Barbara McClintock

American scientist and cytogeneticist (1902–1992)

This article is about the American scientist. For the illustrator, see Barbara McClintock (illustrator).

Barbara McClintock

McClintock in her laboratory, 1947

Born|

Eleanor McClintock

(1902-06-16)June 16, 1902

Hartford, Connecticut, U.S.

Died| September 2, 1992(1992-09-02) (aged 90)

Huntington, New York, U.S.

Alma mater| Cornell University (BS, MS, PhD)
Known for| Work in genetic structure of maize
Awards|

* Member of the National Academy of Sciences (1944)[1]
* National Medal of Science (1970)
* Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal (1981)
* Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize (1982)
* Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1983)

Scientific career
Fields| Cytogenetics
Institutions|

* University of Missouri
* California Institute of Technology
* Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory

Thesis| A Cytological and Genetical Study of Triploid Maize (1927)
Signature

Barbara McClintock (June 16, 1902 – September 2, 1992) was an American scientist and cytogeneticist who was awarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. McClintock received her PhD in botany from Cornell University in 1927. There she started her career as the leader of the development of maize cytogenetics, the focus of her research for the rest of her life. From the late 1920s, McClintock studied chromosomes and how they change during reproduction in maize. She developed the technique for visualizing maize chromosomes and used microscopic analysis to demonstrate many fundamental genetic ideas. One of those ideas was the notion of genetic recombination by crossing-over during meiosis—a mechanism by which chromosomes exchange information. She produced the first genetic map for maize, linking regions of the chromosome to physical traits. She demonstrated the role of the telomere and centromere, regions of the chromosome that are important in the conservation of genetic information. She was recognized as among the best in the field, awarded prestigious fellowships, and elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1944.

During the 1940s and 1950s, McClintock discovered transposition and used it to demonstrate that genes are responsible for turning physical characteristics on and off. She developed theories to explain the suppression and expression of genetic information from one generation of maize plants to the next. Due to skepticism of her research and its implications, she stopped publishing her data in 1953.

Later, she made an extensive study of the cytogenetics and ethnobotany of maize races from South America. McClintock's research became well understood in the 1960s and 1970s, as other scientists confirmed the mechanisms of genetic change and protein expression that she had demonstrated in her maize research in the 1940s and 1950s. Awards and recognition for her contributions to the field followed, including the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, awarded to her in 1983 for the discovery of genetic transposition; as of 2023, she remains the only woman who has received an unshared Nobel Prize in that category.[2]

## Early life[edit]

McClintock children, from left to right: Mignon, Malcolm Rider "Tom", Barbara and Marjorie McClintock family, from left to right: Mignon, Tom, Barbara, Marjorie and Sara (at the piano)

Barbara McClintock was born Eleanor McClintock on June 16, 1902, in Hartford, Connecticut,[3][4] the third of four children born to homeopathic physician Thomas Henry McClintock and Sara Handy McClintock.[5] Thomas McClintock was the child of British immigrants. Marjorie, the oldest child, was born in October 1898; Mignon, the second daughter, was born in November 1900. The youngest, Malcolm Rider (called Tom), was born 18 months after Barbara. When she was a young girl, her parents determined that Eleanor, a "feminine" and "delicate" name, was not appropriate for her, and chose Barbara instead.[4][6] McClintock was an independent child beginning at a very young age, a trait she later identified as her "capacity to be alone". From the age of three until she began school, McClintock lived with an aunt and uncle in Brooklyn, New York, in order to reduce the financial burden on her parents while her father established his medical practice. She was described as a solitary and independent child. She was close to her father, but had a difficult relationship with her mother, tension that began when she was young.[4][6]

The McClintock family moved to Brooklyn in 1908 and McClintock completed her secondary education there at Erasmus Hall High School;[6][7] she graduated early in 1919.[3] She discovered her love of science and reaffirmed her solitary personality during high school.[4] She wanted to continue her studies at Cornell University's College of Agriculture. Her mother resisted sending McClintock to college for fear that she would be unmarriageable, a common attitude at the time.[6] McClintock was almost prevented from starting college, but her father allowed her to just before registration began, and she matriculated at Cornell in 1919.[8][9]

## Education and research at Cornell[edit]

Barbara McClintock (As Told By Jo Handelsman)

* * *

Problems playing this file? See media help.

McClintock began her studies at Cornell's College of Agriculture in 1919. There, she participated in student government and was invited to join a sorority, though she soon realized that she preferred not to join formal organizations. Instead, McClintock took up music, specifically jazz. She studied botany, receiving a BSc in 1923.[8] Her interest in genetics began when she took her first course in that field in 1921. The course was based on a similar one offered at Harvard University, and was taught by C. B. Hutchison, a plant breeder and geneticist.[10][11][12] Hutchison was impressed by McClintock's interest, and telephoned to invite her to participate in the graduate genetics course at Cornell in 1922. McClintock pointed to Hutchison's invitation as a catalyst for her interest in genetics: "Obviously, this telephone call cast the die for my future. I remained with genetics thereafter."[13] Although it has been reported that women could not major in genetics at Cornell, and therefore her MS and PhD—earned in 1925 and 1927, respectively—were officially awarded in botany, recent research has revealed that women were permitted to earn graduate degrees in Cornell's Plant Breeding Department during the time that McClintock was a student at Cornell.[14]

During her graduate studies and postgraduate appointment as a botany instructor, McClintock was instrumental in assembling a group that studied the new field of cytogenetics in maize. This group brought together plant breeders and cytologists, and included Marcus Rhoades, future Nobel laureate George Beadle, and Harriet Creighton.[15][16][17] Rollins A. Emerson, head of the Plant Breeding Department, supported these efforts, although he was not a cytologist himself.[18][19]

She also worked as a research assistant for Lowell Fitz Randolph and then for Lester W. Sharp, both Cornell botanists.[20]

McClintock's cytogenetic research focused on developing ways to visualize and characterize maize chromosomes. This particular part of her work influenced a generation of students, as it was included in most textbooks. She also developed a technique using carmine staining to visualize maize chromosomes, and showed for the first time the morphology of the 10 maize chromosomes. This discovery was made because she observed cells from the microspore as opposed to the root tip.[18][21] By studying the morphology of the chromosomes, McClintock was able to link specific chromosome groups of traits that were inherited together.[22] Marcus Rhoades noted that McClintock's 1929 Genetics paper on the characterization of triploid maize chromosomes triggered scientific interest in maize cytogenetics, and attributed to her 10 of the 17 significant advances in the field that were made by Cornell scientists between 1929 and 1935.[23]

In 1930, McClintock was the first person to describe the cross-shaped interaction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis. The following year, McClintock and Creighton proved the link between chromosomal crossover during meiosis and the recombination of genetic traits.[22][24] They observed how the recombination of chromosomes seen under a microscope correlated with new traits.[17][25] Until this point, it had only been hypothesized that genetic recombination could occur during meiosis, although it had not been shown genetically.[17] McClintock published the first genetic map for maize in 1931, showing the order of three genes on maize chromosome 9.[26] This information provided necessary data for the crossing-over study she published with Creighton;[24] they also showed that crossing-over occurs in sister chromatids as well as homologous chromosomes.[27] In 1938, she produced a cytogenetic analysis of the centromere, describing the organization and function of the centromere, as well as the fact that it can divide.[22]

