir Uprising
* Soviet War
* 1989-92
* 1992-96
* 1996-2001
* 2001-21
* War with Islamic State (2022–Present)

Middle East|

* Arab–Israeli conflict
* 1967
* 1973
* Black September
* Dhofar Rebellion (Oman)
* Gulf War
* Yemen crisis
* Grand Mosque seizure

Worldwide|

* Bosnian War
* Sudanese civil war
* Somalian civil war
* War on terror

Foreign deployments|

* UN peacekeeping missions

Anti-piracy|

* Somalia
* Venezuela

* v
* t
* e

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman

Independence|

* East Pakistan Muslim Students' League
* All-Pakistan Awami League
* Six point movement
* Agartala Conspiracy Case
* 1970 Pakistani general election
* 7th March Speech
* Non-cooperation movement
* Declaration of Independence
* Provisional Government of Bangladesh
* Mujib Bahini

Administration|

* Bangladesh Awami League
* 1st cabinet
* 2nd cabinet
* 1973 Bangladeshi general election
* 3rd cabinet
* Premiership of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
* 1974 Speech at the United Nations
* 4th cabinet
* Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League
* Second revolution
* Jatiya Rakkhi Bahini
* International presidential trips
* 15 August 1975 Bangladesh coup d'état
* Assassination

Family|

* Sheikh Lutfar Rahman
* Sayera Khatun
* Sheikh Fazilatunnesa Mujib
* Sheikh Mosharraf Hossain
* Sheikh Kamal
* Sheikh Jamal
* Sheikh Hasina
* Sheikh Rehana
* Sheikh Russel
* Sajeeb Wazed
* Saima Wazed
* Tulip Siddiq
* Radwan Mujib Siddiq Bobby
* Sultana Kamal
* M. A. Wazed Miah
* Shafique Ahmed Siddique

Relatives|

* Abdur Rab Serniabat
* Sheikh Fazlul Haque Mani
* Sheikh Fazlul Karim
* Fazle Noor Taposh

Landmarks|

* Baker Hostel
* Dhanmondi 32
* Mausoleum
* Hotel Sayeman

Books|

* The Unfinished Memoirs
* The Prison Diaries
* Amar Dekha Noya Chin

Popular culture|

* 1971: Inside and Outside
* August 1975
* Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood
* The Assassin Next Door (documentary)
* Bhat De Haramzada, Noile Manchitro Khabo
* Chironjeeb Mujib
* Deyal
* Mujib Amar Pita
* Khoka Theke Bangabandhu Jatir Pita
* Hasina: A Daughter's Tale
* Amader Choto Russel Shona
* Amar Fashi Chai
* Huliya
* Jochona O Jononir Golpo
* "Jodi Raat Pohale Shona Jeto"
* Mujib: The Making of a Nation
* "Shono Ekti Mujiborer Theke"
* The Black Coat
* Tungiparar Miya Bhai
* Mujib Bhai
* Huey Tum Ajnabi
* Children of War
* Jo Bichar Gaye
* Emergency

Legacy|

* Birthday
* Memorial Trust
* Mujibism
* Mujibnagar
* Mujib coat
* Mujib Year
* Mritunjoyi Mujib
* Namesakes
* Artistic depictions
* Electoral history
* Mujib's personality cult

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Cold War

* United States
* Soviet Union
* NATO
* Warsaw Pact
* ANZUS
* METO
* SEATO
* NEATO
* Rio Pact
* Non-Aligned Movement

1940s|

* Morgenthau Plan
* Hukbalahap rebellion
* Jamaican political conflict
* Dekemvriana
* Guerrilla war in the Baltic states
* Operation Priboi
* Operation Jungle
* Occupation of the Baltic states
* Cursed soldiers
* Operation Unthinkable
* Gouzenko Affair
* Division of Korea
* Indonesian National Revolution
* Operation Masterdom
* Operation Beleaguer
* Operation Blacklist Forty
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Greek Civil War
* Baruch Plan
* Corfu Channel incident
* Turkish Straits crisis
* Restatement of Policy on Germany
* First Indochina War
* 1947 Polish parliamentary election
* Truman Doctrine
* Asian Relations Conference
* May 1947 crises
* Partition of India
* Indo-Pakistani war of 1947–1948
* 1947–1949 Palestine war
* 1947–1948 civil war in Mandatory Palestine
* 1948 Arab–Israeli War
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight
* Marshall Plan
* Comecon
* 1948 Czechoslovak coup d'état
* Incapacitation of the Allied Control Council
* Al-Wathbah uprising
* Tito–Stalin split
* Berlin Blockade
* Annexation of Hyderabad
* Madiun Affair
* Western betrayal
* Iron Curtain
* Eastern Bloc
* Western Bloc
* Chinese Civil War
* Chinese Communist Revolution
* Malayan Emergency
* March 1949 Syrian coup d'état
* Operation Valuable