McClintock's breakthrough publications, and support from her colleagues, led to her being awarded several postdoctoral fellowships from the National Research Council. This funding allowed her to continue to study genetics at Cornell, the University of Missouri, and the California Institute of Technology, where she worked with E. G. Anderson.[14][27] During the summers of 1931 and 1932, she worked at the University of Missouri with geneticist Lewis Stadler, who introduced her to the use of X-rays as a mutagen. Exposure to X-rays can increase the rate of mutation above the natural background level, making it a powerful research tool for genetics. Through her work with X-ray-mutagenized maize, she identified ring chromosomes, which form when the ends of a single chromosome fuse together after radiation damage.[28] From this evidence, McClintock hypothesized that there must be a structure on the chromosome tip that would normally ensure stability. She showed that the loss of ring-chromosomes at meiosis caused variegation in maize foliage in generations subsequent to irradiation resulting from chromosomal deletion.[22] During this period, she demonstrated the presence of the nucleolus organizer region on a region on maize chromosome 6, which is required for the assembly of the nucleolus.[22][27][29] In 1933, she established that cells can be damaged when nonhomologous recombination occurs.[22][30] During this same period, McClintock hypothesized that the tips of chromosomes are protected by telomeres.[31]

McClintock received a fellowship from the Guggenheim Foundation that made possible six months of training in Germany during 1933 and 1934.[28] She had planned to work with Curt Stern, who had demonstrated crossing-over in Drosophila just weeks after McClintock and Creighton had done so; however, Stern emigrated to the United States. Instead, she worked with geneticist Richard B. Goldschmidt, who was a director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology in Berlin.[6][32] She left Germany early amidst mounting political tension in Europe, returned to Cornell, but found that the university would not hire a woman professor.[33] In 1936, she accepted an Assistant Professorship offered to her by Lewis Stadler in the Department of Botany at the University of Missouri in Columbia.[34][35] While still at Cornell, she was supported by a two-year Rockefeller Foundation grant obtained for her through Emerson's efforts.[28]

## University of Missouri[edit]

During her time at Missouri, McClintock expanded her research on the effect of X-rays on maize cytogenetics. McClintock observed the breakage and fusion of chromosomes in irradiated maize cells. She was also able to show that, in some plants, spontaneous chromosome breakage occurred in the cells of the endosperm. Over the course of mitosis, she observed that the ends of broken chromatids were rejoined after the chromosome replication.[36] In the anaphase of mitosis, the broken chromosomes formed a chromatid bridge, which was broken when the chromatids moved towards the cell poles. The broken ends were rejoined in the interphase of the next mitosis, and the cycle was repeated, causing massive mutation, which she could detect as variegation in the endosperm.[37] This breakage–rejoining–bridge cycle was a key cytogenetic discovery for several reasons.[36] First, it showed that the rejoining of chromosomes was not a random event, and second, it demonstrated a source of large-scale mutation. For this reason, it remains an area of interest in cancer research today.[38]

Although her research was progressing at Missouri, McClintock was not satisfied with her position at the university. She recalled being excluded from faculty meetings, and was not made aware of positions available at other institutions.[6] In 1940, she wrote to Charles Burnham, "I have decided that I must look for another job. As far as I can make out, there is nothing more for me here. I am an assistant professor at $3,000 and I feel sure that that is the limit for me."[39][36] Initially, McClintock's position was created especially for her by Stadler, and might have depended on his presence at the university.[14][34] McClintock believed she would not gain tenure at Missouri, even though according to some accounts, she knew she would be offered a promotion from Missouri in the spring of 1942.[40] Recent evidence reveals that McClintock more likely decided to leave Missouri because she had lost trust in her employer and in the university administration, after discovering that her job would be in jeopardy if Stadler were to leave for Caltech, as he had considered doing. The university's retaliation against Stadler amplified her sentiments.[14]

In early 1941, she took a leave of absence from Missouri in hopes of finding a position elsewhere. She accepted a visiting Professorship at Columbia University, where her former Cornell colleague Marcus Rhoades was a professor. Rhoades also offered to share his research field at Cold Spring Harbor on Long Island. In December 1941, she was offered a research position by Milislav Demerec, the newly appointed acting director of the Carnegie Institution of Washington's Department of Genetics Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory; McClintock accepted his invitation despite her qualms and became a permanent member of the faculty.[41]

## Cold Spring Harbor[edit]

After her year-long temporary appointment, McClintock accepted a full-time research position at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. There, she was highly productive and continued her work with the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, using it to substitute for X-rays as a tool for mapping new genes. In 1944, in recognition of her prominence in the field of genetics during this period, McClintock was elected to the National Academy of Sciences—only the third woman to be elected. The following year she became the first female president of the Genetics Society of America;[3] she had been elected its vice-president in 1939.[35] In 1944 she undertook a cytogenetic analysis of Neurospora crassa at the suggestion of George Beadle, who used the fungus to demonstrate the one gene–one enzyme relationship. He invited her to Stanford to undertake the study. She successfully described the number of chromosomes, or karyotype, of N. crassa and described the entire life cycle of the species. Beadle said, "Barbara, in two months at Stanford, did more to clean up the cytology of Neurospora than all other cytological geneticists had done in all previous time on all forms of mold." [42] N. crassa has since become a model species for classical genetic analysis.[43][44]

### Discovery of controlling elements[edit]

The relationship of Ac/Ds in the control of the elements and mosaic color of maize. The seed in 10 is colorless; there is no Ac element present, and Ds inhibits the synthesis of colored pigments called anthocyanins. In 11 to 13, one copy of Ac is present; Ds can move, and some anthocyanin is produced, creating a mosaic pattern. In the kernel in panel 14 there are two Ac elements, and in panel 15 there are three.

In the summer of 1944 at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, McClintock began systematic studies on the mechanisms of the mosaic color patterns of maize seed and the unstable inheritance of this mosaicism.[45] She identified two new dominant and interacting genetic loci that she named Dissociation (Ds) and Activator (Ac). She found that the Dissociation did not just dissociate or cause the chromosome to break, it also had a variety of effects on neighboring genes when the Activator was also present, which included making certain stable mutations unstable. In early 1948, she made the surprising discovery that both Dissociation and Activator could transpose, or change position, on the chromosome.[46][47][48][49]

She observed the effects of the transposition of Ac and Ds by the changing patterns of coloration in maize kernels over generations of controlled crosses, and described the relationship between the two loci through intricate microscopic analysis.[50][51] She concluded that Ac controls the transposition of the Ds from chromosome 9, and that the movement of Ds is accompanied by the breakage of the chromosome.[49] When Ds moves, the aleurone-color gene is released from the suppressing effect of the Ds and transformed into the active form, which initiates the pigment synthesis in cells.[52] The transposition of Ds in different cells is random, it may move in some but not others, which causes color mosaicism. The size of the colored spot on the seed is determined by stage of the seed development during dissociation. McClintock also found that the transposition of Ds is determined by the number of Ac copies in the cell.[53]

Between 1948 and 1950, she developed a theory by which these mobile elements regulated the genes by inhibiting or modulating their action. She referred to Dissociation and Activator as "controlling units"—later, as "controlling elements"—to distinguish them from genes. She hypothesized that gene regulation could explain how complex multicellular organisms made of cells with identical genomes have cells of different function.[53] McClintock's discovery challenged the concept of the genome as a static set of instructions passed between generations.[3] In 1950, she reported her work on Ac/Ds and her ideas about gene regulation in a paper entitled "The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize" published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. In summer 1951, she reported her work on the origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize at the annual symposium at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, presenting a paper of the same name. The paper delved into the instability caused by Ds and Ac or just Ac in four genes, along with the tendency of those genes to unpredictably revert to the wild phenotype. She also identified "families" of transposons, which did not interact with one another.[3][54][49]

McClintock with one of her results

Her work on controlling elements and gene regulation was conceptually difficult and was not immediately understood or accepted by her contemporaries; she described the reception of her research as "puzzlement, even hostility".[55][49] Nevertheless, McClintock continued to develop her ideas on controlling elements. She published a paper in Genetics in 1953, where she presented all her statistical data, and undertook lecture tours to universities throughout the 1950s to speak about her work.[56] She continued to investigate the problem and identified a new element that she called Suppressor-mutator (Spm), which, although similar to Ac/Ds, acts in a more complex manner. Like Ac/Ds, some versions could transpose on their own and some could not; unlike Ac/Ds, when present, it fully suppressed the expression of mutant genes when they normally would not be entirely suppressed.[57] Based on the reactions of other scientists to her work, McClintock felt she risked alienating the scientific mainstream, and from 1953 was forced to stop publishing accounts of her research on controlling elements.[3][47]

### The origins of maize[edit]

McClintock's microscope and ears of corn on exhibition at the National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C.

In 1957, McClintock received funding from the National Academy of Sciences to start research on indigenous strains of maize in Central America and South America. She was interested in studying the evolution of maize through chromosomal changes,[58] and being in South America would allow her to work on a larger scale. McClintock explored the chromosomal, morphological, and evolutionary characteristics of various races of maize.[59][31] After extensive work in the 1960s and 1970s, McClintock and her collaborators published the seminal study The Chromosomal Constitution of Races of Maize, leaving their mark on paleobotany, ethnobotany, and evolutionary biology.[60]

### Rediscovery[edit]

McClintock officially retired from her position at the Carnegie Institution in 1967,[3] and was made a Distinguished Service Member of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.[41] This honor allowed her to continue working with graduate students and colleagues in the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory as scientist emerita; she lived in the town.[61] In reference to her decision 20 years earlier to stop publishing detailed accounts of her work on controlling elements, she wrote in 1973:

> Over the years I have found that it is difficult if not impossible to bring to consciousness of another person the nature of his tacit assumptions when, by some special experiences, I have been made aware of them. This became painfully evident to me in my attempts during the 1950s to convince geneticists that the action of genes had to be and was controlled. It is now equally painful to recognize the fixity of assumptions that many persons hold on the nature of controlling elements in maize and the manners of their operation. One must await the right time for conceptual change.[62]

The importance of McClintock's contributions was revealed in the 1960s, when the work of French geneticists François Jacob and Jacques Monod described the genetic regulation of the lac operon, a concept she had demonstrated with Ac/Ds in 1951. Following Jacob and Monod's 1961 Journal of Molecular Biology paper "Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins", McClintock wrote an article for American Naturalist comparing the lac operon and her work on controlling elements in maize.[63][57] Even late in the twentieth century, McClintock's contribution to biology was still not widely acknowledged as amounting to the discovery of genetic regulation.[47]

McClintock was widely credited with discovering transposition after other researchers finally discovered the process in bacteria, yeast, and bacteriophages in the late 1960s and early 1970s.[64] During this period, molecular biology had developed significant new technology, and scientists were able to show the molecular basis for transposition.[65] In the 1970s, Ac and Ds were cloned by other scientists and were shown to be class II transposons. Ac is a complete transposon that can produce a functional transposase, which is required for the element to move within the genome. Ds has a mutation in its transposase gene, which means that it cannot move without another source of transposase. Thus, as McClintock observed, Ds cannot move in the absence of Ac.[66] Spm has also been characterized as a transposon. Subsequent research has shown that transposons typically do not move unless the cell is placed under stress, such as by irradiation or the breakage-fusion-bridge cycle, and thus their activation during stress can serve as a source of genetic variation for evolution.[67] McClintock understood the role of transposons in evolution and genome change well before other researchers grasped the concept. Nowadays, Ac/Ds is used as a tool in plant biology to generate mutant plants used for the characterization of gene function.[68]

## Honors and recognition[edit]

In 1947, McClintock received the Achievement Award from the American Association of University Women. She was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1959.[69] In 1967, McClintock was awarded the Kimber Genetics Award;[70] three years later, she was given the National Medal of Science by Richard Nixon in 1970.[64][71] She was the first woman to be awarded the National Medal of Science.[72] Cold Spring Harbor named a building in her honor in 1973.[31] She received the Louis and Bert Freedman Foundation Award and the Lewis S. Rosensteil Award in 1978.[70] In 1981, she became the first recipient of the MacArthur Foundation Grant, and was awarded the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research,[73] the Wolf Prize in Medicine and the Thomas Hunt Morgan Medal by the Genetics Society of America. In 1982, she was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University for her research in the "evolution of genetic information and the control of its expression."[74][31]

Most notably, she received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1983, the first woman to win that prize unshared,[61] and the first American woman to win any unshared Nobel Prize in the sciences.[75] It was given to her by the Nobel Foundation for discovering "mobile genetic elements";[76] this was more than 30 years after she initially described the phenomenon of controlling elements. She was compared to Gregor Mendel in terms of her scientific career by the Swedish Academy of Sciences when she was awarded the Prize.[77]

McClintock giving her Nobel Lecture

She was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1989.[78] McClintock received the Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society in 1993.[79] She had been previously elected to the APS in 1946.[80] She was awarded 14 Honorary Doctor of Science degrees and an Honorary Doctor of Humane Letters.[31] In 1986 she was inducted into the National Women's Hall of Fame. During her final years, McClintock led a more public life, especially after Evelyn Fox Keller's 1983 biography of her, A Feeling for the Organism, brought McClintock's story to the public. She remained a regular presence in the Cold Spring Harbor community, and gave talks on mobile genetic elements and the history of genetics research for the benefit of junior scientists. An anthology of her 43 publications The Discovery and Characterization of Transposable Elements: The Collected Papers of Barbara McClintock was published in 1987.[73]

The McClintock Prize is named in her honor.[81] Laureates of the award include David Baulcombe, Detlef Weigel, Robert A. Martienssen, Jeffrey D. Palmer and Susan R. Wessler.[81]

In May 2005 the U.S. Postal Service issued a panel of first-class stamps honoring Barbara McClintock, along with Richard Feynman, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and John von Neumann.[82]

## Later years[edit]

McClintock spent her later years, post Nobel Prize, as a key leader and researcher in the field at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory on Long Island, New York. McClintock died of natural causes in Huntington, New York, on September 2, 1992, at the age of 90; she never married or had children.[61][73][83]

## Legacy[edit]

McClintock was the subject of a 1983 biography by physicist Evelyn Fox Keller, titled A Feeling for the Organism. Keller argued that because McClintock felt like an outsider within her field, (in part, because of her sex) she was able to look at her scientific subjects from a perspective different from the dominant one, leading to several important insights.[84] Keller shows how this led many of her colleagues to reject her ideas and undermine her abilities for many years. For example, when McClintock presented her findings that the genetics of maize did not conform to Mendelian distributions, geneticist Sewall Wright expressed the belief that she did not understand the underlying mathematics of her work, a belief he had also expressed towards other women at the time.[85] In addition, geneticist Lotte Auerbach recounted that Joshua Lederberg returned from a visit to McClintock's lab with the remark: 'By God, that woman is either crazy or a genius.' " As Auerbach recounts, McClintock had thrown Lederberg and his colleagues out after half an hour 'because of their arrogance. She was intolerant of arrogance ... She felt she had crossed a desert alone and no one had followed her.'"[86][87]

In 2001, a second biography by science historian Nathaniel C. Comfort's The Tangled Field: Barbara McClintock's Search for the Patterns of Genetic Control challenged this narrative. Comfort's biography contests the claim that McClintock was marginalized by other scientists, which he calls the "McClintock Myth" and argues was perpetuated both by McClintock herself as well as in the earlier biography by Keller. Comfort, however, asserts that McClintock was not discriminated against because of her gender, citing that she was well regarded by her professional peers, even in the early years of her career.[88]

Many recent biographical works on women in science feature accounts of McClintock's work and experience. She is held up as a role model for girls in such works of children's literature as Edith Hope Fine's Barbara McClintock, Nobel Prize Geneticist, Deborah Heiligman's Barbara McClintock: Alone in Her Field and Mary Kittredge's Barbara McClintock. A recent biography for young adults by Naomi Pasachoff, Barbara McClintock, Genius of Genetics, provides a new perspective, based on the current literature.[89]