1950s|

* Bamboo curtain
* McCarthyism
* Korean War
* Arab Cold War (1952–1979)
* 1952 Egyptian revolution
* Iraqi Intifada (1952)
* Mau Mau rebellion
* East German uprising of 1953
* 1953 Iranian coup d'état
* Pact of Madrid
* Bricker Amendment
* 1954 Syrian coup d'état
* Petrov Affair
* Domino theory
* 1954 Geneva Conference
* 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état
* Capture of the Tuapse
* First Taiwan Strait Crisis
* Jebel Akhdar War
* Algerian War
* Kashmir Princess
* Bandung Conference
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Vietnam War
* Cyprus Emergency
* "On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences"
* 1956 Poznań protests
* Hungarian Revolution of 1956
* Polish October
* Suez Crisis
* "We will bury you"
* Operation Gladio
* Syrian Crisis of 1957
* Sputnik crisis
* Ifni War
* Iraqi 14 July Revolution
* 1958 Lebanon crisis
* Second Taiwan Strait Crisis
* 1959 Mosul uprising
* 1959 Tibetan uprising
* Laotian Civil War
* Kitchen Debate
* Cuban Revolution
* Consolidation of the Cuban Revolution
* Sino-Soviet split
* Night Frost Crisis

1960s|

* Congo Crisis
* Simba rebellion
* 1960 U-2 incident
* John F. Kennedy
* Bay of Pigs Invasion
* 1960 Turkish coup d'état
* Albanian–Soviet split
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* First Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* Berlin Wall
* Annexation of Goa
* Papua conflict
* Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation
* Sand War
* Portuguese Colonial War
* Angolan War of Independence
* Guinea-Bissau War of Independence
* Mozambican War of Independence
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* El Porteñazo
* Sino-Indian War
* Communist insurgency in Sarawak
* Ramadan Revolution
* Eritrean War of Independence
* North Yemen civil war
* 1963 Syrian coup d'état
* Assassination of John F. Kennedy
* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Aden Emergency
* Cyprus crisis of 1963–1964
* Shifta War
* Mexican Dirty War
* Tlatelolco massacre
* Guatemalan Civil War
* Colombian conflict
* 1964 Brazilian coup d'état
* Dominican Civil War
* Rhodesian Bush War
* Indonesian mass killings of 1965–1966
* Transition to the New Order (Indonesia)
* ASEAN Declaration
* 1966 Syrian coup d'état
* Cultural Revolution
* Argentine Revolution
* South African Border War
* Korean DMZ Conflict
* 12-3 incident
* Greek junta
* 1967 Hong Kong riots
* Years of Lead (Italy)
* Six-Day War
* War of Attrition
* Dhofar War
* Al-Wadiah War
* Nigerian Civil War
* Protests of 1968
* May 68
* Prague Spring
* USS Pueblo incident
* 1968 Polish political crisis
* Communist insurgency in Malaysia
* Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
* 17 July Revolution
* 1968 Peruvian coup d'état
* Revolutionary Government
* 1969 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1969 Libyan revolution
* Goulash Communism
* Sino-Soviet border conflict
* New People's Army rebellion
* Note Crisis