On May 4, 2005, the United States Postal Service issued the "American Scientists" commemorative postage stamp series, a set of four 37-cent self-adhesive stamps in several configurations. The scientists depicted were Barbara McClintock, John von Neumann, Josiah Willard Gibbs, and Richard Feynman. McClintock was also featured in a 1989 four-stamp issue from Sweden which illustrated the work of eight Nobel Prize-winning geneticists. A laboratory building at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory were named for her. A street has been named after her in the new "Adlershof Development Society" science park in Berlin.[90]

Barbara McClintock Hall at Cornell University

A 103,835 square-foot residence hall at Cornell University was named for McClintock in 2022.[91][92]

Some of McClintock's personality and scientific achievements were referred to in Jeffrey Eugenides's 2011 novel The Marriage Plot, which tells the story of a yeast geneticist named Leonard who has bipolar disorder. He works at a laboratory loosely based on Cold Spring Harbor. The character reminiscent of McClintock is a reclusive geneticist at the fictional laboratory, who makes the same discoveries as her factual counterpart.[93]

Judith Pratt wrote a play about McClintock, called MAIZE, which was read at Artemesia Theatre in Chicago in 2015, and was produced in Ithaca NY, the home of Cornell University, in February–March 2018.[94]

## Key publications[edit]

* McClintock, B. (1929). "A Cytological and Genetical Study of Triploid Maize". Genetics. 14 (2): 180–222. doi:10.1093/genetics/14.2.180. PMC 1201029. PMID 17246573.
* Creighton, H. B.; McClintock, B. (1931). "A Correlation of Cytological and Genetical Crossing-Over in Zea Mays". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 17 (8): 492–497. Bibcode:1931PNAS...17..492C. doi:10.1073/pnas.17.8.492. PMC 1076098. PMID 16587654.
* McClintock, B. (1931). "The Order of the Genes C, Sh and Wx in Zea Mays with Reference to a Cytologically Known Point in the Chromosome". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 17 (8): 485–491. Bibcode:1931PNAS...17..485M. doi:10.1073/pnas.17.8.485. PMC 1076097. PMID 16587653.
* McClintock, B. (1941). "The Stability of Broken Ends of Chromosomes in Zea Mays". Genetics. 26 (2): 234–282. doi:10.1093/genetics/26.2.234. PMC 1209127. PMID 17247004.
* McClintock, B. (1945). "Neurospora. I. Preliminary Observations of the Chromosomes of Neurospora crassa". American Journal of Botany. 32 (10): 671–678. doi:10.2307/2437624. JSTOR 2437624.
* McClintock, B. (1950). "The origin and behavior of mutable loci in maize". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 36 (6): 344–355. Bibcode:1950PNAS...36..344M. doi:10.1073/pnas.36.6.344. PMC 1063197. PMID 15430309.
* McClintock, B. (1953). "Induction of Instability at Selected Loci in Maize". Genetics. 38 (6): 579–599. doi:10.1093/genetics/38.6.579. PMC 1209627. PMID 17247459.
* McClintock, B. (1961). "Some Parallels Between Gene Control Systems in Maize and in Bacteria". The American Naturalist. 95 (884): 265–277. doi:10.1086/282188. S2CID 56345866.
* McClintock, B., Kato Yamakake, T. A. & Blumenschein, A. (1981). Chromosome constitution of races of maize. Its significance in the interpretation of relationships between races and varieties in the Americas. Chapingo, Mexico: Escuela de Nacional de Agricultura, Colegio de Postgraduados.

## See also[edit]

* Timeline of women in science

## Citations[edit]

1. ^ "Barbara McClintock". Nasonline.org. Retrieved April 25, 2019.
2. ^ Nobel Prize.
3. ^ a b c d e f g Lamberts 2000.
4. ^ a b c d Comfort 2001, pp. 19–22.
5. ^ Davison., Reynolds, Moira (1999). American women scientists: 23 inspiring biographies, 1900–2000. Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0649-4. OCLC 40926627.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
6. ^ a b c d e f Keller 1983.
7. ^ Boyer 2001.
8. ^ a b Comfort 2001, pp. 23–27.
9. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 215.
10. ^ Kass & Provine 1997, p. 123.
11. ^ Kass 2000, p. 64.
12. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 216.
13. ^ McClintock 1983.
14. ^ a b c d Kass 2003, pp. 1251–1260.
15. ^ Kass 2005a, pp. 118–125.
16. ^ Kass 2007.
17. ^ a b c The Barbara McClintock Papers – Cornell.
18. ^ a b Kass & Bonneuil 2004, pp. 91–118.
19. ^ Kass, Bonneuil & Coe 2005.
20. ^ Colonna, Federica Turriziani. "Barbara McClintock (1902–1992)". Embryo.asu.edu. Retrieved November 27, 2014.
21. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 217.
22. ^ a b c d e f Fedoroff 1995, p. 212.
23. ^ Rhoades.
24. ^ a b Coe & Kass 2005, pp. 6641–6656.
25. ^ Creighton & McClintock 1931, pp. 492–497.
26. ^ McClintock 1931, pp. 485–491.
27. ^ a b c Fedoroff 1995, p. 218.
28. ^ a b c Fedoroff 1995, p. 219.
29. ^ McClintock 1934, p. 294–328.
30. ^ Green 1959, p. 1243.
31. ^ a b c d e CSHL Biography.
32. ^ Dietrich, M.R. (2003). "Richard Goldschmidt: hopeful monsters and other 'heresies'". Nature Reviews Genetics. 4 (1): 68–74. doi:10.1038/nrg979. PMID 12509755. S2CID 13478874.
33. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian; Doudna, Jennifer. "By Studying Corn, Barbara McClintock Unlocked the Secrets of Life". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved February 14, 2023.
34. ^ a b Kass 2005b, p. 52–71.
35. ^ a b Fedoroff 1995, p. 220.
36. ^ a b c The Barbara McClintock Papers – Missouri.
37. ^ McClintock 1941, pp. 234–282.
38. ^ Selvarajah et al. 2006.
39. ^ McClintock 1940.
40. ^ Comfort 2002, p. 440.
41. ^ a b Fedoroff 1995, p. 221.
42. ^ Keller 1983, p. 114.
43. ^ McClintock 1945, pp. 671–678.
44. ^ Klug et al. 2012, pp. 128–130.
45. ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 84–94.
46. ^ The Barbara McClintock Papers – Cold Spring Harbor.
47. ^ a b c Comfort 1999, pp. 133–162.
48. ^ Goodier & Kazazian 2008, pp. 23–25.
49. ^ a b c d Fedoroff 1995, p. 223.
50. ^ National Academy of Sciences 2005.
51. ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 102–115.
52. ^ Klug et al. 2012, p. 395.
53. ^ a b Pray & Zhaurova 2008.
54. ^ McClintock 1950, pp. 344–355.
55. ^ McClintock 1987.
56. ^ McClintock 1953, pp. 579–599.
57. ^ a b Fedoroff 1995, p. 224.
58. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 226.
59. ^ Comfort 2001, pp. 209–217.
60. ^ The Barbara McClintock Papers – Origins of Maize.
61. ^ a b c Kolata 1992.
62. ^ McClintock 1973.
63. ^ McClintock 1961, pp. 265–277.
64. ^ a b Fedoroff 1995, p. 213.
65. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 227.
66. ^ Pray, Leslie; Zhaurova, Kira. "Barbara McClintock and the Discovery of Jumping Genes (Transposons)". Nature Education. 1 (1): 169.
67. ^ Pray 2008.
68. ^ Jin et al. 2003.
69. ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter M" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Retrieved July 22, 2014.
70. ^ a b Fedoroff 1995, p. 229.
71. ^ National Medal of Science.
72. ^ "The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Detailswork=National Science Foundation". Archived from the original on September 11, 2015.
73. ^ a b c Washington Post.
74. ^ Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize.
75. ^ "Barbara McClintock". Nasonline.org. March 30, 2018. Retrieved August 19, 2018.
76. ^ Nobel Prize 1983.
77. ^ Keirns 1999.
78. ^ Fedoroff 1995, p. 236.
79. ^ Benjamin Franklin Medal.
80. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved May 3, 2021.
81. ^ a b "The McClintock Prize for Plant Genetics and Genome Studies". Maizegdb.org.
82. ^ Feder, Toni (2005). "US Postage Stamps Feature Scientists". Physics Today. 58 (5): 30. Bibcode:2005PhT....58e..30F. doi:10.1063/1.1995738.
83. ^ Campbell, Allan (December 1993). "Barbara McClintock". Annual Review of Genetics. 27 (1): 1–32. doi:10.1146/annurev.ge.27.120193.000245. ISSN 0066-4197. PMID 8122898.
84. ^ Keller, Evelyn Fox (1993) [1983]. A feeling for the organism: the life and work of Barbara McClintock (10th anniversary ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman. ISBN 0-8050-7458-9. OCLC 29715247.
85. ^ Esther Lederberg.
86. ^ Keller 1983, p. 142.
87. ^ Esther Lederberg Colleagues.
88. ^ Comfort 1999.
89. ^ Pasachoff 2006.
90. ^ Berlin.
91. ^ "Barbara McClintock Hall". Student & Campus Life | Cornell University. Retrieved October 24, 2022.
92. ^ "3225-Barbara McClintock Hall Facility Information". Facilities and Campus Services. Retrieved June 27, 2023.
93. ^ Kolata 2012.
94. ^ "MAIZE, a play about Barbara McClintock". Cornell University. March 24, 2018. Retrieved November 21, 2019.

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### Archives and research collections[edit]

* The Barbara McClintock Papers – Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine.
* Barbara McClintock Papers, 1927–1991 at the American Philosophical Society

## External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Barbara McClintock.

* Quotations related to Barbara McClintock at Wikiquote
* Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Archives, Barbara McClintock: A Brief Biographical Sketch
* Enhancer and Gene Trap Transposon Mutagenesis in Arabidopsis, comprehensive article on the use of Ac/Ds and other transposons for plant mutagenesis
* Barbara McClintock archive on New Scientist
* Barbara McClintock on Nobelprize.org
* Barbara McClintock on Pnas.org

* v
* t
* e

Laureates of the Wolf Prize in Medicine

1970s|

* George Snell / Jean Dausset / Jon J. van Rood (1978)
* Roger Sperry / Arvid Carlsson / Oleh Hornykiewicz (1979)

1980s|

* César Milstein / Leo Sachs / James L. Gowans (1980)
* Barbara McClintock / Stanley Norman Cohen (1981)
* Jean-Pierre Changeux / Solomon H. Snyder / James W. Black (1982)
* Donald F. Steiner (1984/5)
* Osamu Hayaishi (1986)
* Pedro Cuatrecasas / Meir Wilchek (1987)
* Henri G. Hers / Elizabeth F. Neufeld (1988)
* John Gurdon / Edward B. Lewis (1989)

1990s|

* Maclyn McCarty (1990)
* Seymour Benzer (1991)
* Judah Folkman (1992)
* Michael Berridge / Yasutomi Nishizuka (1994/5)
* Stanley B. Prusiner (1995/6)
* Mary F. Lyon (1996/7)
* Michael Sela / Ruth Arnon (1998)
* Eric Kandel (1999)

2000s|

* Avram Hershko / Alexander Varshavsky (2001)
* Ralph L. Brinster / Mario Capecchi / Oliver Smithies (2002/3)
* Robert Weinberg / Roger Y. Tsien (2004)
* Alexander Levitzki / Anthony R. Hunter / Tony Pawson (2005)
* Howard Cedar / Aharon Razin (2008)

2010s|

* Axel Ullrich (2010)
* Shinya Yamanaka / Rudolf Jaenisch (2011)
* Ronald M. Evans (2012)
* Nahum Sonenberg / Gary Ruvkun / Victor Ambros (2014)
* John Kappler / Philippa Marrack / Jeffrey V. Ravetch (2015)
* Lewis C. Cantley / C. Ronald Kahn (2016)
* James P. Allison (2017)
* Jeffrey M. Friedman (2019)

2020s|

* Emmanuelle Charpentier / Jennifer Doudna (2020)
* Joan Steitz / Lynne Elizabeth Maquat / Adrian Krainer (2021)
* Daniel J. Drucker (2023)

* v
* t
* e

Laureates of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine

1901–1925|

* 1901: Emil Behring
* 1902: Ronald Ross
* 1903: Niels Finsen
* 1904: Ivan Pavlov
* 1905: Robert Koch
* 1906: Camillo Golgi / Santiago Ramón y Cajal
* 1907: Alphonse Laveran
* 1908: Élie Metchnikoff / Paul Ehrlich
* 1909: Emil Kocher
* 1910: Albrecht Kossel
* 1911: Allvar Gullstrand
* 1912: Alexis Carrel
* 1913: Charles Richet
* 1914: Róbert Bárány
* 1915
* 1916
* 1917
* 1918
* 1919: Jules Bordet
* 1920: August Krogh
* 1921
* 1922: Archibald Hill / Otto Meyerhof
* 1923: Frederick Banting / John Macleod
* 1924: Willem Einthoven
* 1925

1926–1950|

* 1926: Johannes Fibiger
* 1927: Julius Wagner-Jauregg
* 1928: Charles Nicolle
* 1929: Christiaan Eijkman / Frederick Gowland Hopkins
* 1930: Karl Landsteiner
* 1931: Otto Warburg
* 1932: Charles Scott Sherrington / Edgar Adrian
* 1933: Thomas Morgan
* 1934: George Whipple / George Minot / William Murphy
* 1935: Hans Spemann
* 1936: Henry Dale / Otto Loewi
* 1937: Albert Szent-Györgyi
* 1938: Corneille Heymans
* 1939: Gerhard Domagk
* 1940
* 1941
* 1942
* 1943: Henrik Dam / Edward Doisy
* 1944: Joseph Erlanger / Herbert Gasser
* 1945: Alexander Fleming / Ernst Chain / Howard Florey
* 1946: Hermann Muller
* 1947: Carl Cori / Gerty Cori / Bernardo Houssay
* 1948: Paul Müller
* 1949: Walter Hess / António Egas Moniz
* 1950: Edward Kendall / Tadeusz Reichstein / Philip Hench

1951–1975|

* 1951: Max Theiler
* 1952: Selman Waksman
* 1953: Hans Krebs / Fritz Lipmann
* 1954: John Enders / Thomas Weller / Frederick Robbins
* 1955: Hugo Theorell
* 1956: André Cournand / Werner Forssmann / Dickinson W. Richards
* 1957: Daniel Bovet
* 1958: George Beadle / Edward Tatum / Joshua Lederberg
* 1959: Severo Ochoa / Arthur Kornberg
* 1960: Frank Burnet / Peter Medawar
* 1961: Georg von Békésy
* 1962: Francis Crick / James Watson / Maurice Wilkins
* 1963: John Eccles / Alan Hodgkin / Andrew Huxley
* 1964: Konrad Bloch / Feodor Lynen
* 1965: François Jacob / André Lwoff / Jacques Monod
* 1966: Francis Rous / Charles B. Huggins
* 1967: Ragnar Granit / Haldan Hartline / George Wald
* 1968: Robert W. Holley / Har Khorana / Marshall Nirenberg
* 1969: Max Delbrück / Alfred Hershey / Salvador Luria
* 1970: Bernard Katz / Ulf von Euler / Julius Axelrod
* 1971: Earl Sutherland Jr.
* 1972: Gerald Edelman / Rodney Porter
* 1973: Karl von Frisch / Konrad Lorenz / Nikolaas Tinbergen
* 1974: Albert Claude / Christian de Duve / George Palade
* 1975: David Baltimore / Renato Dulbecco / Howard Temin