1970s|

* Détente
* Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
* Black September
* Alcora Exercise
* Corrective Movement (Syria)
* Western Sahara conflict
* Cambodian Civil War
* Communist insurgency in Thailand
* 1970 Polish protests
* Koza riot
* Realpolitik
* Ping-pong diplomacy
* 1971 JVP insurrection
* Corrective revolution (Egypt)
* 1971 Turkish military memorandum
* 1971 Sudanese coup d'état
* 1971 Bolivian coup d'état
* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* 1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China
* North Yemen-South Yemen Border conflict of 1972
* First Yemenite War
* Munich massacre
* 1972–1975 Bangladesh insurgency
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* 1973 Uruguayan coup d'état
* 1973 Afghan coup d'état
* 1973 Chilean coup d'état
* Yom Kippur War
* 1973 oil crisis
* Carnation Revolution
* Spanish transition to democracy
* Metapolitefsi
* Strategic Arms Limitation Talks
* Second Iraqi–Kurdish War
* Turkish invasion of Cyprus
* 15 August 1975 Bangladeshi coup d'état
* Siege of Dhaka (1975)
* Sipahi-Janata revolution
* Angolan Civil War
* Indonesian invasion of East Timor
* Cambodian genocide
* June 1976 protests
* Mozambican Civil War
* Oromo conflict
* Ogaden War
* 1978 Somali coup attempt
* Western Sahara War
* Ethiopian Civil War
* Lebanese Civil War
* Sino-Albanian split
* Third Indochina War
* Cambodian–Vietnamese War
* Cambodian conflict
* Operation Condor
* Dirty War (Argentina)
* 1976 Argentine coup d'état
* Egyptian–Libyan War
* German Autumn
* Korean Air Lines Flight 902
* Nicaraguan Revolution
* Uganda–Tanzania War
* NDF Rebellion
* Chadian–Libyan War
* Second Yemenite War
* Grand Mosque seizure
* Iranian revolution
* Saur Revolution
* Sino-Vietnamese War
* New Jewel Movement
* 1979 Herat uprising
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Struggle against political abuse of psychiatry in the Soviet Union

1980s|

* Salvadoran Civil War
* Soviet–Afghan War
* 1980 and 1984 Summer Olympics boycotts
* Gera Demands
* Peruvian Revolution
* Gdańsk Agreement
* Solidarity
* Eritrean Civil Wars
* 1980 Turkish coup d'état
* Ugandan Bush War
* Gulf of Sidra incident
* Martial law in Poland
* Casamance conflict
* Falklands War
* 1982 Ethiopian–Somali Border War
* Ndogboyosoi War
* United States invasion of Grenada
* Able Archer 83
* Star Wars
* 1985 Geneva Summit
* Iran–Iraq War
* Somali Rebellion
* Reykjavík Summit
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* South Yemen civil war
* Toyota War
* 1987 Lieyu massacre
* Operation Denver
* 1987–1989 JVP insurrection
* Lord's Resistance Army insurgency
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* 8888 Uprising
* Solidarity (Soviet reaction)
* Contras
* Central American crisis
* Operation RYAN
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* People Power Revolution
* Glasnost
* Perestroika
* Bougainville conflict
* First Nagorno-Karabakh War
* Afghan Civil War
* United States invasion of Panama
* 1988 Polish strikes
* Polish Round Table Agreement
* 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre
* Revolutions of 1989
* Fall of the Berlin Wall
* Fall of the inner German border
* Velvet Revolution
* Romanian Revolution
* Peaceful Revolution

1990s|

* Mongolian Revolution of 1990
* Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident
* Gulf War
* Min Ping Yu No. 5202
* German reunification
* Yemeni unification
* Fall of communism in Albania
* Breakup of Yugoslavia
* Dissolution of the Soviet Union
* 1991 August Coup
* Dissolution of Czechoslovakia

Frozen conflicts|

* Abkhazia
* China-Taiwan
* Korea
* Kosovo
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria
* Sino-Indian border dispute
* North Borneo dispute

Foreign policy|

* Truman Doctrine
* Containment
* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Domino theory
* Hallstein Doctrine
* Kennedy Doctrine
* Peaceful coexistence
* Ostpolitik
* Johnson Doctrine
* Brezhnev Doctrine
* Nixon Doctrine
* Ulbricht Doctrine
* Carter Doctrine
* Reagan Doctrine
* Paasikivi–Kekkonen doctrine
* Rollback
* Kinmen Agreement

Ideologies|

| Capitalism|

* Liberalism
* Chicago school
* Conservatism
* American conservatism
* Keynesianism
* Libertarianism
* Monetarism
* Neoclassical economics
* Reaganomics
* Supply-side economics
* Democratic capitalism

|

Socialism|

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Castroism
* Eurocommunism
* Guevarism
* Hoxhaism
* Juche
* Ho Chi Minh Thought
* Maoism
* Trotskyism
* Stalinism
* Titoism

Other|

* Imperialism
* Anti-imperialism
* Nationalism
* Ultranationalism
* Chauvinism
* Ethnic nationalism
* Racism
* Zionism
* Anti-Zionism
* Fascism
* Neo-Nazism
* Islamism
* Totalitarianism
* Authoritarianism
* Autocracy
* Liberal democracy
* Illiberal democracy
* Guided democracy
* Social democracy
* Third-worldism
* White supremacy
* White nationalism
* White separatism
* Apartheid
* Finlandization