1976–2000|

* 1976: Baruch Blumberg / Daniel Gajdusek
* 1977: Roger Guillemin / Andrew Schally / Rosalyn Yalow
* 1978: Werner Arber / Daniel Nathans / Hamilton O. Smith
* 1979: Allan Cormack / Godfrey Hounsfield
* 1980: Baruj Benacerraf / Jean Dausset / George Snell
* 1981: Roger Sperry / David H. Hubel / Torsten Wiesel
* 1982: Sune Bergström / Bengt I. Samuelsson / John Vane
* 1983: Barbara McClintock
* 1984: Niels Jerne / Georges Köhler / César Milstein
* 1985: Michael Brown / Joseph L. Goldstein
* 1986: Stanley Cohen / Rita Levi-Montalcini
* 1987: Susumu Tonegawa
* 1988: James W. Black / Gertrude B. Elion / George H. Hitchings
* 1989: J. Michael Bishop / Harold E. Varmus
* 1990: Joseph Murray / E. Donnall Thomas
* 1991: Erwin Neher / Bert Sakmann
* 1992: Edmond Fischer / Edwin G. Krebs
* 1993: Richard J. Roberts / Phillip Sharp
* 1994: Alfred G. Gilman / Martin Rodbell
* 1995: Edward B. Lewis / Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard / Eric F. Wieschaus
* 1996: Peter C. Doherty / Rolf M. Zinkernagel
* 1997: Stanley B. Prusiner
* 1998: Robert F. Furchgott / Louis Ignarro / Ferid Murad
* 1999: Günter Blobel
* 2000: Arvid Carlsson / Paul Greengard / Eric Kandel

2001–present|

* 2001: Leland H. Hartwell / Tim Hunt / Paul Nurse
* 2002: Sydney Brenner / H. Robert Horvitz / John E. Sulston
* 2003: Paul Lauterbur / Peter Mansfield
* 2004: Richard Axel / Linda B. Buck
* 2005: Barry Marshall / Robin Warren
* 2006: Andrew Fire / Craig Mello
* 2007: Mario Capecchi / Martin Evans / Oliver Smithies
* 2008: Harald zur Hausen / Luc Montagnier / Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
* 2009: Elizabeth Blackburn / Carol W. Greider / Jack W. Szostak
* 2010: Robert G. Edwards
* 2011: Bruce Beutler / Jules A. Hoffmann / Ralph M. Steinman (posthumously)
* 2012: John Gurdon / Shinya Yamanaka
* 2013: James Rothman / Randy Schekman / Thomas C. Südhof
* 2014: John O'Keefe / May-Britt Moser / Edvard Moser
* 2015: William C. Campbell / Satoshi Ōmura / Tu Youyou
* 2016: Yoshinori Ohsumi
* 2017: Jeffrey C. Hall / Michael Rosbash / Michael W. Young
* 2018: James P. Allison / Tasuku Honjo
* 2019: Gregg L. Semenza / Peter J. Ratcliffe / William Kaelin Jr.
* 2020: Harvey J. Alter / Michael Houghton / Charles M. Rice
* 2021: David Julius / Ardem Patapoutian
* 2022: Svante Pääbo
* 2023: Katalin Karikó / Drew Weissman

* v
* t
* e

1983 Nobel Prize laureates

Chemistry|

* Henry Taube (United States)

Literature (1983)|

* William Golding (Great Britain)

Peace|

* Lech Wałęsa (Poland)

Physics|

* Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (India)
* William Alfred Fowler (United States)

Physiology or Medicine|

* Barbara McClintock (United States)

Economic Sciences|

* Gérard Debreu (United States)

Nobel Prize recipients
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988

* v
* t
* e

United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

| 1960s|

1964
Neal Elgar Miller

|

1980s|

1986
Herbert A. Simon
1987
Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988
Milton Friedman

1990s|

1990
Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991
George A. Miller
1992
Eleanor J. Gibson
1994
Robert K. Merton
1995
Roger N. Shepard
1996
Paul Samuelson
1997
William K. Estes
1998
William Julius Wilson
1999
Robert M. Solow

2000s|

2000
Gary Becker
2003
R. Duncan Luce
2004
Kenneth Arrow
2005
Gordon H. Bower
2008
Michael I. Posner
2009
Mortimer Mishkin

2010s|

2011
Anne Treisman
2014
Robert Axelrod
2015
Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

| 1960s|

1963
C. B. van Niel
1964
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965
Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966
Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967
Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968
Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969
Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr

|

1970s|

1970
Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973
Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974
Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975
Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976
Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979
Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss

1980s|

1981
Philip Handler
1982
Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983
Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986
Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987
Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988
Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989
Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood

1990s|

1990
Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991
Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Robert W. Kates
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992
Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993
Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994
Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995
Alexander Rich
1996
Ruth Patrick
1997
James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998
Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999
David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis

2000s|

2000
Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001
Francisco J. Ayala
George F. Bass
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
Gene E. Likens
Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002
James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003
J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004
Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005
Anthony Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006
Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008
Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009
Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner

2010s|

2010
Ralph L. Brinster
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011
Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2012
May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2013
Rakesh K. Jain
2014
Stanley Falkow
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin

Chemistry

| 1960s|

1964
Roger Adams

|

1980s|

1982
F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983
Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986
Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987
William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988
William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989
Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell

1990s|

1990
Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991
Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992
Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993
Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994
George S. Hammond
1995
Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996
Norman Davidson
1997
Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998
John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999
Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon

2000s|

2000
John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001
Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002
John I. Brauman
2004
Stephen J. Lippard
2005
Tobin J. Marks
2006
Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007
Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008
Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009
Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox

2010s|

2010
Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011
Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2012
Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2013
Geraldine L. Richmond
2014
A. Paul Alivisatos

Engineering sciences

| 1960s|

1962
Theodore von Kármán
1963
Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964
Charles S. Draper
Othmar H. Ammann
1965
Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966
Claude E. Shannon
1967
Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968
J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969
Jack St. Clair Kilby

|

1970s|

1970
George E. Mueller
1973
Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974
Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975
Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976
Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979
Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo

1980s|

1982
Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983
Bill Hewlett
George Low
John G. Trump
1986
Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
Tung-Yen Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987
Robert Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988
Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989
Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier

1990s|

1990
Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991
George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992
Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993
Alfred Y. Cho
1994
Ray W. Clough
1995
Hermann A. Haus
1996
James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
Eli Ruckenstein
1999
Kenneth N. Stevens

2000s|

2000
Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001
Andreas Acrivos
2002
Leo Beranek
2003
John M. Prausnitz
2004
Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005
Jan D. Achenbach
2006
Robert S. Langer
2007
David J. Wineland
2008
Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009
Amnon Yariv

2010s|

2010
Shu Chien
2011
John B. Goodenough
2012
Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Norbert Wiener
1964
Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965
Oscar Zariski
1966
John Milnor
1967
Paul Cohen
1968
Jerzy Neyman
1969
William Feller

|

1970s|

1970
Richard Brauer
1973
John Tukey
1974
Kurt Gödel
1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth

1980s|

1982
Marshall H. Stone
1983
Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988
Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989
Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer

1990s|

1990
George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991
Alberto Calderón
1992
Allen Newell
1993
Martin David Kruskal
1994
John Cocke
1995
Louis Nirenberg
1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman

2000s|

2000
John Griggs Thompson
Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
Carl R. de Boor
2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
David B. Mumford

2010s|

2010
Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011
Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2012
Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2013
Michael Artin