Organizations|

* NATO
* SEATO
* METO
* EEC
* Warsaw Pact
* Comecon
* Non-Aligned Movement
* NN States
* ASEAN
* SAARC
* Safari Club

Propaganda|

| Pro-communist|

* Active measures
* Izvestia
* Neues Deutschland
* Pravda
* Radio Moscow
* Rudé právo
* Trybuna Ludu
* TASS
* Soviet Life

|

Pro-Western|

* Amerika
* Crusade for Freedom
* Paix et Liberté
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty

* Red Scare
* Voice of America

Technological
competition|

* Arms race
* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race

Historians|

* Gar Alperovitz
* Thomas A. Bailey
* Michael Beschloss
* Archie Brown
* Warren H. Carroll
* Adrian Cioroianu
* John Costello
* Michael Cox
* Nicholas J. Cull
* Norman Davies
* Willem Drees
* Robert D. English
* Herbert Feis
* Robert Hugh Ferrell
* André Fontaine
* Anneli Ute Gabanyi
* John Lewis Gaddis
* Lloyd Gardner
* Timothy Garton Ash
* Gabriel Gorodetsky
* Fred Halliday
* Jussi Hanhimäki
* John Earl Haynes
* Patrick J. Hearden
* Tvrtko Jakovina
* Tony Judt
* Harvey Klehr
* Gabriel Kolko
* Walter LaFeber
* Walter Laqueur
* Melvyn P. Leffler
* Geir Lundestad
* Vojtech Mastny
* Jack F. Matlock Jr.
* Thomas J. McCormick
* Timothy Naftali
* Marius Oprea
* David S. Painter
* William B. Pickett
* Ronald E. Powaski
* Yakov M. Rabkin
* M. E. Sarotte
* Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.
* Ellen Schrecker
* Giles Scott-Smith
* Shen Zhihua
* Timothy Snyder
* Athan Theoharis
* Andrew Thorpe
* Vladimir Tismăneanu
* Patrick Vaughan
* Alex von Tunzelmann
* Odd Arne Westad
* William Appleman Williams
* Jonathan Reed Winkler
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* CIA and the Cultural Cold War
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* Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War
* Soviet Union–United States relations
* Soviet Union–United States summits
* Russia–NATO relations
* War on terror
* Brinkmanship
* Pax Atomica
* Second Cold War
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State of West Bengal

Capital: Kolkata

State symbols|

* Emblem: Emblem of West Bengal
* Anthem: Banglar Mati Banglar Jol
* Animal: Fishing cat
* Bird: White-throated kingfisher
* Flower: Night-flowering jasmine (Shiuli)
* Tree: Devil's tree (Saptaparni)
* Fish: Ilish

History|

* Gauda Kingdom
* Shashanka
* Pala Empire
* Sena dynasty
* Mallabhum kingdom
* Cooch Behar State
* Sher Shah Suri
* Mughal Empire
* Nawabs of Bengal
* East India Company
* Battle of Plassey
* Bengal Presidency
* Great Bengal famine of 1770
* Indian Rebellion of 1857
* Bengal Renaissance
* Bardhaman Raj
* Nadia Raj
* Jhargram Raj
* Sovabazar Raj
* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Revolutionary movement for Indian independence
* Anushilan Samiti
* Jugantar
* Bengal famine of 1943
* Direct Action Day
* Noakhali riots
* Partition of Bengal (1947)
* Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)
* Bangladesh Liberation War
* Naxalite–Maoist insurgency
* Maritime history of Bengal

Geography|

* Bengal Basin
* Darjeeling Himalayan hill region
* Terai
* North Bengal plains
* Dooars
* Rarh region
* Sundarbans
* Western plateau and high lands
* Ganges Delta
* Climate
* Sandakphu (Highest point)
* Protected areas of West Bengal
* Rivers of West Bengal
* Ganga
* Damodar River
* Brahmaputra River
* Teesta River
* Hooghly River
* Khoai
* Tiger Hill, Darjeeling
* Siliguri Corridor

Governance|

* Chief Ministers
* Governor
* Legislative Assembly
* Human Rights Commission
* Political parties (All India Trinamool Congress
* Communist Party (Marxist)
* Indian National Congress
* Bharatiya Janata Party)
* Parliamentary constituencies
* Assembly constituencies
* CID West Bengal
* Kolkata Police