Physical sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967
Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky

|

1970s|

1970
Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s|

1982
Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987
Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988
D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
Jack Steinberger
1989
Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel

1990s|

1990
Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991
Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992
Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993
Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994
Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995
Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996
Wallace S. Broecker
1997
Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998
Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999
James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff

2000s|

2000
Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001
Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002
Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003
G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004
Robert N. Clayton
2005
Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006
Daniel Kleppner
2007
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008
Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009
Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington

2010s|

2011
Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2012
Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2014
Shirley Ann Jackson

* v
* t
* e

Connecticut Women's Hall of Fame

1990s

| 1994|

* Mary Jobe Akeley
* Anni Albers
* Marian Anderson
* Beatrice Fox Auerbach
* Emma Fielding Baker
* Evelyn Longman Batchelder
* Catharine Beecher
* Jody Cohen
* Prudence Crandall
* Katharine Seymour Day
* Fidelia Fielding
* Charlotte Perkins Gilman
* Dorothy Goodwin
* Ella Grasso
* Estelle Griswold
* Mary Hall
* Alice Hamilton
* Katharine Hepburn
* Katharine Martha Houghton Hepburn
* Isabella Beecher Hooker
* Emeline Roberts Jones
* Barbara B. Kennelly
* Clare Boothe Luce
* Rachel Taylor Milton
* Alice Paul
* Ellen Ash Peters
* Ann Petry
* Sarah Porter
* Theodate Pope Riddle
* Edna Negron Rosario
* Margaret Rudkin
* Susan Saint James
* Lydia Sigourney
* Virginia Thrall Smith
* Smiths of Glastonbury
* Hilda Crosby Standish
* Harriet Beecher Stowe
* Gladys Tantaquidgeon
* Betty Tianti
* Hannah Bunce Watson
* Chase G. Woodhouse

|

1995|

* Helen M. Feeney
* Caroline Hewins
* Donna Lopiano
* María Colón Sánchez

1996|

* Edythe J. Gaines
* Madeleine L'Engle
* Susanne Langer

1997|

* Elizabeth Hart Jarvis Colt
* Annie Dillard
* Margo Rose
* Laura Wheeler Waring

1998|

* Dorrit Hoffleit
* Constance Baker Motley
* Rosa Ponselle
* Lillian Vernon
* Mabel Osgood Wright

1999|

* Jane Hamilton-Merritt
* Sophie Tucker
* Ann Uccello
* Florence Wald

2000s

| 2000|

* Emily Barringer
* Adrianne Baughns-Wallace
* Mary Goodrich Jenson

|

2001|

* Laura Nyro
* Catherine Roraback
* Maria Miller Stewart

2002|

* Florence Griswold
* Eileen Kraus
* Miriam Therese Winter

2003|

* Dotha Bushnell Hillyer
* Clarice McLean

2005|

* Martha Coolidge
* Helen Frankenthaler
* Rosalind Russell

2006|

* Helen Keller
* Mary Townsend Seymour
* Anne Stanback

2007|

* Dorothy Hamill
* Joan Joyce
* Glenna Collett-Vare

2008|

* Jewel Plummer Cobb
* Patricia Goldman-Rakic
* Barbara McClintock
* Joan A. Steitz

2009|

* Martha Minerva Franklin
* Carolyn M. Mazure
* Helen L. Smits

2010s

| 2010|

* Anne M. Mulcahy
* Martha Parsons
* Maggie Wilderotter

|

2011|

* Isabelle M. Kelley
* Denise Nappier
* Patricia Wald

2012|

* Anne Garrels
* Annie Leibovitz
* Faith Middleton

2013|

* Rosa DeLauro
* Barbara Franklin
* Linda Lorimer
* Augusta Lewis Troup

2014|

* Beatrix Farrand
* Jennifer Lawton
* Marian Salzman

2015|

* Margaret Bourke-White
* Carolyn Miles
* Indra Nooyi

2016|

* Rebecca Lobo
* Jane Pauley
* Joyce Yerwood

2017|

* Kristen Griest
* Ruth A. Lucas
* Regina Rush-Kittle

2018|

* Lucia Chase
* Anika Noni Rose
* Tina Weymouth

2019|

* Marian Chertow
* Nell Newman
* Martha Langevin
* Elizabeth George Plouffe

2020s

| 2020|

* Josephine Bennett
* Frances Ellen Burr
* Catherine Flanagan
* Sarah Lee Brown Fleming
* Clara Hill (suffragist)
* Elsie Hill
* Helena Hill
* Emily Pierson

|

2021|

* Enola G. Aird
* Patricia Baker
* Donna Berman
* Khalilah L. Brown-Dean
* Glynda C. Carr
* Callie Gale Heilmann
* Jerimarie Liesegang
* Kica Matos
* Marilyn Ondrasik
* Pamela Selders
* Teresa C. Younger

2022|

* Cora Lee Bentley Radcliffe
* Jennifer Rizzotti
* Lhakpa Sherpa
* Suzy Whaley

2023|

* Lisa Cortés
* Laura Cruickshank
* Carla Squatrito
* Regina Winters-Toussaint

* v
* t
* e

McClintock Prize Laureates

Laureates|

* 2020 James Birchler
* 2019 Detlef Weigel
* 2018 Robert A. Martienssen
* 2017 Michael Freeling
* 2016 Jeffrey D. Palmer
* 2015 Susan R. Wessler
* 2014 David Baulcombe

* v
* t
* e

Inductees to the National Women's Hall of Fame

1970–1979

| 1973|

* Jane Addams
* Marian Anderson
* Susan B. Anthony
* Clara Barton
* Mary McLeod Bethune
* Elizabeth Blackwell
* Pearl S. Buck
* Rachel Carson
* Mary Cassatt
* Emily Dickinson
* Amelia Earhart
* Alice Hamilton
* Helen Hayes
* Helen Keller
* Eleanor Roosevelt
* Florence Sabin
* Margaret Chase Smith
* Elizabeth Cady Stanton
* Helen Brooke Taussig
* Harriet Tubman

|

1976|

* Abigail Adams
* Margaret Mead
* Mildred "Babe" Didrikson Zaharias

1979|

* Dorothea Dix
* Juliette Gordon Low
* Alice Paul
* Elizabeth Bayley Seton

1980–1989

| 1981|

* Margaret Sanger
* Sojourner Truth

|

1982|

* Carrie Chapman Catt
* Frances Perkins

1983|

* Belva Lockwood
* Lucretia Mott

1984|

* Mary "Mother" Harris Jones
* Bessie Smith

1986|

* Barbara McClintock
* Lucy Stone
* Harriet Beecher Stowe

1988|

* Gwendolyn Brooks
* Willa Cather
* Sally Ride
* Mary Risteau
* Ida B. Wells-Barnett

1990–1999

| 1990|

* Margaret Bourke-White
* Barbara Jordan
* Billie Jean King
* Florence B. Seibert

|

1991|

* Gertrude Belle Elion

1993|

* Ethel Percy Andrus
* Antoinette Blackwell
* Emily Blackwell
* Shirley Chisholm
* Jacqueline Cochran
* Ruth Colvin
* Marian Wright Edelman
* Alice Evans
* Betty Friedan
* Ella Grasso
* Martha Wright Griffiths
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Dorothy Height
* Dolores Huerta
* Mary Putnam Jacobi
* Mae Jemison
* Mary Lyon
* Mary Mahoney
* Wilma Mankiller
* Constance Baker Motley
* Georgia O'Keeffe
* Annie Oakley
* Rosa Parks
* Esther Peterson
* Jeannette Rankin
* Ellen Swallow Richards
* Elaine Roulet
* Katherine Siva Saubel
* Gloria Steinem
* Helen Stephens
* Lillian Wald
* Madam C. J. Walker
* Faye Wattleton
* Rosalyn S. Yalow
* Gloria Yerkovich

1994|

* Bella Abzug
* Ella Baker
* Myra Bradwell
* Annie Jump Cannon
* Jane Cunningham Croly
* Catherine East
* Geraldine Ferraro
* Charlotte Perkins Gilman
* Grace Hopper
* Helen LaKelly Hunt
* Zora Neale Hurston
* Anne Hutchinson
* Frances Wisebart Jacobs
* Susette La Flesche
* Louise McManus
* Maria Mitchell
* Antonia Novello
* Linda Richards
* Wilma Rudolph
* Betty Bone Schiess
* Muriel Siebert
* Nettie Stevens
* Oprah Winfrey
* Sarah Winnemucca
* Fanny Wright

1995|

* Virginia Apgar
* Ann Bancroft
* Amelia Bloomer
* Mary Breckinridge
* Eileen Collins
* Elizabeth Hanford Dole
* Anne Dallas Dudley
* Mary Baker Eddy
* Ella Fitzgerald
* Margaret Fuller
* Matilda Joslyn Gage
* Lillian Moller Gilbreth
* Nannerl O. Keohane
* Maggie Kuhn
* Sandra Day O'Connor
* Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin
* Pat Schroeder
* Hannah Greenebaum Solomon

1996|

* Louisa May Alcott
* Charlotte Anne Bunch
* Frances Xavier Cabrini
* Mary A. Hallaren
* Oveta Culp Hobby
* Wilhelmina Cole Holladay
* Anne Morrow Lindbergh
* Maria Goeppert Mayer
* Ernestine Louise Potowski Rose
* Maria Tallchief
* Edith Wharton

1998|

* Madeleine Albright
* Maya Angelou
* Nellie Bly
* Lydia Moss Bradley
* Mary Steichen Calderone
* Mary Ann Shadd Cary
* Joan Ganz Cooney
* Gerty Cori
* Sarah Grimké
* Julia Ward Howe
* Shirley Ann Jackson
* Shannon Lucid
* Katharine Dexter McCormick
* Rozanne L. Ridgway
* Edith Nourse Rogers
* Felice Schwartz
* Eunice Kennedy Shriver
* Beverly Sills
* Florence Wald
* Angelina Grimké Weld
* Chien-Shiung Wu

2000–2009

| 2000|

* Faye Glenn Abdellah
* Emma Smith DeVoe
* Marjory Stoneman Douglas
* Mary Dyer
* Sylvia A. Earle
* Crystal Eastman
* Jeanne Holm
* Leontine T. Kelly
* Frances Oldham Kelsey
* Kate Mullany
* Janet Reno
* Anna Howard Shaw
* Sophia Smith
* Ida Tarbell
* Wilma L. Vaught
* Mary Edwards Walker
* Annie Dodge Wauneka
* Eudora Welty
* Frances E. Willard

|

2001|

* Dorothy H. Andersen
* Lucille Ball
* Rosalynn Carter
* Lydia Maria Child
* Bessie Coleman
* Dorothy Day
* Marian de Forest
* Althea Gibson
* Beatrice A. Hicks
* Barbara Holdridge
* Harriet Williams Russell Strong
* Emily Howell Warner
* Victoria Woodhull

2002|

* Paulina Kellogg Wright Davis
* Ruth Bader Ginsburg
* Katharine Graham
* Bertha Holt
* Mary Engle Pennington
* Mercy Otis Warren

2003|

* Linda G. Alvarado
* Donna de Varona
* Gertrude Ederle
* Martha Matilda Harper
* Patricia Roberts Harris
* Stephanie L. Kwolek
* Dorothea Lange
* Mildred Robbins Leet
* Patsy Takemoto Mink
* Sacagawea
* Anne Sullivan
* Sheila E. Widnall

2005|

* Florence E. Allen
* Ruth Fulton Benedict
* Betty Bumpers
* Hillary Clinton
* Rita Rossi Colwell
* Mother Marianne Cope
* Maya Y. Lin
* Patricia A. Locke
* Blanche Stuart Scott
* Mary Burnett Talbert

2007|

* Eleanor K. Baum
* Julia Child
* Martha Coffin Pelham Wright
* Swanee Hunt
* Winona LaDuke
* Elisabeth Kübler-Ross
* Judith L. Pipher
* Catherine Filene Shouse
* Henrietta Szold

2009|

* Louise Bourgeois
* Mildred Cohn
* Karen DeCrow
* Susan Kelly-Dreiss
* Allie B. Latimer
* Emma Lazarus
* Ruth Patrick
* Rebecca Talbot Perkins
* Susan Solomon
* Kate Stoneman

2010–2019

| 2011|

* St. Katharine Drexel
* Dorothy Harrison Eustis
* Loretta C. Ford
* Abby Kelley Foster
* Helen Murray Free
* Billie Holiday
* Coretta Scott King
* Lilly Ledbetter
* Barbara A. Mikulski
* Donna E. Shalala
* Kathrine Switzer

|

2013|

* Betty Ford
* Ina May Gaskin
* Julie Krone
* Kate Millett
* Nancy Pelosi
* Mary Joseph Rogers
* Bernice Sandler
* Anna Schwartz
* Emma Willard

2015|

* Tenley Albright
* Nancy Brinker
* Martha Graham
* Marcia Greenberger
* Barbara Iglewski
* Jean Kilbourne
* Carlotta Walls LaNier
* Philippa Marrack
* Mary Harriman Rumsey
* Eleanor Smeal

2017|

* Matilda Cuomo
* Temple Grandin
* Lorraine Hansberry
* Victoria Jackson
* Sherry Lansing
* Clare Boothe Luce
* Aimee Mullins
* Carol Mutter
* Janet Rowley
* Alice Waters

2019|

* Gloria Allred
* Angela Davis
* Sarah Deer
* Jane Fonda
* Nicole Malachowski
* Rose O'Neill
* Louise Slaughter
* Sonia Sotomayor
* Laurie Spiegel
* Flossie Wong-Staal

2020–2029

| 2020|

* Aretha Franklin
* Barbara Hillary
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Henrietta Lacks
* Toni Morrison
* Mary Church Terrell

|

2022|

* Octavia E. Butler
* Judy Chicago
* Rebecca S. Halstead
* Mia Hamm
* Joy Harjo
* Emily Howland
* Katherine Johnson
* Indra Nooyi
* Michelle Obama

* v
* t
* e

Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1989

Fellows|

* Brian Anderson
* Kenneth Bagshawe
* John M. Ball
* Adrian Bird
* Roger Blandford
* Arthur Cain
* Mark Child
* Alwyn Davies
* Peter Goddard
* Michael Green
* Brian Heap
* Geoffrey Hewitt
* Derek Hull
* Julian Hunt
* Richard Hynes
* Michael James
* Francis Kelly
* John Lawton
* Gilbert George Lonzarich
* Andrew David McLachlan
* Michael A. Moore
* Kim Nasmyth
* Paul Nurse
* Robert Ladislav Parker
* Geoff Parker
* Richard Peto
* Warren Roper
* John Martin Rowell
* Ian John Russell
* John Philip Simons
* Roger Slack
* Marshall Stoneham
* Roger C. Thomas
* Anne Treisman
* Kenneth Wade
* Pat Wall
* Rob Webster
* Thomas Summers West
* Andrew Wiles
* Ian Robert Young

Statute 12|

* Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton

Foreign|

* Nicole Marthe Le Douarin
* Paul Erdős
* Kenichi Fukui
* Edward B. Lewis
* Barbara McClintock
* Edward Mills Purcell

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST
* ISNI
* VIAF

National|

* Spain
* France
* BnF data
* Germany
* Israel
* United States
* Sweden
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Korea
* Croatia
* Netherlands
* Poland

Academics|

* CiNii
* Scopus

People|

* Deutsche Biographie

Other|

* SNAC
* 2
* IdRef

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