Rights groups|

* Matua Mahasangha
* Bangla Pokkho

Divisions and
districts|

| Burdwan division|

* Birbhum
* Hooghly
* Paschim Bardhaman
* Purba Bardhaman

|

Jalpaiguri division|

* Alipurduar
* Cooch Behar
* Darjeeling
* Jalpaiguri
* Kalimpong

Malda division|

* Berhampore (declared)
* Dakshin Dinajpur
* Jangipur (declared)
* Malda
* Murshidabad
* Uttar Dinajpur

Medinipur division|

* Bankura
* Bishnupur (declared)
* Jhargram
* Paschim Medinipur
* Purba Medinipur
* Purulia

Presidency division|

* Basirhat (declared)
* Howrah
* Ichamati (declared)
* Kolkata
* Nadia
* North 24 Parganas
* Ranaghat (declared)
* South 24 Parganas
* Sundarbans (declared)

Cities and
towns|

* Alipore
* Asansol
* Berhampore
* Balurghat
* Bankura
* Barasat
* Bardhaman
* Bishnupur
* Hugli-Chuchura
* Cooch Behar
* Darjeeling
* Durgapur
* Haldia
* Howrah
* Jalpaiguri
* Jaynagar Majilpur
* Jiaganj Azimganj
* Kalimpong
* Kharagpur
* Kolkata
* Krishnanagar
* Kurseong
* Malda
* Midnapore
* Murshidabad
* Purulia
* Raiganj
* Siliguri
* Siuri
* Tamluk
* List of cities in West Bengal by population
* Cities and towns by district

Culture|

* Bengal Renaissance
* Bengali calendars
* Patachitra
* Chalchitra
* Arts of West Bengal
* Baul
* Bhadu
* Gombhira
* Chhau dance
* Cuisine
* Bengali
* Rabindra Sangeet
* Rabindra Nritya Natya
* Holi
* Dol Purnima
* Prostitution in Kolkata
* Pohela Boishakh
* Durga Puja
* Bhai Dooj
* Raksha Bandhan
* Ratha Yatra
* Architecture of Bengal
* Bengal temples
* Bengali language
* Bengali literature
* Feluda
* Lalmohan Ganguly
* Professor Shonku
* Tarini Khuro
* Kakababu
* Kiriti Roy
* Pather Panchali (novel)
* Bengali cinema
* Jatra
* Ghosts in Bengali culture

GI products|

* Baluchari sari
* Banglar Rosogolla
* Banglar Muslin
* Banglar Nolen Gur Sandesh
* Bankura horse
* Baruipur Guava
* Bengal Patachitra
* Bishnupur Motichur Laddu
* Chhau mask
* Darjeeling tea
* Dhaniakhali Sari
* Dhokra
* Fazli (mango)
* Garad Saree
* Gobindobhog
* Himsagar
* Jaynagarer Moa
* Kamarpukur Sada Bode
* Madurkathi
* Malda Nistari Silk Yarn
* Manasa chali
* Mihidana
* Murshidabad Chhanabora
* Nakshi kantha
* Radhunipagal rice
* Santiniketan Leather Goods
* Shantipuri sari
* Sitabhog
* Sundarban Honey
* Tangail Saree
* Tulaipanji

Demographics|

* Bengali people
* Bihari people
* Economy of West Bengal
* Gurkha
* Adivasi
* Rajbanshi
* Anglo-Indian people
* Ethnic communities in Kolkata
* List of West Bengal districts ranked by literacy rate
* Discrimination against Bengalis in India

People|

* Rabindranath Tagore
* Satyajit Ray
* Kazi Nazrul Islam
* Anil Kumar Gain
* Ritwik Ghatak
* Subhas Chandra Bose
* Jamini Roy
* Bidhan Chandra Roy
* Jyoti Basu
* Nandalal Bose
* Jagadish Chandra Bose
* Meghnad Saha
* Bankim Chandra Chatterjee
* Sarat Chandra Bose
* Jnanadanandini Devi
* Abanindranath Tagore
* Satyendranath Tagore
* Satyendranath Dutta
* Raja Ram Mohan Roy
* Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
* Rani Rashmoni
* Ramakrishna
* Swami Vivekananda
* Sarada Devi
* Dwarkanath Tagore
* Sukumar Ray
* Upendrakishore Ray Chowdhury
* Michael Madhusudan Dutt
* Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay
* Sister Nivedita
* Mother Teresa
* Amartya Sen
* Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay
* Nihar Ranjan Gupta

Image gallery at Wikimedia Commons

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